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THE
STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOE
1881
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
h]
THE
STATESJUM'S YEAE-BOOK
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANNUAL OF THE
STATES OF THE CRTLISED WORLD
FQE THE YEAR
1881
FEEDERICK MARTIN
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
REVISED
AFTER OFFICIAL RETURN'S
1 \
J
'. 1
i ,/
A
ITonbon
1
\
MACMILLAN
AND
CO.
1881
Tht right of Translation and Reproduclicn is reserved
Iff
si
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^^.
Man sagt oft : Zalilen regieren die Welt.
Das iiber ist ge\^-iss, Zalilen zeigen tcic sie i-egiert ■v\"ird.
G-OETHE.
LONDON : PUIXTED BY
ePOTTIS^TOODE AJN U CO., NKW-STREET SQUAUE
AND PAltLIAMENT .STREET
CONTENTS.
Introduction :
CHRONICLE OF 'THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK'
FOE THE YEAR 1880 . . page xiv-xxxi
Diagram of the Average Aunual Production of Wheat in the principal
Wheat Producinar Countries of the world ..... xxxii
COMPARATIVE TABLES
I. Area and Population of
the principal States of
the World .
n. The Export Markets of
the United Kingdom
in 1879 and 1880
III. The Import Markets of
the United Kingdom
in 1879 and 1880
IV. Density of Population of
the Principal States of
Europe
Part the First.
THE STATES
AUSTEIA-HUNGAKY :—
Reigning Emperor and
King .
Constitution, Gorernment
— — of German Austria
of Hungary
Chiu'ch and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
— • — of German Austria
— — of Hungary
Army and Navy
Armour-clad Ships .
Area and Population .
Births, Deaths, and Mar-
riages .
Trade and Industry .
Railways .
Post Office and Telegraphs
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
"Books of Reference
3
6
7
9
10
12
13
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
■2i
OF EUROPE.
BELGIU:VI :—
Reignmg King .
27
Constitution, Government .
28
Chiu'ch and Education
30
Revenue and Expendititre
32
Army . . . .
34
Area and Population .
35
Trade and Industry' .
36
Railways .
38
Post Office and Telegraphs
38
Diplomatic Representatives
39
Weights and Measures
39
Books of Reference .
39
'OIARK : —
Reigning King .
, 41
Constitution, Government
43
Church and Education
. 44
Revenue and Expenditure
. 45
Army and Navy
. 47
Area and Population .
. 49
Trade and Industry .
. 50
V]
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Denmaek :
Kaihvays, Posts, and Tele-
graphs .... 52
Colonies . . .52
Diplomatic Kepresentatives 53
Weights and Measures . 53
Books of Eeferenee . . 54
FRANCE :—
Constitution, Government . 55
Church and Ediication . 58
Revenue and Expenditure . 61
Cost of the German War . 63
Public Debt ... 64
Finances of Paris . . 67
Army and Navy . . 67
Armour-clad Ships . . 72
Area and Population . . 75
Births and Deaths , . 79
Trade and Industry . . 81
Commercial Navy . . 85
Railways . . . . 86
Post and Telegraphs . . 87
Colonies .... 88
Diplomatic Representatives 89
Weights and Measures . 90
Books of Reference . . 90
GERMANY :-
R.'igning Emperor and
King _ .
Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Universities
Revenue and Expenditure
Army
Fortress System
Nav-y
Armour-clad Ships .
Area and Population .
Births, Deaths, and Mar
riages .
Trade and Commerce
Mercantile Navy
Railways, Post, and Tele
graphs ....
Diplomatic Representatives
Money, Weights and Mea-
sui'es ....
Books of Reference .
93
94
96
97
98
100
103
104
104
106
109
181
185 !
185 I
186 I
186 I
187 '
o „ PAGE
STATES OF Germany: —
1. Prussia : —
Reigning King . . . n,)
Constitution, Government . 113
Church and Education . I17
Revenue and Expenditure . 120
Public Debt . . .123
^'^y ■ . . .123
Area and Population , . 12.5
Trade and Industry . .127
Railways . . . .12^
2. Bavaria : —
Reigning King . . .130
Constitution, Government . 132
Church and Education . 132
Revenue and Expenditure . 133
Area and Population . 135
3. Wiirtemberg: —
Reigning King . . .137
Constitution, Government . 138
Church and Education . 139
Revenue and Expenditure . 140
Area and Population . .142
4. Saxony : —
Reigning King . . .143
Constitution, Government . 144
Church and Education . 144
Revenue and Expenditure . 145
Population . . ,146
5. Baden : —
Reigning Grand Duke . 147
Constitution and Revenue 147
Area and Population . 149
6. Mecklemburg-Sehwerin . 150
7. Hesse . . . .152
8. Oldenburg . . .154
9. Brunswick . . .156
10. Saxe- Weimar . . .158
11. Mecklemburg-Strelitz . 160
12. Saxe-Meiningen . .161
13. Anhalt . . . .162
14. Saxe-Cobm-g-Gotha . . 164
1.5. Saxe-Ahenburg. . . 166
16. Waldeck . ". . . 167
17. Lippe . . . .168
18. Sehwarzburg-Rudolstadt . 169
CONTENTS.
Vll
States of Germany : —
19. Schwarzburg - Sondersliau-
sen .... 170
20. Keuss-Schleiz . . .171
21. Schaumbiu'g-Lippe . . 172
22. Eeuss-Greiz . . .173
23. Hamburg . . . .17-1
24. Liibeek . . . .177
25. Bremen . . . .178
Alsace-Lorraine : —
Constitution, Government . 180
Area and Population . 180
Trade and Commerce of Ger-
many :—
Tlie ZoUrerein . . .181
Commerce with Great Bri-
tain . . . .182
Mercantile Navy . .185
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs . . . .185
Diplomatic Representatives 186
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures . . . .186
Books of Reference concern-
ing Germany . . ,187
GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-
LAND :—
Reigning Queen and Em-
press .... 189
Constitution and Govern-
ment 192
Cabinet . . • .201
Church and Education . 205
Public Instruction . . 208
Revenue and Expendi-
tm-e . . . .211
Taxation . . . .215
National Debt . . .220
Army .... 223
Navy . . . .229
Armour-clad Ships . . 232
Area and Population —
United Kingdom . .236
Number of Landowners 237
England and Wales . 240
Scotland . . .244
Ireland .... 247
Islands in the British
Seas . . . .252
Emigration . . . 252
Great Britain and Ireland :-
Commerce and Industry —
Imports and Exports
. 254
Produce of Customs
. 259
Shipping
. 260
Textile Industry .
264
Minerals and Metals
. 267
Railways .
. 268
Post and Telegraphs .
. 270
Colonial Possessions .
272
Books of Reference —
Official Publications .
277
Non-official Publications
280
GREECE :—
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . •
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure ,
Public Debt .
Army and Navy
Population
Trade and Industry .
Mercantile Navy
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
ITALY :-
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . •
Church of Romo
Sovereign Pontiff
List of Pontiffs
List of Cardinals
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Public Debt
Army and Navy
Armour-clad Ships .
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Mercantile NaA-y
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs . . • _ •
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
281
282
283
284
286
287
288
290
291
292
292
292
295
296
298
299
3W0
302
305
308
310
311
313
315
317
319
319
321
321
321
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
MONTENEGEO :—
Reigning Prince . • 324
Government & Population 325
Books of Eeferenee . . 325
NETHERLANDS :—
Reigning King . . ■ 326
Constitntion and Govern-
ment .... 328
Chui'cli and Education . 329
Revenue and Expenditure . 330
Public Debt . . .332
Army and Navy . .333
Armour-clad Ships . . 334
Area and Population . . 335
Trade and Industry . .337
Mercantile Na^"y . .338
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 338
Colonies . ' . . . 339
Diplomatic Representatives 341
Weights and Measm-es . 341
Books of Reference . .342
PORTUGAL :—
Reigning King . . . 344
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 346
Church and Education . 347
Revenue and Expenditure . 348
Army and Navy . . 351
Area and Population . .352
Trade and Industry . . 352
Railways and Telegraphs . 353
Colonies .... 354
Diplomatic Representatives 355
Weights and Measures . 355
Books of Reference . . 355
ROUMANIA :—
Reigning Prince . . 357
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 357
Revenue and Army , .358
Area and Population . 359
Diplomatic Representatives 361
Money, Weights and Mea-
sures . . . .361
Book of Reference . . 362
RUSSIA :-
Reigning Emperor
Constitution, Government
Chm-ch and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
National Debt .
Army
Na-^'y .
Armour-clad Ships .
Area and Population .
Races and Tribes
Trade and Industry .
Mercantile Navy
Railways .
Post and Telegraphs .
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
SERVIA :—
Reigning Prince
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Revenue and Army .
Population and Commerce
Diplomatic Representatives
Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....
Books of Reference .
SPAIN :—
Reigning King
Constitution and Govern
ment
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditiu'e
National Debt .
Army and Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Shipping .
Railways and Telegraphs
Colonies
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
S^VEDEN and NORWAY:—
Reigning King .
Dynastic Union
363
365
370
373
375
378
382
383
385
389
391
393
393
395
395
395
396
399
399
400
400
401
401
401
402
403
405
407
409
411
413
416
418
418
419
420
421
421
423
424
CONTENTS.
IX
Stntiden: —
Constitution, Government
425 1
Eevenue and Expenditure
427
Army and Navy
428
Area and Population .
430
Trade and Industry .
432
Railways .
433
Post and Telegraphs .
434
NOE"WAY : —
Constitution, Government
435
Eevenue and Expenditiu'e
437 ;
Army and Navy
437
Area and Popiilation .
438
Trade and Industry .
440
Diplomatic Representatives
441
Weights and Measures
442
Books of Reference .
442
SWITZERLAND :—
Constitution, Government
444
Church and Education
446
Revenue and Expenditiu-e
447
Army
450
Area and Population .
451
Trade and Industry .
453
Savitzeeland : —
Railways and Telegraphs . 455
Diplomatic Representatives 455
Weights and Measures . 455
Books of Reference . . 456
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY
STATES :—
Reigning Sultan . . 457
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 459
Religion and Education . 460
Revenue and Expenditure . 461
Public Debt . . .462
Army .... 464
Navy .... 465
Area and Population . 467
Trade and Commerce . 469
Railways . . . .471
Post and Telegi'aphs . 471
Diplomatic Representatives 476
Money, Weights and Mea-
sures .... 477
Books of Reference . . 478
BtTLGABIA .... 472
Eastern- Ror:Mi;i.i\ . . 475
Part the Second.
THE STATES OF AIMERICA, AFEICA, ASIA,
AND AUSTRALASIA.
1. AMERICA.
ARGENTINE CONFEDERA-
TION :—
Constitixtion, Government .
Revenue and Public Debts
Army and Na^•y
Area and Population .
Trade and Industiy .
Railways and Telegraphs
Diplomatic Representatives
AVeights and Measures
Books of Reference .
483
483
485
485
486
487
488
488
488
BOLIVIA :—
Constitution, Government . 490
Revenue and Army . . 490
Population, Trade, and In-
dustiy . . . _ . 491
Diplomatic Representatives 493
Weights and Measures . 493
Books of Reference . . 493
BRAZIL :—
Reigning Emperor . , 494
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Brazil : —
Constitution, Government .
Church and Education
Kevenue and Expenditure .
Public Del.t
Army and Na\-y
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce .
Railways and Telegraphs .
Diplom'atic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference „
CANADA:—
Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditiu-e
Public Debt
Army and Navy
Area and Population
Trade and Industry .
Railways, Post, and Tele
graphs .
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
PAGE
495
497
498
499
500
501
503
504
505
505
506
COLOMBIA :—
Constitution, Government
Revenue and Army .
Population and Trade
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measmvs
Books of Reference .
508
510
511
514
515
516
517
519
519
520
CHILI :—
Constitution, Government . 522
Revenue and Expenditure . 522
Army and N;ivy . . 523
Area and Population . . 524
Trade and Industry . . 525
Diplomatic Representatives 526
Weights and Measiires . 527
Books of Reference . . 527
528
529
529
531
531
531
COSTA RICA:—
Constitution, Government . 533
Revenue and Population . 533
Diplomatic Representatives 534
Weights and Measures . 535
Books of Reference . . 535
ECUADOR:—
Constitution, Government . 536
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .636
Diplomatic Representatives 538
AVeights and Measures . 538
Books of Reference . . 538
GUATEMALA : —
Constitution, Government . 539
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . . 539
Diplomatic Representatives 541
AVeitrhts and Measures . 541
Books of Reference . . 542
HAITI :—
Constitution, Government . 543
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .543
Diplomatic Representatives 545
Weights and Measures . 545
Books of Reference . . 545
HONDURAS :—
Constitution, Government . 546
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . . 546
Diplomatic Representatives 548
Weights and Measures . 548
Books of Reference . . 548
MEXICO :—
Constitution, Government . 549
Revenue and Expenditure . 549
Public Del)t . • • 550
Area and Population . . 651
Trade and Industry . . 552
Weights and Measures . 553
Books of Reference . . 553
NICARAGUA :—
Constitution, Government . 555
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . • .555
Diplomatic Representatives 556
Weights and Measures . 548
Books of Reference . 556
CONTENTS.
XI
PARAGUAY :-
Cuiistitution, Government . 5.57
Kevenue and Ai'my . . 558
Population and Trade . 558
Diplomatic Eepresentatives 559
Weights and Measures . 559
Books of Eeference . . 560
PERU :—
Constitution, Government . 561
Revenue, Army, and Navy . 561
Area and Population . . 563
Trade and Industry , . 564
Guano exports . . .565
Railways . . . .565
Silver Mines, produce of . 567
Diplomatic Representatives 567
Weights and Measures . 567
Books of Eeference . . 567
SAN DOMINGO:—
Constitution, Government . 569
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .569
Diplomatic Representatives 570
Weights and Measiu-es . 570
Books of Reference . . 570
UNITED STATES:—
Constitution, Government . 575
Congress .... 578
Church and Education . 581
Revenue and Expenditure .583
National Debt . . . 585
Army . . . .588
Navy . . . .589
Armour-clad Ships . .590
Area and Population . . 592
Census of 1870 . . .593
Immigration . . . 597
Trade and Industry . . 599
Commercial Marine . . 603
Mines and Minerals . . 605
Railways .... 605
Post and Telegraphs . . 607
Diplomatic Representatives 607
Weights and Measures . 607
Books of Reference . . 608
URUGUAY :—
Constitution, Government . 611
Revenue and Army . .611
Population and Trade . 612
Diplomatic Representatives 614
Weights and Measures . 614
Books of Reference . . 614
SAN SALVADOR:—
Constitution, Government . 57"'
Revenue, Population, and
Trade . . . .572
Diplomatic Representatives 574
Weights and Measures . 574
Books of Reference . . 574
VENEZUELA :—
Constitution, Government . 615
Revenue and Anny . . 615
Population and Trade . 616
Diplomatic Representatives 617
Weights and Measures . 617
Books of Reference . .618
ALGERIA :
Government and Army
Population and Indxistiy
Commerce .
Weights and Measiires
Books of Reference .
. AFRICA.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE :—
Constitution, Government
624
619
Revenue and Expenditure
625
620
Area and Population
625
621
Trade and Commerce
628
622
Weights and Measures
629
622
Books of Reference
630
Xll
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
EGYPT :—
Keigning Khedive
Government, Kevenue, aud
Army ....
Area and Population
Trade and Commerce
The Suez Canal
Railways and Telegraphs .
Diplomatic Representatives
Eooks of Reference .
LIBERIA :—
Constitution
Population and Trade
Weights and Measiu'es
MAURITIUS :—
Constiti;tion, Government .
Revenue and Expenditiire .
Population and Trade
Books of Reference .
i
MOROCCO :—
631
Reigning Sovereign .
646
Government and Religion
646
632
Population and Trade
647
634
Weights and Measures
648
635
Books of Reference .
648
636
638
639
NATAL :—
639
Constitution, Government
649
Reveniie and Population
. 648
Trade and Commerce
. 650
Books of Reference .
. 651
641
642
642
TUNIS :—
Reigning Sovereign .
. Go2
Government, Revenue, and
643
Army .
. 652
643
Population and Trade
. 654
644
Weights and Measures
. 656
645
Books of Reference .
. 656
CEYLON :—
Constitution, Government
Revenue and Expenditure
Population
Trade and Industry .
Weights and Measvu-es
Books of Reference .
CHINA :—
Reigning Sovereign .
Government and Revenue
Army and Navy
Population
Trade and Commerce
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
HONG KONG:—
Constitution, Government
Revenue and Expenditure
Area and Popiilation .
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .
3. ASIA.
INDIA :—
657
Constitution, Government
675
3 657
Revenue and Expenditure
677
. 658
Public Debt
683
. 659
Ai'my
684
. 660
Area and Population .
686
. 660
Religious Creeds
689
Trade and Commerce
692
Railways .
696
. 661
Post and Telegi-aphs .
698
. 661
Weights and Measui'es
699
. 662
Books of Reference .
700
. 663
. 665
JAPAN:—
L"
Constitution, Government
702
. 667
Revenue and Army .
7<)3
. 667
. 667
Population and Trade
705
Diplomatic Representative?
^ 7<»7
Weights and Measures
707
. 670
Books of Reference .
. 708
. 670
. 671
JAVA :—
. 673
Constitution, Government
. 710
. 674
Revenue and Expenditur
- 711
. 674
Army and Navy
. 712
Java : —
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Kefereuee .
PERSIA :—
Reigning Sovereign .
Government, Religion, and
Education
Revenue and Army .
Area, Population, and Trade
CONTENTS.
xm
PAGE
Persia : —
page
713
714
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
722
723
716
Books of Reference .
723
716
SIAM:—
718
Government and Revenue .
725
718
720
Population and Trade
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
726
728
728
721
Books of Referencp .
728
4. AUSTRALASIA.
Suiivinary Tables.
I. Area and Population. j II. Finances.
NEW SOUTH WALES :—
Constitution, Government . 731
Revenue and Expenditure . 732
Area and Population . . 732
Trade and Ladustry . 733
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs . . . .736
NEW ZEALAND :—
Constitution, Government . 736
Revenue and Expeuditiu-e . 737
Area and Population . . 738
Trade and Industry . .741
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 742
QUEENSLAND :—
Constitution, Government . 7-13
Revenue and Expenditure . 743
Area and Population . 744
Trade and Industry . .745
Post and Telegraphs . . 740
SOUTH AUSTRALIA:—
Constitution, Government . 747
Revenue and Expenditure . 748
Area and Population . . 749
Trade and Industrv . . 750
South Australia : —
Post and Telegraphs . . 751
TASMANIA :—
Constitution, Government . 762
Revenue and Expenditure . 752
Ai'ea and Population . . 753
Trade and Industry- . . 754
Post and Telegraphs . . 755
VICTORIA :—
Constitution, Government . 756
Revenue and Expenditure . 757
Area and Population . 758
Immigration . . .761
Trade and Commerce . 762
Mining Industry . , 763
Railways .... 764
Post and Telegraphs . . 765
WESTERN AUSTRALIA :—
Constitution, Government. 766
Revenue and Expenditure . 766
Population and Trade . 767
Agriculture and Minerals . 768
Books of Reference con-
cerning Australasia . 76S)
INDEX .
774
CHRONICLE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
FOK THE YEAK
1880
January.
1. Reception by the German Emperor, who expresses his hopes for a loug
maintenance of peace.
1. Death of General Count Paul Ignatiew, Russian statesman, president
of the Committee of Ministers, at St. Petersburg.
2. Opening of the Cortes Geraes of Portugal by King Luis I.
3. Riots in Connemara, Ireland, suppressed by the Constabulary and
troops.
4. Partial destruction of the isle of St. Christopher, one of tlie Leeward
Islands, by storm and floods.
f). Resignation of the ministry of Greece.
7. Occupation of the town of Ilo, Peru, by Chilian troops.
9. Military insurrection in the town of Ciudad-Bolivar, Venezuela, and
miu'der of the governor.
11. Changes in the ministry of Turkey.
13. Opening of the Parliamentary session in France; M. Leon Gambetta
re-elected President of the Chamber of Deputies by 259 against 49
votes.
14. Death of Friedrich Christian . of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Augustenburg.
1.5. Defeat of an army of ^Vfghans on tlie Cabul river, near Dacca, by
British troops.
16. Adoption of the Cortes of Spain of a bill for the abolition of slavery
in Cuba within eight years, by 230 against 10 votes.
18. Opening of tlie Rigsdag of Sweden by King Oscar II.
19. Appointment of a new Greek ministry under the presidency of M.
Coumoundouros.
CHRONICLE. XV
January.
20. Death of Jules Favre, French statesman, member of the Government
of National Defence, 1870-71-
21. Capture of Klielat-i-Ghilzai, Afghanistan, by British troops, under
General Stewart.
23. Death of General Barrail, French minister, of war under the presidency
of Marshal MacMahon.
24. Changes in the ministry of Turkey.
25. Bill for the purchase of the Konian railways by the State passed by
the Senate of Italy.
27. Resohition passed by the House of Eepresentatires of the United States,
by 17o against 62 votes, declaring it to be an 'infringement of
the constitutional prerogative of the Hotise for the Executive to
negotiate commercial treaties.'
28. Dismissal of the minister of finance of Turkey by the Sultan. ' He
had been appointed on the faith of his assurances, that he would
find ways and means for withdrawing paper ciu-rency, or, at least,
permanently raising its value; but his efforts were completely
unsuccessftil.'
29. Decree of the German Emperor summoning the Reichstag to meet on
the 12th of February.
30. Resignation of the ministry of Greece.
31. Opening of the newly-elected Folkething of Denmark by royal com-
mission.
February.
1. Attack upon the port of Africa, Peru, by Chilian troops, who are i-e-
piilsed.
3. Encounter between Peruvian and Chilian troops, and defeat of the
latter near Titicago, Peru.
4. Arrival of the Empress of Russia at St. Petersburg, in a dying state,
from Italy.
5. Opening of the Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland by Queen
Victoria. The speech from the throne says : My relations with all
the Powers continue to be friendly. The course of events since
the prorogation of Parliament has tended to furnish additional
security to the maintenance of European peace, on the principles
laid down by the Treaty of Berlin. Much, however, still remains
to be done to repair the disorder with Mhich the late war has
affected many parts of the Turkish Empire.'
7. Bill for the abolition of the office of army chaplains passed by the
Chamber of Deputies of France by 342 against Hi votes.
9. Changes in the ministry of Turkey; dismissal of the minister of war.
1 0. Death of Isaac Adolphe Cremieux, French statesman, member of the
Government of National Defence, 1870-71, at Paris.
11. Opening of the Storthing of Norway by King Oscar II.
12. Opening of the Reichstag of Germany by Imperial commission. The
speech from the throne says : ' The relations of the German
Empire to all other powers are friendly and pacific. The hope ex-
XVI THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
February,
pressed by his Majesty the Emperor and King, tliat peace will be
consolidated by the results of the Congress of Berlin has been
borne out by events. Nearly all the clauses of the Berlin Treaty
have been carried out, and the German Empire now, as ever, is
zealously engaged in supporting the endeavours that are being made
to seeiu'e a permanence of the peace of Europe.'
12. Opening of the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada by the Marquis
of Lorne, Governor-General.
14. Outbreak of a revolution in the province of Buenos Ayres, Argentine
Confederation.
15. Close of the session of the delegations of Austria-Hungary.
li"). Opening of the Parliament of Italy by King Umberto I., who says
in his speech from the throne : ' The people are awaiting calmly the
result of your deliberations on the grave questions discussed during
tlie last Session. The two jDromises which the founder of the
Kingdom left as his last legacy to Italy — the reform of our system
of taxation, in the sense of relieving the poorer classes, and an
extension of the franchise — are a sacred duty due to his revered
memory and to the just expectations of our people.'
17. Attempt to assassinate the Emperor of Russia by blowing up his
residence, the Winter Palace of St. Petersburg, by means of
dynamite. Death of twenty soldiers of the Palace guard.
18. Arrest of 1,200 persons, supposed to be concerned in the attempt to
assassinate the Emperor of Russia, at St. Petersburg. ' Among the
arrested are 60 officers and 115 court officials of all ranks.'
19. Changes in the ministry of Austria.
21. Decree of tiie National Convention of Bolivia ordering 'the sale, by
public auction, of the property of all the convents and monasteries
of the republic,' and also ' of the treasures of the churches, in-
cluding the ornaments of the images,' the produce to be ' applied to
defraying the expenses of the war.'
22. Official communication made to Prince Karl I. at Bucharest acknow-
ledging the independence of Roumania, by France, Germany, and
Great Britain.
24. Proclamation of an ukase of the Empei-or of Russia instituting a
' Supreme Executive Commission,' with a dictator at the head, for
the government of the Empire. The ukase says : — ' Being firmly
determined to put an end to the continually-repeated attempts of
•wicked criminals to undermine the order of the State and society
in Russia, we decree as follows :— A Supreme Executive Commission
is hereby established in St. Petersburg for the protection of the
order of the State and society. It is to consist of a head, and of
members to be named according to his discretion. Count Loris
Melikoflf is appointed head of this Commission. The appointment
of its members will be made on his suggestion by Imperial or-
dinance.
25. Bill for the purchase of the line of railway from Antwerp to Rotterdam
by the State adopted by the Chamber of Representatives of Belgiimi.
26. Prorogatioo of the Parliament of Italy.
27. Investment of Ariea, Peru, by 12,000 Chilian troops.
CHKONICLE. XVll
February.
28. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey.
29. Completion of the piercing of the railway tunnel through the St.
Gothard mountain, forming a new highroad between Germany and
Italy.
Harch.
3. Bill for the relief of Irish distress passed, in second reading, in the
British House of Lords.
2. Celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the accession to the
throne of the Emperor Alexander II. at St. Petersburg and through-
out Eussia. In a letter of congratulation the German Emperor
writes : ' The return of the day on which your Majesty, twentj'-five
years ago, ascended the thi'one affords me a welcome opportunity of
expressing my joy that the friendship which united our fathers, who
rest in God, has been maintained in our mutual relations.'
3. Attempt to assassinate Count Loris Melilioff, dictator of Eussia (see
February 24) made at St Petersburg by a ' Nihilist ' called Mala-
dyetsky.
i. Bill for legalising marriage with a deceased wife's sister passed the
House of Commons of the Dominion of Canada by 140 against 20
votes.
'). General elections for the Legislative Assembly of Victoria, Australia,
resulting in the retiu'n of 49 Ministerialists and 37 members of the
Opposition.
6. Motion of want of confidence in the Ministry defeated in the House of
Kepresentatives by 222 against 174 votes.
7. Bombardment of the town and port of Arica, Peru, by the Chilian
(formerly Peruvian) armour-clad ship ' Huascar.'
8. Announcement made in the two Houses of Parliament of Great
Britain that a dissolution was imminent.
B. Message of the President of the United States to the Senate regarding
the piroposed inter-oceanic canal of Panama, in which he says : — ' The
policy of this country is a canal under American control. The
United States cannot consent to surrender this control to any
European Power, or any combination of European Powers. If
existing treaties, or the rights of sovereignty or property of other
nations, stand in the way of this policy — a contingency which is not
to be apprehended — suitable steps should be taken by just and
liberal negotiations to promote and establish American policy on
tins subject.'
0. Defeat in the French Senate, by 148 against 129 votes, of clause seven
of a bill, passed in the Chamber of Deputies, for the suppression
of all non-authorised religious orders.
10. Publication of a letter of the Earl of Beaconsfield, Prime Minister of
Great Britain (dated March 8), to the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
on the announced dissolution of Parliament and the new elections.
The letter says : — 'Rarely in this century has there been an occasion
more critical. The power of England and the peace of Europe will
largely depend on the verdict of the country. Her Majesty's present
Ministers have hitherto been enabled to secure that peace, so
a
XVlll
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
March.
necessar}' to the welfare of all civilised countries, and so peculiarly
the interest of our omi. But this ineffable blessing cannot be ob-
tained by the passive principle of non-interference. Peace rests on
the presence, not to say the ascendency, of England in the Councils
of Europe.'
11. Occupation of the town of Moquega, Peru, by Chilian troops.
13. Changes in the Ministry of Greece.
14. Assassination of the Grand Shereef of Mecca, 'in his entering the
town of Djedda.
15. Adoption of the bill — exclusive of clause seven (see March 9) — by
the French Senate, by 187 to 103 votes, of a bill passed in the
Chamber of Deputies for the regulation and partial suppression
of religious orders.
16. Eesignation of Colonel Latorre. President of the Republic of Uru-
guay.
18. Occupation of the town of Islay, Peru, by Chilian troops.
19. Bill passed by the Storthing of Norway to amend the Constitution, so
as to enable the Ministers to take part in the business of the
Storthing, passed by 93 against 20 votes.
20. Resolution of want of confidence in the Government passed in the
Chamber of Representatives of Greece by 99 against 93 votes.
22. Decree of the Emperor of Austria, king of Hungary, giving episcopal
jurisdiction over Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Patriarch of Hun-
23. Motion passed in the Chamber of Representatives of Belgium, by
56 against 50 votes, for a Parliamentary inquir}' into the question
of elementary education.
24. Dissolution of the Parliament of Gre;it Britain and Ireland by royal
proclamation, and ordering new elections, ' which are to be return-
able on the 29th day of April next.'
25. Departure of Queen Victoria of Great Britain from Portsmouth on an
excursion to Germany.
26. Encounter between Chilian and Peruvian troops near the port of
Mollendo, Peru.
27. Appointment of a new ministry in Greece, under the presidency of M.
Tricoupis.
28. Commencement of elections for the new House of Commons in Great
Britain.
29. Decree of the Government of France, signed by the President of the
Republic and the Minister of .Justice and of Public AVorship, order-
ing the Jesuits to dissolve their Association and close their reli-
gious establishments within three months, and their schools by the
31st of August, and summoning the other non-recognised religious
Orders to conform to the existing laws and apply for a licence.
31. Death of Mahomed Jan, one of the leaders of the Afghans, in an en-
gagement with the British troops at Chardeh.
CHRONICLE. XIX
April.
1. Opening of the Congress of Mexico, liy the President of the Eepnblic.
2. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey.
4. Opening of the National Assembly of Bulgaria hy Prince Alexan-
der II.
5. Decree of the Khedive of Egypt appointing Sir Rivers Wilson presi-
dent of the ' International Commission of Liquidation.' and nomi-
nating Mr. Auckland Cohnn. Siguor Baravelli, and MM. Bughas,
Liron Dairoles. and Treskow members of the Commission.
6. Appoirtment of a new ministry for Bulgaria, under the presidency of
M. Zancoff.
7. Eesignation of Prince Bismarck, Chancellor of the German Empire.
8. Letter of the German Emperor to Prince Bismarck, declining to
accept the resignation. ' I do not feel myself induced to re-
lieve you of your office because you believe yourself unable in a
particular case to cany out the task allotted to you by clauses 16
and 17 of the Constitution.'
10. Commencement of the blockade of Callao, Peru, by ihe Chilian fleet.
12. Bill for the reorganisation of the army rejected by the Diet of Sweden
by 121 against 75 votes.
13. Eesignation of the Ministry of Sweden, in consequence of the rejection
of the Army Bill.
14. Convention between Turkey and Montenegro for the settlement of the
frontiers.
15. Conclusion of a commercial treaty between Great Britain and Eouma-
nia at Bucharest.
17. Eeturn of Queen Victoria to Windsor Castle from her visit to Ger-
many.
19. Proclamation of the independence of Albania at Scutari. After read-
ing the proclamation at the Castle of Scutari there appeared on the
balcony a tall, well-built warrior, and the flash of a yataghan was
seen as it fell on the flag-stalF bearing the Crescent banner. In
an instant the standard of the Sultan was rolling in the
dust.'
I'J. Defeat of an Afghan army at Admedkey by British troops under
General Sir Donald Stewart.
20. Completion of the elections for the British House of Commons, re-
sulting in the election of 353 Liberals, 237 Conservatives, and 62
Irish ' home-rulers.'
21. Eesignation of the British Ministry, presided over by the Earl of
Beaconsfield.
22. Interview of Queen Victoria with the Earl of Granville and the Mar-
qnis of Hartington at Windsor Castle regarding the formation of
a new ministry.
23. Interview of Queen Victoria at Windsor Castle with the Eight Hon.
W. E. Gladstone, M.P., resulting in his appointment as First Lord
of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer.
XX THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
April.
24. Close of the Diet of Eoiimania by Prince Karl I.
2.5. Defeat of an Afghan force by British troops at Charasiab.
27. Investment of Tacna, Peru, by Chilian troops.
28. Complete formation of the new Ministry of Great Britain, presided
over by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone.
29. Formal opening of the newly-elected tenth Parliament of Queen Vic-
toria, by royal commission.
29. Resignation of the Ministry of Italy.
30. Decree of the Russian Government, ordering the expulsion of all Jews
of alien birth from St. Petersburg.
May.
1 . Announcement made in the Reichstag of Germany of the intention < if
the Government to abrogate the privilege of the ' Free Towns' to
be ' free ports.'
2. Decree of the King of Italy dissolving the Chamber of Deputies, and
ordei-ing new elections to take place from the ICth to the 23rd of
May, the new Chamber to meet on the 26th.
3. Opening of the Brazilian Congress by the Emperor Pedro II., who <le-
clares that the country desires a system of electoral reform.
4. Bill for the prolongation of the laws against the Socialists till the end
of September, 1884, adopted by the Reichstag of Germany, by 191
against 94 votes.
5. Installation of Earl Co-\vper, as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, at Dublin
Castle.
7, Death of Dr. Gerhard Leonhardt, German statesman, formerly
Minister of Justice in Prussia.
9. Opening of a national exhibition of German art and industry at Diis-
seldorf on the Rhine.
10. Decree of complete amnesty to a large number of persons, implicated
in the Commimist insuri-eetion of 1871, issued by the President of
the French Republic.
11. Close of the session of the Reichstag of Germany.
13. Insurrectionary movements in several parts of western Ireland, re-
ported to be due to the action of the newly-formed ' National
Land League.'
15. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey.
17. Appeal of the Government of Greece to the subjects of King
Georgios I. to strengthen, in men and money, the armed forces of
the kingdom.
18. Elections for the House of Deputies throughout Italy, resulting in the
return of a large majority in favour of the existing Government.
18. Appointment: of M. Constans as Minister of the Interior for France
in place of M. Lepere.
20. Oi^icial opening of the newly-elected Parliament of Great Britain and
Ireland. - The ' Queen's Speech ' says : — ' I avail myself of the earliest
CHRONICLE. xxi
May.
opportunity of meeting j'ou after the recent general election and
the arrangements required upon a change of Administration. The
cordial relations whicli I hold with all the other Powers of Europe
will, I trust, enable me to promote, in concert witli them, the early
and complete fulfilment of the Treaty of Berlin with respect to
effectual reforms and equal laws in Turkey, as well as to such ter-
ritorial questions as have not yet been settled in conformity with
the provisions of that treaty. I regard sixch a ftilfilment as essential
for the avoidance of further complications in the East. In accord-
ance with this view. I have deemed it expedient to dispatch an
ambassador extraordinary to the Court of the Sultan.'
21. Celebration of the one hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the
University of Peslh, in presence of the Emperor-King Franz
Josef I. of Austria-Hungary.
21. Statement of the Marquis of Hartington, Secretary of State for India,
in the British House of Commons, that the total cost of the Af-
ghan war will be over ten millions sterling. ' It is the intention of the
Government to liring warlike operations in Afghanistan, and the
occupation of any part of it, to a close at the earliest possible
moment.'
22. Insurrection at Homs, Syria, against the Turkish Government.
23. Resignation of M. Martel, President of the Senate of the French
Republic.
24. Elections for one-hHlf of the Chamber of Representatives of Belgium,
resulting in favour of the Liberal, against the Clerical, party.
25. Bill for the construction of a system of canals from the Atlantic to the
Mediterranean, passed by the French Chamber of Deputies by 246
against 114 votes. The Minister of Public Works explained 'that
the trade of France was menaced by the development of the Ger-
man railways, and that this peril could only be counteracted by the
organisation of a system of canals.' ' The canal from Marseilles to
the Rhone and the improvement of the Burgttndy Canal,' he said,
' would complete the network of French waterways.'
26. Election of M. Leon Say, French ambassador in Great Britain, to the
post of President of the Senate of France.
28. Engagement between Chilian and Peruvian troops near Giiamono.
30. Arrival of the Marquis of Ripon, newly-appointed Governor-General
of British India, at Bombay.
June.
1. Opening of an International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures at
Brussels, in presence of King Leopold II. of Belgium.
2. Veto of King Oscar II. of the Bill passed by the Storthing of Norway
to enable Ministers to take part in the business (See March 19).
Resolution of the Storthing to pass over the veto.
3. Death of the Prince de Ligne, Belgian statesman, for many years
President of the Senate of Belgium.
3. Death of Empress Maria, consort of Emperor Alexander II. of Russia.
5. Changes in the Government of Turkey.
sii THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
June.
7. Storming of the town of Arica, Peru, by Chilian troops, the garrison
being made prisoners of war.
8. Nomination of General J. A. Garfield as President of the United
States by the Eepubliean Convention assembled at Chicago.
8. Installation of the Marquis of Eipon as Governor -G eueral of India at
Simla.
9. Opening of all the Provincial Diets of Austria.
10. Ukase of the Emperor of Russia creating a new Military Governorship
for the Amoor territory, and establisliing the seat of government
at Chacarowka.
12. Presentation of a 'collective note ' by the ambassadors of all the gri>ut
European Powers to the Sultan of Turkey at Constantinople. ' It
informs the Porte that it must settle the Tui'co-Greek frontier ques-
tion,' and proceeds to demand ' the execution of the Convention
concluded by the Ottoman Government with Montenegro, and of
Article 61 of the Treaty of Berlin relative to the carrying out of
reforms in Armenia.'
13. Interruption of diplomatic intercoui'se between Belgium and the See of
Rome.
14. Appointment of M. Challemel-Lacour as ambassador of the French
Republic in Great Britain.
15. Appointment of a new ministry of Turkey, under the presidency of
Kadri Pasha.
16. Meeting of a 'Supplementary Conference' at Berlin, to settle the
Greek and Montenegro frontier questions, left in abeyance at the
Congress of Berlin, in 1878. The chief points at issue will, as in
the case of the Berlin Congress, be disposed of in a twofold man-
ner, namely, by the deliberations of the Conference itself, in which
experts will not take part, and by the laboui's of experts to be car-
ried on upon the basis of instructions previously receivetl from the
Conference,'
17. Resolution of confidence in the Government carried in the Cortes of
Spain by 170 against 22 votes.
18. Occupation of the town of Tacna, Bolivia, by Chilian troops.
20. Changes in the Ministry of Belgium.
21. Bill for the complete amnesty of all persons detained in prison or in
exile for participatioa in the Communist insurrection of 1 871 passed
in the Chamber of Deputies of France, by 333 against 140 votes.
22. Outbreak of a revolution in the Argentine Confederation, and marcli
of the ' Provincial troops ' upon the city of Buenos Ayres.
23. Election of General Hancock as candidate for the Presidency of the
United Stat'es by the Democratic Convention at Cincinnati.
24. Bill for the suppression of the office of military chaplain in the army
adopted by the Senate of Fr;i.nce.
25. Prorogation of the Diet of Hungary.
26. Defeat of the 'Provincial troops' of the Argentine Confederation laying
siege to' the city of Buenos Ayres.
CHRONICLE. XXlll
Jane.
27. Surrender of the last body of ' insurgents, commanded by General
Sanchez, to the Spanish troops, in Cuba.
28. Annexation of the island of Tahiti, or Otaheite, Polynesia, to France
by convention between the Cliief and French delegates.
29. Final sitting of the representatives of the great European powers at
the Conference of Berlin. ' The border line between Turkey and
Greece, the latter including the town of Janina, was adopted
unanimously by the assembled Plenipotentiaries.'
30. Expulsion of the Jesuits fromtheir houses throughout France by de-
cree of the Government of the French Kepublic.
July.
1 . Issue of a ' collective protocol ' by the plenipotentiaries of the great
Powers assembled at the Conference of Berlin. In the protocol the
Powers declare that, as the negotiations carried on between Turkey
and Greece, in pursuance of the recommendation of the Berlin Con-
gress, have not led to a successful issue, they have taken steps to
bring about the mediation provided for in the Berlin Treaty, and
now notify to the Ottoman and Greek Governments the line of fron-
tier marked out by the Conference, which they ' invite' the Cabi-
nets of Constantinople and Athens to accept.
2. Kupture of diplomatic intercourse between Belgium and the Pontilicai
See by withdrawal of the Belgian ambassador at the Vatican.
3. Bill for the subordination, under strict regulations, of both the Pro-
testant and Eonian Catholic clergy to the State passed by the Prus-
sian Parliament.
4. Destruction by a torpedo vessel of the Chilian mau -of- war ' Loa ' in
the harbour of Callao, Peru, blockaded by the Chilian fleet.
5. Assumption of ofiBLce of Sir G. P. CoUey, newly appointed Governor of
Natal.
6. Law for the complete separation of Church and State in the canton of
Geneva, Switzerland, vetoed by a popular vote of 9,306 against
4,064.
7. Decree of King Alfonso XII. proroguing the Cortes of Spain ' sine die '
in order to prevent a ministerial crisis.
9. Changes in the Ministry of Austria. j
9. Bill for the complete amnesty of all persons detained in prison or in
exile for participation in the Communist insurrection of 1871,
passed in the Senate of France by 176 against 98 votes.
1 1. Appointment of a new Minister of "War in the Government of Turkey.
12, Bill forreducing the taxes on wine and on sugar passed by the French
Chamber of Deputies.
14. National festival in honom* of the establishment of the Republic
celebrated in Paris and other towns of France.
15. Strong reinforcement of the Chilian fleet blockading the harbour of
Callao.
17. Abdication of the reigning Prince Giinther, of Schwarzburg, Sonders-
houses, in consequence of blindness.
xxiv THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
July.
18. Notice of the commander-in-chief of the Chilian fleet and troops in tlie
harbour of Callao that it is his intention to bombard the capital of
Peru, and warning all foreign residents away.
19. Decree of President Pierola of Peru ordering all the male inhabitants
of the Republic between the ages of sixteen and sixtj^ to place
themselves under arms for the defence of the country. ' The de-
cree caused a general panic. The churches of Lima were filled day
and night with people imploring the assistance of Heaven, and re-
ligious processions bearing the relics of saints passed through all
the streets.'
20. Election of General Gonzales as President of tlie Eepublic of Mexico.
21. Changes in the Ministry of Italy.
22. Opening of the newly-elected Parliament of Victoria, Australia, by the
Governor, the Marquis of Nornianby.
23. Reply of the Ottoman Government to the ' collective protocol' of the
plenipotentiaries of the European Powers (see .Tiily 1 ) declining the
advice given.
24. Bill for imposing a tax upon all titles and decorations adopted by the
Chamber of Deputies of Italy.
25. Proclamation of Abdul Rahman as Ameer of Afghanistan under the
auspices of tlie British Government. ' In all the mosques through-
out Afghanistan there were thanksgiving services.'
27. Severe defeat of a British force, under General Burrows, by Afghan
troops under Ayoub Khan. ' The battle was fought a few miles
north of Kushk-i-Nakhud. and began in an attack by General Bur-
rows, who marched out from his strong position to meet the enemy.
Ayoub Khan had but twenty guns, which were, however, well served.
The remarkable fact about the battle was the force of the Af-
ghan charge, against which the Bombay troops could not stand up
at all. They dropped rfieir arms and fled when tlie Afghans were
still within 200 yards of them, breaking the formation of the Eu-
ropeans, who were held in reserve in the rear. Then two guns
were lost. In the 66th Regiment of English troops, 400 out of 650
were killed or wounded.'
28. Retreat of General Primi-ose, commander of the British garrison at
Candahar, from the cantonments into the citadel to prepare for
an attack of the Afghan troops under Ayoub Khan.
30. Outbreak of an insiu-rection in the city of Mexico to prevent the
installation of General Gonzales, newly elected President of the
Mexican Repiiblic.
31. Decree of the Khedive of Egypt making new arrangements for the
liquidation of the public debt of Egypt.
August.
1. Elections for the ' Councils-General' throughout France, resulting in
the return of 925 Republicans and 121 anti-Republicans. 'The
gain of the Republicans is 240 seats.'
2. Appointment of a new Ministry for Eoumania.
3. Presentation of a joint note of the representatives of the great
CHRONICLE. XXV
August.
European Powers to the Sultan of Turkey, ;it Constantinople,
urging the immediate settlement of the question of the Montene-
grin frontier.
4. Departure of a large body of troops from Portsmouth, to reinforce
the British army in India.
5. Formation of a new Ministry in Victoria, Australia, under the
presidency of the Hon. Graham Berry.
7. Election of General Eoea as President of the Argentine Confedera-
tion, to succeed Dr. Nicolas Avellaueda.
9. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey.
10. Interview between the Emperors of Austria and of Germany at
Ischl, Upper Austria. ' The meeting was most cordial, and
generally believed to be not without political consequences.'
11. Evacuation of the city of Cabul by the British garrison, the forces of
Abdul Eahman, the new Ameer of Afghanistan, being left in
possession.
12. Bill for legalising marriage with a deceased wife's sister passed by
the House of Representatives of New Zealand.
13. Death of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, British statesman and diploma-
tist.
14. Solemn ceremony, in presence of the German Emperor, Wilhelra I.,
of the act of completion of the Cathedral of Cologne, the building
of which commenced on August 14, 1248, lasting exactly 632
years. 'The completion of this magnificent edifice, coeval with
the re-establishment of the German Empire, must be regarded as an
event of European interest.'
16. Attempt of the British garrison at Candahar to break through the
lines of the Afghan army, under Yakoub Khan, besieging the
place, the result being a repulse, after three hours of severe
fighting.
18. Changes in tlie Ministry of Greece.
19. Engagement between Chilian and Peruvian troops near Ariea.
21. Forcible entry of the national troops of the Argentine Confederation
into the Provincial Assembly of Buenos Ayres, the deputies l)eing
ejected at the point of the sword.
22. Ukase of the Emperor of Riissia, abolishing the ' Supreme Executive
Commission ' established on February 24 (see this date). The
ukase orders ' That the supreme Executive Commission is closed,
its affairs being transferred to the Ministry of the Interior ; that
the Third Section of the Chancery is abolished, its affairs being
transferred to the Ministry of the Interior, a special department
of State Police being formed to administer them, until it becomes
possible to unify the administration of the police throughout the
Empire in a single institution.'
24. Changes in the Ministry of Denmark.
25. p]ntry of General Eoca, newly elected President of the Argentine
Confederation, into Buenos Ajres.
27. Issue of a circular note of the Ottoman Government to the great
XXVI THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
August.
Em-opean Powers, promising the sairrender of Dulcigno and its
district to Montenegro.
29. Suppression of the insurrection in Mexico.
31. Relief of the British troops besieged at Oandahar by the Afghans
imder Ayoub Khan. General Sir Frederick Roberts ' marched into
Candahar with thirteen regiments of infantry, four of cavalry,
and eighteen mountain guns. The march covered 345 miles, occu-
pying 21 days, or more than 16 miles a day. This is splendid
marching, and implies in General Roberts at least as high a power
of organisation as he has always sho"n'n tactical genius.'
September.
1. Defeat of the Afghan army, under the command of Ayoub Khan,
before Candahar, by the British troops under General Sir
Frederick Roberts. ' The two lost guns of the Royal Horse
Artillery were recovered, and several wheeled guns of various
calibre fell to the infantry of this force.'
2. Celebration of the tenth anniversary of the battle of Sedan at Berlin
and throughout Germany. In a proclamation the German Empe-
ror ' thanks the troops most warmly for their valorous deeds on
September 2, 1870, and expresses the sincere hope that German
.soldiers will always hold their own in the same courageous way ns
they did during that memorable struggle.'
3. Notification of the ambassadors of the great European Powers to the
Ottoman Government that a ' naval demonstration ' will enforce the
settlement of the Montenegro frontiers.
5. Resignation- of all the members of the Provincial Government at
Buenos Ayres, and installation of the National Government in
power.
6. Breaking out of insurrection of I lie natives of Basutoland against the
British Government,
7. Close of the first session of the tentli Parliament of Queen Victoria
of Great Britain by Royal Commission. It is said in the Speecli
from the throne that ' The failure of the Sublime Porte to execute,
according to its engagement, a plan which was agreed upon in April
last for the determination of the Ottoman frontier lying towards
Montenegro, has caused unfortunate delays in the settlement of
that question, and the Treaty of Berlin has not yet taken eifect in
other points of importance which remained open at the commence-
ment of the Session. The Governments which were parties to that
treaty have commimicated to the Sultan their judgment on the
means of bringing to a satisfactory set'dement the Greek and
Montenegrin frontier questions.'
9. Ukase of the Emperor of Russia ordering the construction of a
system of railways tlirough Siberia.
10. Revolt of the natives of Domenica, largest of the Marquesas Islands,
against the French Government.
12. Birth of a daiighter to King Alfonso XII. of Spain, named Maria de
las Mercedes.
18. Destruction, 'by an eartliquakc, of the town of Ilnpell, Chili.
CHRONICLE. XXVll
September.
14. Decree of the Sultan of Turkey dismissing tiie Grand Vizier, Kadri
Pasha, and his colleagues, and appointing as his successor Said
Pasha, -with new ministers. In his decree, the Sultan says that
'in view of the gravity of the present state of affairs and the
urgency of the measures to be taken, he has considered a change
of Ministry neces'sary.'
16. Opening of the Congress of Mexico by the President of the Republic.
17. Arrival of all the ships of the great European Powers in the bay of
Dulcigno, in the Adriatic, to take part in the ' Naval Demonstra-
tion ' against Turkey.
18. Decree of King Alfonso XII. dissolving the Cortes of Spain.
19. Eesiguation of the Ministry of France, presided over by M. de
Freycinet.
20. Opening of the States-General of the Netherlands by King
William III.
21. Decree of the King of Italy granting an amnesty to all political
offenders.
23. Appointment of a new French Ministry, under the presidency of M.
Jules Ferry, with M. . Barthelemy de St. Hilaire as Minister of
Foreign Affairs.
24. Circular of the new Minister of Foreign Affairs of the French Eepub-
lic to the diplomatic agents of France, requesting them ' to assure
the Government to which you are accredited, that the new Cabinet
will make no change in the Foreign Policy of its predecessor.
France has never attached a greater value than now to the
maintenance of peace, so fruitful of advantage for her prosperity
and her honour.'
25. Defeat of 3,000 Basuto insurgents by the Natal colonial troops, at
3Iohales Hoek.
26. Interview of Yice-Admiral Seymour, commander-in-chief of the
International Fleet at Dulciguo Bay, with the Prince of Monte-
negro.
27. Decree of the Italian Government prohibiting the Jesuits expelled
from France to settle in Italy.
28. Death of Baron von Dalwigh. German statesman.
29. Launch of the armourclad ship -Italia,' largest man-of-war of Italy
—and of the world — at Castellamare, in presence of the King of
Italy.
30. Collective note presented to the Ottoman Government by the am-
bassadors of the great Em-opean Powers in regard to the Montene-
grin question.
October.
1. Opening of an International Exliibition of arts and manufactures at
Melbourne, Australia.
2. Eiots in several parts of Ireland, reported to be instigated by the
' Land League.'
3. Completion of the meeting of the ships of all the great European
XXviii THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
October.
Powers on the coast of Montenegro, to form a ' Xaral Demonstra-
tion ' against Turkey.
4. Note presented by the Ottoman Government to the amlnissadors of the
great European Powers at Constantinople, demanding the aban-
donment of the Naval Demonstration.
5. Opening of the Kigsdag of Denmark by Eoyal commission.
7. Launch of an armourclad ship, on new principles, biiilt at Poplar,
near London, for tlie Government of the Argentine Confederation.
8. Proclamation of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, declaring a part of
Ireland in a • state of disturbance,' and ordering various repressive
measures.
9. Election of General Gonzales to the presidency of the republic of
Mexico.
10. Keview of the army of Greece, to take part in a war against Turkey,
by the Premier at Athens.
n. Entry of Ayoob Klian, claimant of the tlirone of Afghanistan, into
Herat.
12. Manifesto of General Garibaldi, declaring that 'the pitial)le state of
Italy cannot endure much longer.'
13. Meeting of United States commissioners off Lima, attempting to
arbitrate, and bring to an end, the conflict between Chili and Peru.
14. Defeat of Basutos in an attack upon colonial forces at Maseru, South
Africa.
15. Expulsion of Jesuits from convents at Toulouse and other towns of
France.
16. Departure of several Turkish ironclad ships from Constantinople for
Smyrna.
18. Closing of the Barnabite and Carmelite educational establishments by
the police througliout France, xiuder orders of the Government.
19. Defeat of Basutos near JMafeteng, South Africa, by a British force
under Colonel Carrington.
20. Decree of the Emperor of Eussia appointing four senators, specially
nominated, to revise all branches of the administration.
22. Opening of the Boule of Greece by King Georgius I., in a warlike
Speech from the tlirone.
23. Death of Baron Eicasoli. Italian statesman at Eonir.
25. Formation of a new Ministry for Greece, under the presidency of M.
Coumoundouros.
26. Opening of the Assembly of Eastern Eoumelia by the Governor-
General.
27. Appointment of a new Ministry for Servia.
28. Opening of a new session of the Diet of Prussia.
29. Attack of Kurds upon the town of Urumiah, repulsed by Persian
troops. ,
CHRONICLE. XXIX
October.
30. Forcible closing of religious establishments at Marseilles, Perpignan,
and other places, by order of the French Government.
31. Decree of the Sultan of Turkey ordering the cession of the port of
Dulcigno to Montenegro.
November.
1. Appeal of the Governor of the Cape of Good Hope, calling up four
thousand volunteers ' for the defence of the frontiers.'
2. Appointment of a new Ministry for Servia.
3. Further invasion of parts of Persia by Kurds, who obtain slight
advantages.
4. Nomination of General Garfield by 'caucus,' to the presidency of the
United States of America.
5. Dissolution of the National Assembly of Servia.
6. Political riots in several towns of western Ireland.
7. Defeat of Albanians by Tiirkish troops near Dulcigno.
9. Arrival at Paris of a number of amnestied Communists amidst great
demonstrations of popular sympathy.
10. Meeting of the French Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and adverse
vote in the latter leading to a resignation of the Ministry.
10. Opening of the Rigsdag of Denmark.
12. Reconstitution of the French Ministry in consequence of the resolu-
tion of confidence in it, passed in the Chamber of Deputies by 297
against 131 votes.
13. Trials of ' Nihilists,' attempting to sul)vert the existing political and
social organisation of Russia, concluded at St. Petersburg, a num-
ber of them being condemned to death.
14. Close of the session of the Austro-Hungarian delegations.
15. First rising of Boers at Potchefstrom, in the Transvaal, to resist the
raising of British taxes.
16. Vote of confidence in the Ministry of France passed in the Senate by
a majority of six.
17. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey,
18. Great 'anti-Semitic' conference at Berlin, to advocate the expulsion of
the Jews from Germany.
19. Riotous meetings of 'Land League' sympathisers in several parts of
Ireland.
20. Death of Sir Alexander Cockburn, Lord Chief Justice of England.
22. Order of the Queen in Council, proroguing the British Parliament
from the 24th of November to the 2nd of December.
23. Entry of Turkish troops, under Dervish Pasha, into Dulcigno, to
deliver it over to Montenegro, pressed by the ■ Naval Demonstration.'
L'4. Conclusion of an international copyright treaty between Great
B ritain and Spain.
XXX THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Novemlier.
25. Breaking off of negotiations for peace between Chili and Pern, the
latter republic refusing cession of territory.
27. Occupation of the town and port of Dulcigno, on the Adriatic, by
4,000 Montenegrin troops, possession being given them by the
Turks.
29. Further prorogation of the British Parliament to the 6th of January,
1881, 'then to meet for the despatch of business.'
.'■id. Engagement of Colonial forces with the Basutos in South Africa.
December.
1. Vote of confidence in the Italian Ministry carried l^y a majority of
thirty-three.
2. Opening of the Chambers of Eoumania by Prince Karl I.
3. Resolution of the Chamber of Deputies of France expressing confi-
dence in the foreign policy of the Government, by 307 against 107
votes.
4. Dispersion of the fleet of the great European Powers forming the
' Naval Demonstration' before Dulcigno.
5. Bill for compulsory secular education passed, in first voting, by the
Chamber of Deputies of France.
6. Opening of a new session of the Congress of the United States at
Washington, and delivery of the President's Message.
7. Agrarian riots in several parts of western Ireland.
8. Departure of English troops from Portsmouth for Ireland.
9. Bill for the taxation of all religious landed property passed, in first
reading, bj' a large majority, in the Chamber of Deputies of France.
10. Opening of the session of Parliament of the Dominion of Canada
by the Governor-General.
11. Changes in the Government of Greece.
12. Large 'anti-Semitic Meeting' at Berlin, presided over by one of
the royal chaplains.
14. Creation of several new Cardinals by the Sovereign Pontiff.
15. Resignation of the Hon. R. W. Thompson, Secretary of the Navy of
the United States, to assume the post of chairman of the Panama
Canal Company.
16. Resolution of ' sympathy with the unhappy labouring class in Ireland '
passed by the House of Representatives of the Congress of the
United States.
17. French reinforcements of troops sent from Portsmouth to Ireland.
18. Note of the Ottoman Government to the European Powers complaining
of Greek armaments for the invasion of Turkey.
20. Proposal of the French Government submitted to the great Powers
of Europe to settle the frontier question between Greece and
Turkey by arbitration.
21. General rising of the Boers in the Transvaal, South Africa, who take
CHKONICLE. XXXI
December.
possession of the town of Heidelburg, expel the British troops,
intending the restoration of their former Republic.
22. Bill for the compulsory education of all children passed by the
Chamber of Deputies of France, in third reading, by 359 against
128 votes.
23. Proclamation of independence issued by the Boers of the Transvaal,
Soxith Africa.
24. Seizure of several ships with arms in the River Shannon, Ireland.
2.5. Changes in the Ministry of Turkey,
26. Note of the Government of G-reece to the great European Powers
refusing arbitration in the frontier question, while declaring ad-
herence to the resolution of the Berlin Conference.
27. Prohibition by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland of meetings at several
places convened by the ' Land League.'
28. Occupation of the town of Potchefstroom by the Boers of the Trans-
vaal, South Africa.
29. Prorogation of the French Chambers till the 11th of January, 1881.
30. Destruction, by fire, of the ironclad steamer 'Eichelieu.' of the war-
fleet of France in Toulon harbour.
31. Opening of the Cortes of Spain by King Alfonso XII.
XXXll
THE 8TATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Diagram of the Average Annual Production
of Wheat in the Principal Wheat-Producing
Countries of the World.
(SCALE IN MILLIONS OP EECTOLITBES.) (*)
TToTio
(0 One JEectuUtre e^!«jJ to 2.83732 bm.
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
I.
xxxin
AKEA AND POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL
STATES
OF THE WORLD.
States
Area:
English square
miles
Population
Rank
accord-
ing to
Area
Rank
accord-
ing tc
Popn.
Empiee of Great Bbitain .
8,694,071
282,003,258
1
2
United Kingdom
121,616
31.628,338
India ....
1,472,85-1
237,395,498
Other Possessions .
7,099,601
13,179,422
Empiee of Russia
8,238,771
85,426,142
2
3
Russia in Europe .
2,261,244
78,472,347
Russia in Asia
•5,977,127
6,953,795
Empire of China
3,922,317
382,447,183
3
1
China proper .
1,534,953
362,447,183
Dependencies .
2,387,364
20,000,000
United States of America
3,512,237
50,182,525
4
4
Empire of Brazil
3,287,963
9,608,650
5
10
Ottoman Empire
1,116,848
21,000,000
6
9
Turkey in Europe .
62,028
4,275,000
Non-European Turkey
1,054,820
16,725,000
French Republic
738,681
43,927,475
7
5
France ....
204,092
37,405,793
Algeria ....
198,960
2,867,626
Other Possessions ,
335,629
3,654,056
; Sweden and Norway
293,848
6,270,266
8
12
Austria-Hungary
240,942
37,129,961
9
7
Austria ....
115,903
21,565,435
! Hungary
125,039
15,564,526
German Empire .
212,091
42,727,360
10
6
Prussia ....
137,066
25,742,404
Minor States .
75,025
16,984,956
Spain ....
182,750
16,625,860
11
11
Itait
■
114,296
26,792,354
12
8
XXXIV
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
n.
1 '
THE EXPORT MARKETS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
IN 1879 AND 1880.
Exports of British home produce
to Foreign Countries and
British Possessions
Nine months ended 30th Sept.
Increase ( + ),or
Diminution (— ),'
in 1880, as com- l
pared with 1879
1879
1880
&
£
£
FIRST GROUP :—
United States ....
13,367,465
25,121,533
+ 11,754,068
British India .
, ,
15,070,675
21,676,694
+ 6,606,019
Germany
.
13,638,192
12,688,799
- 949,393
Australasia .
11,997,080
11,775,044
- 222,036
France .
11,603,093
11,489,742
- 113,351
SECOND GROUP:—
Netherlands ....
7,084,803
6,941,100
- 143,703
Russia .
5,676,408
5,941,726
+ 265,318
Dominion of Canada
4,161,686
5,914,444
+ 1,752,758
Brazil .
4,055,020
5,046,094
+ 991,074
Belgium .
3,924,633
4,275,945
+ 351,312
Italy
3,860,880
3,913,570
+ 52,690
China
3,332,292
3,907,714
+ 575,422
Cape of Good Hope
3,303,713
3,624,540
+ 320,827
Turkey in Europe .
3,088,806
3,146,592
+ 57,786
Hong Kong .
2,161,692
2,923,783
+ 762.091
Spain
2,270,751
2,449,455
+ 178,704
THIRD GROUP:—
Japan .....
1,775,538
2,523,775
+ 748,237
Sweden and Norway
1,758,447
2,360,222
+ 601,775
Egypt .
1,540,944
2,2^14,336
+ 693,392
Argentine Confederation
1,506,823
1,708,273
+ 201,450
Straits Settlements .
1,429,121
1,617.734
+ 188,613
Portugal
1,470,575
1,557,578
+ 87,003
British West Indies
1,410,629
1,526,922
+ 116.293
Denmark
1,190,620
1,399,493
+ 208873
Java
1,203,029
■ 1,2'30,794
+ 27,765
i Spanish West Indies
: :
1,490,037
i
1,053,320
- 436,717
COMPARATIVE TABLES,
III.
XXXV
THE laiPORT MARKETS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM
IN 1879 AND 1880
• ^
, „ . , ^. , Nine months ended 30th Sept.
Increase (+), or
Imports into the United Kingdom ^ """ '
Diminution ( — ),
in 1S80, as com-
pared with 1879
ironi t orcign (countries Qnct
British Possessions
1879
1880
£
&
&
FIRST GROUP:—
United States
63,580,613
79,407,247
+
15,826,634 ,
France .
28,092,199
31,923,185
-t-
3,830,986
British India .
18,954,259
23,311,353
+
4,357,094
Australasia
19,836,543
22,257,840
+
2,421,297
Netherlands .
15,641,932
19,335,323
+
3,693,391
Germany
14,215,404
17,291,667
+
3,076,263
SECOND GROUP:—
Russia .....
9,826,877
12,172,175
+
2,345,298
Dominion of Canada
5,996,145
8,438,963
+
2,442,818
China .
7,522,632
8,390,149
+
867,517
Belgium .
7,678,628
8,335,237
+
656,609
Sweden and Norway
5,697,274
8,207,978
+
2,510,704
Spain
5,789,649
7,716,358
+
1,926,709
Egypt .
4,528,168
6,353,295
+
1,825,127
Brazil .
3,570,723
4,206,907
+
636,184
British West Indies
4,393,535
4,135,162
-
258,373
Denmark
3,504,915
3,950,776
+
445,861
THIRD GROUP :-
Cape of Good Hope
2,978,231
3,927,227
+
948,996
Ceylon .
3,236,753
2,870,203
-
366,550
Portugal
2,204,113
2,867,475
+
663,362
Chili .
2,448,252
2,799,551
+
351,299
Italy ....
2,406,032
2,517,793
+
111,761
Peru
2,868,036
2,115,388
-
752,648
Java
1,588,446
1,977,330
+
388,884
Turkey in Europe .
612,010
1,207,240
+
595,230
Austria .
1,221,098
960,322
-
260,776
Roumania
1,146,392
740,567
405,825
XXXVl
COMPARATIVE TABLES.
IV.
DENSITY OF POPULATION OF THE PKINCIPAL STATES
OF EUROPE.
States
Year of
Enumera-
tion
Area:
English
sq. miles
Population
Popn. per
square
mile
Belgium
1878
11,373
5,476,668
481
Gt. Britain & Ireland
1871
120,879
31,483,700
265
England and Wales .
„
58,320
22,712,266
389
Scotland .
„
30,685
3,360,018
109
Ireland .
„
31,874
5,411,416
169
Italy ....
1871
114,296
26,792,354
235
Germany
1875
212,091
42,727,360
201
Prussia .
„
137,066
25,742,404
187
Bavaria .
„
29,292
5,022,390
172
Wiirttemberg .
,,
7,675
1,881,505
245
Saxony
,,
6,777
2,760,586
407
Netherlands
1869
20,497
3,579,529
180
France
1876
204,092
37,405,793
183
Switzerland
1870
15,992
2,669,138
167
ArSTUIA-HuNGARY
1876
240,942
37,129,961
154
Austria .
,,
115,903
21,565,435
186
Hungary
,,
125,039
15,564,626
125
Denmark
1880
14,453
1,969,464
136
Eoumania
1878
48,307
5,290,000
109
Portugal
1878
36,510
4,048,551
111
Spain .
1877
182,750
16,625,860
90
Servia
1878
20,850
1,670.000
80
Greece
1879
19,941
1,679,775
84
Turkey in Europe
1878
62,028
4,275,000
68
Russian Empire .
1870
2,261,244
78,472,347
35
Sweden and Norway .
1
293,848
6,270,266
21 ,
Sweden .
1879
170,979
4,568,901
27
Norway .
1875
i
122,869
1,701,365
13
PART THE FIRST.
THE STATES OF EUROPE.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
(Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie.)
Reigning Emperor and King.
Franz Josef I., Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary, bom
August 18, 1830, the son of Archduke Franz Karl, second son of
the late Emperor Franz I. of Austria, and of Archduchess Sophie,
Princess of Bavaria. Proclaimed Emperor of Austria after the abdi-
cation of his uncle, Ferdinand I., and the renunciation of the
crown by his father, December 2, 1848; crowned King of Hun-
gary, and took the oath on the Hungarian Constitution, June 8,
1867. Married April 24, 1854, to Empress Elisabeth, born Decem-
ber 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria.
Children of the. Emperor.
I. Archduchess Gisela, hovn July 12, 1856; married April 20,
1873, to Prince Leopold, second son of Prince Luitpold of Bavaria,
born February 9, 1846 (see page 130).
II. Archduke Budolf, heir-apparent, colonel in the service of
Austria, born August 21, 1858; betrothed to Princess Stephanie,
second daughter of King Leopold II., of Belgium, March 1880.
III. Archduchess Maria Valeria, born April 22, 1868.
Brothers of the Emperor.
I. Archduke Karl Ludwig, field marshal-lieutenant in the
Imperial army, born July 30, 1833 ; married, in first nuptials, No-
vember 4, 1856, to Princess Margaret, born May 24, 1840, daughter
of the late King Juhann of Saxony; widower, September 15, 1858 ;
married, in second nuptials, October 21, 1862, to Princess Annun-
ciata, born March 24, 1843, daughter of the late King Ferdinando II.
of Naples; widower, May 4, 1871 ; married, in third nuptials, July
23, 1873, to Princess Maria, born August 24, 1855, daughter of the
late Prince Miguel of Braganza, Eegent of Portugal. Offspring of
the second and third unions are six children : — 1. Franz, born
December 18,1863. 2. Otto, born April 21, 1865. 3. Ferdinand,
born December 27, 1868. 4. Margaret, born May 13, 1870. 5.
Marie, born July 31, 1876. 6. Elizabeth, born July 7, 1878.
II. Archduke Ludwig, major-general in the Imperial arm}', bom
May 15, 1842.
b2
4 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Aunts of the Emperor.
I. Empress J. nna, born Sept. 19, 1803 ; married Feb. 27, 1831,.
to Archduke Ferdinand, subsequently, from March 2, 1835, to Dec.
2, 1848, Emperor Ferdinand IV.; widow, June 29, 1875.
II. Princess Maria Clementina, born March 1, 1798 ; married,
July 28, 1816, to Leopoldo, Prince of Salerno, royal Prince of
Naples; Avidow, March 10, 1851.
Consi7is of the Emperor.
I. Archduke Albrecht, born Aug. 3, 1817, son of the late Arch-
duke Karl, field-marshal-general ; field-marshal and commander-in-
chief of the army of the Empire, 1868-69; married, May 1, 1844,
to Princess Hildegarde of Bavaria, who died April 2, 1864. Off-
spring of the imion is one daughter, Maria Theresa, born July 15,
1845, and married, Jan. 18, 1865, to Prince Philipp of Wurttem-
berg (see page 138).
II. Archduchess Elisabeth, born Jan. 17, 1831 ; married, April
18, 1854, to Archduke iTarZ Ferdinand, brother of the preceding
Archduke Albrecht ; widow, November 20, 1874. Offspring of the
union are four children: — 1. Friedrich, born June 4, 1856, and
married Oct. 8, 1878, to Isabella, daughter of Duke Rudolf of Croy-
Diilmen, born Feb. 27, 1856. 2. Karl, born Sept. 5, 1860. 3.
Eugen Ferdinand, born May 21, 1863. 4. Marie Christina, born July
21, 1858; married Nov. 29, 1879, to Alfonso XII., King of Spain.
III. Archdulve Wilhelm, inspector-general of the artillery, boi'n
A.pril 21, 1827, brother of the two preceding ai-chdukes.
IV. Archduke Leopold, inspector-general of the Imperial corps of
engineers, born Jime 6, 1823, the son of Archduke Rainer, fifth
brother of the Emperor Franz I.
V. Archduke Ernst, commander of the 3rd corps d'armee, born
Aug. 8, 1824, brother of the preceding Archduke Leopold.
VI. Archduke Sigismund, commander of the 45th regiment of
Imperial iniimtry, born Jan. 7, 1826, brother of the two preceding
archdukes.
VII. Archdiike Rainer, administrator of the Imperial academy of
sciences, born Jan. 11, 1827, brother of the three preceding arch-
dukes; married, February 21, 1852, to Archduchess Marie Caro-
line, daughter of the late Archduke Karl of Austria.
VIII. Archduke Ileinrich, major-general in the Imperial army,
born May 9, 1828, brother of the four preceding archdukes;
married, Feb. 4, 1868, to Leopoldine Hoffmann, elevated Countess
Waldeck, born November 29, 1842.
Besides the above, there are nineteen other Archdukes and Arch-
duchesses of Austria, members of the formerly reigning branches of
Tuscany and of Modena. Head of both branches — since the death
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
of Archduke Francisco, ex-duke of Modena, October 20, 1875 — is
Archduke Ferdinand, born June 10, 1835, nominal Grand Duke of
Tuscany from July 21, 1859, to March 'I'i., 1860.
The Imperial family of Austria descend from Eudolf von Habs-
burg, a German Count, born 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the
Holy Roman Empire in 1276. The male line died out in 1740 with
Emperor Karl VI., whose only daughter, Maria Theresa, gave her
hand to Duke Franz of Tuscany, afterwards Kaiser Franz I. of
Germany, of the House of Lorraine, who tliereby became the founder
of the neAV line of Habsburg- Lorraine. Maria Theresa was suc-
ceeded, in 1780, by her son Joseph II., who, dying in 1790, left
the Crown to his brother Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his
son Franz I. ascended the throne, who reigned till 1835, and having
been married four times, left a large family, the members of which
and their descendants form the present Imperial House. Franz was
the first sovereign who assumed the title of Emperor, or ' Kaiser,' of
Austria, after having been compelled by Napoleon to renounce the
Imperial Crown of Germany, for more than five centiu-ies in the
Habsburg family. The assumption of the title of Kaiser of Austria
took place on August 11, 1804. Franz I. was succeeded by his son, the
Emperor Ferdinand IV., on whose abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the Crown
feU to his nephew the present Emperor-King Franz Josef I.
The present Emperor-King has a civil list of 9,300,000 florins,
or 930,000/. : one moiety of this .sum, 4,650,000 florins, or 465,000/.,
is paid to him as Emperor of Austria, out of the revenue of German-
Austria, and the other moiety as King of Hungary, out of the
revenue of Hungary.
The following is a hst of the sovereigns of Austria-Hungary, from
the date of the conquest of the Duchy of Austria by Rudolf of
Habsburg, founder of the dynasty : —
House of Habshiirg.
Eudolf 1 1282 Matthias .... 1611
Ferdinand II 1619
Ferdinand III. . . .1637
Leopold I. . . . . 1657
Joseph I. . . . .1705
Karl II 1711
*Maria Theresa . . . 17-10
House of Habsbv.rcf-Lorraine.
Joseph II 1780
Leopold II 1799
Franz I. (Franz II. of Ger-
many) . . . .1792
^-Ferdinand IV. . . . 1835
*Franz Josef I. . . . 1848
Albert 1 1291
*Friedi-ieh UI. . . . 1308
*AlbertII 1313
*Kudolf II 1358
*Albert III 1365
*AlbertIV 1395
Albert V. (Albert n. of Germany) 1404
Friedrich IV. (Friedrich III. of
Germany) ....
Maximilian I. .
Karl I. (Karl V. of Germany)
Ferdinand I
Maximilian II. . . .
Eudolf ni. (Eudolf n. of Ger-
many) . ..
1439
1498
1519
1556
1564
1576
6 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The average reign of the above twenty-six sovereigns of the House
of Habsburg, who rvtled over Austria for nearly six centuries — filling
likewise, Avith the exception of those marked by an asterisk, the throne
of Germany (see page 94), and crowned Kings of Hungary since
Ferdinand I. — comprises a term of twenty-two years.
Constitution and Government.
Since the year 1867, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy forms a
bipartite state, consisting of a German, or ' Cisleithan,' monarchy,
and a Magyar, or ' Transleithan,' kingdom, the former officially
designated as Austria, and the latter as Hungary. Each of the two
countries has its own parliament, ministers, and government, while
the connecting ties between them consist in the person of the
hereditary sovereign, in a common army, navy, and diplomacy, and
in a controlling body kno^^^l as the Delegations. The Delegations
form a parliament of 120 members, one-half of wdiom are chosen by
and represent the legislature of Austria, and the other half that of
Hungary, the Upper House of each returning 20, and the Lower
House 40 delegates. On subjects affecting the common affairs
(Gemeinsame Angelegenheiten), the Delegations have a decisive
vote and their resolutions require neither the confirmation nor
approbation of the representative assemblies in which they have
their source. The ordinary mode of procedure for the Delegations
is to sit and vote in two chambers, the 60 deputies of Austria Proper
forming the one, and the 60 of Hungary the other. But it is j)ro-
vided that if no agreement can he arrived at in this manner, the two
bodies must meet together, and, without further debate, gi^'e their
final vote, which is binding for the whole Empire. The jurisdiction
of the Delegations is limited to Foreign Affairs and War. Each of
these has its owb executive department, the finances of the two
being in charge of a third. The departments thus formed are : —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and of the Imperial House for
the Whole Empire. — Baron von Haymerle, born at Vienna, Decem-
ber 7, 1828 ; entered the diplomatic service, 1850 ; Minister pleni-
potentiary at Athens, 1867-69, and at the Hague, 1869-73 ; Under-
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1874-76; Representative of
Austria-Hungary at the Congress of Vienna, 1878; Ambassador at
Rome 1877-79. Appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and of the
Imperial House for the Whole Empire, October 8, 1879.
2. The Ministry of War for the Whole Empire. — Lieutenant Field-
Marshal Count Bi/landt-Rhei/dt ; President of the Technical Com-
mittee in the Administration of the Army, 1870-76 ; appointed
Minister of War for the Whole Empire, June 21, 1876.
3. The Ministry of Finance for the Whole Empire. — Baron
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 7
Josei von Szlavy, horn at Eaab, Hungary, 1818; educated at the
Theresianum school, Vienna, for the career of engineer, 1830-35 ;
took part in the Hungarian revolution under Kossuth, 1848-9, and
condemned to five years' imprisonment, but early pardoned. Appointed
Minister of Finance for the Whole Empire, April 15, 1880.
The above ministers are responsible for the discharge of their
ofScial functions to the Delegations.
German- Austria, or AustiHa Proper.
The first constitution of Austria, called also ' Cisleitliania,'
originated in an Imperial diploma, dated Oct. 20, 1860, followed by
an ordinance, or 'Patent,' of February 26, 1861. These decrees
laid the basis of a Charter, which, after a suspension from 1865
to 1867, was put in force in December, 1867, with modifica-
tions rendered necessary by the recognition of the independence
of Hungary. The main features of this Constitution are a double
Legislature, consisting, first, of the Provincial Diets, representing-
the various states of the monarchy, and secondly, a Central
Diet, called the Reichsrath, or Coimcil of the Empire. There
are seventeen Provincial Diets, namely, for Bohemia, Dalmatia
Galicia, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia
Carniola, Bukowina, Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Gorizia,
Istria, and Trieste. The Diets of all these provinces are formed in
nearly the same manner, only differing in the number of deputies.
Each consists of only one assembly, composed, 1st, of the archbishop
and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Oriental Greek churches and
the chancellors of imiversities ; 2nd, of the representatives of o-reat
estates, elected by all landowners paying not less than 100 florins
or 10^., taxes; 3rd, of the representatives of towns, elected by
those citizens who possess municipal rights ; 4th, of the representa-
tives of boards of commerce and trade-guilds, chosen by the respec-
tive members ; and 5th, of the representatives of riu-al communes
elected by deputies called ' Wahlmiinner,' retui-ned by all inhabitants
who pay a small amount of direct taxation. The Provincial Diets
are competent to make laws concerning local administration, particu-
larly those affecting county taxation, the cultivation of the soil
educational, chui-ch and charitable institutions, and public works.
The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Empire
consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House
(Herrenhaus) is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family
who are of age, thirteen in number in 1880 ; 2nd, of a number
of nobles — fifty-four in the present Reichsrath — possessino- laro-e
landed property, in whose families the dignity is hereditary-
3rd, of the archbishops, ten in number, and bishops, seven in
number, who are of princely title, inherent to their episcopal
8 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
seat; and 4th, of any other hfe-members nominated by the
emperor, on accoTint of being distinguished in art or science, or
who have rendered signal services to Church or State — one
hundred and four in 1880. The Lower House (Abgeordnetenhaus)
consists, under a law passed April 2, 1873, of 353 members, elected
by the direct vote of all citizens who are of age and possessed of a
small property qualification. Tiie constituencies which elect the
representatives for the Austiuan Reichsrath are divided into four
classes. These are, first, the rural districts, where the peasantry and
small landholders are the electors ; secondly, the towns ; third, the
chambers of commerce in the cities and large towns; and fourth,
the large landed proprietors. The elections are not held simul-
taneously, but at dates varying for each province, according to the
discretion of the Government. The duration of the Lower House of
the Eeichsrath is for the term of six years. In case of dissolution, new
elections must take place within six months. The emperor nominates
the presidents and vi ce-presidents of both Chambers of the Eeichsrath,
the remaining functionaries being chosen by the members of the two
Houses. It is incumbent upon the head of the State to assemble the
Eeichsrath annually. The rights which, in consequence of the diploma
of Oct.20, 1860, and the ' Patent ' ofFeb. 26, 1861, are conferred upon
the Eeichsrath, are as follows: — 1st, Consent to aU laws relating to
military duty ; 2nd, Co-operatinn in the legislature on trade and com-
merce, customs, banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters; 3rd,
Examination of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the
State ; of the bills on taxation, public loans,and conversion of the funds;
and general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills passed
by the Eeichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as Avell as
the sanction of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper
and the Lower House have the right to propose new laws on subjects
within the competence of the Eeichsi'ath.
The executive of Avistria Proper consists of the following eight
departments : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Coimt Edward Taaffe, born at
Vienna, February 23, 1833 ; entered the State service, 1857 ; Pro-
vincial Governor of Salzburg, 1863-67 ; Minister of the Interior,
1867-70; Provincial Governor of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 1871-79.
Appointed Minister of the Interior and President of the Austrian
Council of Ministers, August 19, 1879.
2. The Ministry of Public Education, Justice, and Ecclesiastical
Affairs. — Baron S. Conrad D'Ei/besfeld, formerly Governor of tlie
province of Lower Atistria. Appointed Minister of Public Education,
Justice, and Ecclesiastical Affairs, February 17, 1880.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Privy Councillor Dr. J. Dunajeivski.
Appointed Minister of Finance, June 26, 1880.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 9
4. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Count Julius Falkenhai/n, born
at Vienna, February 20, 1829; entered the army 1848, and retired
1858 ; editor of the journal ' Vaterland,' 1859-76. Appointed
Minister of Agriculture, August 19, 1879.
5. The Ministry of Commerce. — Chevalier A. Kermer (TAuenrode.
Appointed Minister of Commerce, June 26, 1880.
6. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung). —
Major-General Count S. Von Welsersheimb. Appointed Minister of
National Defence, June 25, 1880.
Besides the six ministers, heads of departments, there are two
^ ministers without portfolio,' taking part in the deliberations of the
cabinet, but not exercising special fanctions.
The responsibility of ministers for acts committed in the discharge
of their official fimctions Avas established by a bill which passed the
Reichsrath in July, 1867, and received the sanction of the emperor
on the 21st of December, 1870.
Hungary.
The constitution of the eastern part of the Empire, or the Kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia, Slavonia, and Tran-
sylvania, dates from the foundation of the kingdom, about 895.
There exists no charter, or constitutional code, but in place of it
are fimdamental statutes, published at long intervals of time. The
principal of them, the ' Bulla Aurea ' of King Andrew II., was
granted in 1222, and defined the form of Government as an Aristo-
cratic IMonarchy. The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly
suspended and partially disregarded, until, at the end of the armed
struggle of 1 849, it was decreed to be forfeited by the rebellion of
the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860 ; and the present
sovereign, on the 8th of June 1867, swore to maintain the Consti-
tution, and was croAvned King of Hungary.
The legislative power rests conjointly in the King and the
Diet, or Eeichstag. The latter consists of an Upper and a Lower
House, the first known as the House of Magnates, and the second
as the House of Representatives. The House of Magnates was
composed, in the session of 1879, of 705 members, namely 3 Princes
of the reigning house ; 48 Archbishops and Bishops of the Roman
Catholic and Greek churches; 652 Peers and dignitaries of Hun-
gary ; and 2 deputies of Croatia.
The Lower House, or House of Representatives of Hungary, is com-
posed of representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all
citizens, of full age, who pay direct taxes to the amount of eight
gulden, or 16s., per annum. No distinction is made, either as regards
10 THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
electors or representatives, on account of race or religion. New
elections mnst take place every three years. By the electoral law
in force in the session of 1880, the House of Representatives con-
sisted of 445 members, of whom 411 were deputies of Hungarian
towns and districts, and 34 delegates of Croatia and Slavonia.
The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry,
consisting of a president and nine departments, namely : —
The Presidency of the Council. — Colomann Tisza de Boros-Yeno ;
appointed President of the Council of Ministers, February 25, 1877.
1. The Ministry of Finance. — Count Gyula Szapary, appointed
December G, 1878.
2. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigmig). —
Bela Szende de Keresztes, appointed February 26, 1877.
3. The Ministry near the King's person {cid latns). — Baron
Bela d'Orczy ; appointed August 12, 1879.
4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Colomann Tisza de Boros-Yeno,
President of the Council ; appointed December 6, 1878.
5. The Ministry of Education and of Public Worship. — Dr.
August de Trefort, appointed February 2G, 1877.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Theodor Fauler, Minister of
Justice, 1872-75 ; re-appointed December G, 1878.
7. The Ministry of Communications and Public Works. —
Thomas Pechy de Pecs-Ujfalu, appointed February 26, 1877.
8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. — Baron
de Kemeiiy^ appointed December 6, 1878.
9. The Ministry for Croatia and Slavonia. — Count de Bedekovich,
appointed February 26, 1877.
The sovereign of Hungary, though acknowledged Emperor of
Austria-Hungary, is styled ' King' in all public acts.
Church and Education.
The State religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, but there is
complete toleration for all dissenters from it, of whatever form of
belief. According to the returns of the last census, rather more
than 66 per cent, of the inhabitants of the Empire are Roman
Catholics, while of the remainder 11 per cent, are Greek Catholics;
10 per cent. Evangelical Protestants, and 9 per cent. Byzantine
Greeks. The following table shows the numbers, in thousands, of
the various religious denominations, and the relative percentage of
each, in Austria and in Hungary, as well as in the whole Empire.
AUSTEIA-HUNaARY.
II
Austria Hungary
Whole Empire
Numbers
in 000
percent.
Numbers
in 000
percent, j^^ ^^q^
percent.
Roman Catholics .
Greek Catholics .
Evangl. Protestants
Byzantine Greeks
Jews
Unitarians . . .
Catholic Armenians
Other Sects . .
15,766
2,303
351
490
683
4
6
80-4
11-7
1-7
2-5
3-5
0-2
7,502
1,588
3,133
2,579
552
54
5
3
48-6
10-2
20-4
16-7
3-6
0-3
0-1
0-1
23,265
3,861
3,495
3,166
1,121
55
'I
66-4
11-0
10-0
9-0
3-2
0-2
0-1
0-1
Total . .
19,603
100
15,416 j 100
34,984
100
The ecclesiastical hierarchy of Austria comprises 11 Koman
Catholic archbishops — of Vienna, Salzbitrg, Gorz, Prag, OlniUtz,,
Lemberg, Zara, Gran, Erlau, Kalocsa, and Agram ; 2 Greek
Catholic archbishops — at Lemberg and Blasendorf ; 1 Greek Byzan-
tine archbishop, and 1 Catholic Armenian archbishop. The Roman
Catholic Chvirch has farther 57 bishops, with chapters and consistories,
and 43 abbots of ancient endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria,
Illyria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Hungary has 22 abbots with endow-
ments, 124 titular abbots, 41 endowed, 29 titular prebendaries,
and 3 college foundations. Transylvania has 3 titular abbots,
and upwards of 150 monasteries and convents; and Galicia 70
monasteries. The Greek United Church has 1 archbishop and
1 bishop in Galicia, and 5 bishops in Himgary. The Armenian
Catholic Church has an archbishop at Lemberg. The Archbishop of
Carlowitz is head of the Greek Church, Avith 10 bishops and 60
protopopas, or deans. Very extensive powers, secured by a special
Concordate with the Pontifical government, were formerly possessed
by the Roman Catholic clergy in Cisleithan Austria, but the whole of
these were swept away in 1867 and 1868, by a series of laws enacted
by the Reichsrath, the last and most important of which — passed in
April 1868 — estabhshed civil marriage, and the perfect equality of
all religious creeds.
The extent of landed property in Austria belonging to the Roman
Catholic Church is very considerable. Thoi;gh reduced in number
within the last half century, there are still nearly 300 abbeys, and
above 500 convents in the Empire. The Protestants have no churches
endowed by the state, the clergy being chosen and supported by
their congregations.
Education until very recently was in a greatly backward state in
Austria, the bulk of the agricultural population, constituting two-
thirds of the inhabitants of the Empire, being abnost entirely illite-
12
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
rate. Dimng the last twenty years, however, vigorous efforts have
been made to bring about an improvement, by founding schools,
and appointing teachers, partly at the expense of communes, and
partly, but less, at that of the state. It was enacted by a series
of decrees issued in the years 1848 and 1849, that education should
be general and compulsory, and the principle, though not adhered
to in Transleithan Austria, nor in those parts of Cisleithan Austria
inhabited by people belonging to the Slavonian race, was fully
carried out among the Germanic population of the Empire. In the
major part of German Austria, the law enforces the compulsory
attendance in the ' Volks-schulen,' or National Schools, of all
children between the ages of six and twelve, and parents are liable
to punishment for neglect. The cost of public education mainly
falls on the communes, but of late years the state has come forward
to assist in the establishment of schools for primary education.
There are eight universities in the Empire, at Vienna, Prague,
Pesth, Graz, Innsbruck, Cracow, Czernowitz, and Lemberg. In the
summer of 1879, the university of Vienna had 24G teachers and 3,975
students; the university of Pesth 127 teachers and 1,979 students;
and the university of Prague 129 teachers and 1,592 students. None
of the other universities, at the same period, had over 800 students.
Revenue and Expenditure.
In accordance with the political constitution of the Austrian
Empire, which recognises three distinct parliaments, there are also
three distinct budgets : the first, that of the Delegations, for the
whole Empire ; the second, that of the Reichsrath, for Austria ; and
tlie third, that of the Himgarian diet, for the kingdom of Hungary.
By an agreement, or so-called ' Compromise,' entered into, in Feb-
ruary 1868, between the governments and legislatures of Austria
and Hungary, the former has to pay seventy and the latter thii'ty per
cent, towards the ' common expenditure of the Empire,' not includ-
ing the interest of the national debt.
The Whole Empire.
The budget estimates for the * common affairs of the Empire,'
were as follows for the year 1880 : —
Sources of Dii-ect Bevenue
Florins
£
Ministry of Foreign AfiFairs
I Ministry of War . . \ ^^^ \
i Ministry of Finance ....
Board of Control
4,159,490
123,653,060
8,709,780
889,550
125,500
415,949
12,365,306
870,978
88,955
12,550
1 - Total .
137,537,380
13,753,738
AUSTKIA-HUNGARY.
13
Branches of Expenditure
Florins | £
Ministry of Foreign Aflfairs .
Ministry of War . . { '^^^^ j
Ministry of Finance ....
Board of Control
Total .
4,159,490 415,949
129,312,420 |j 12,931,242
1,889.550 1 188.955
125,500 ! 12,550
135,486,960 | 13,548,696
Not included in the sources of direct revenue, given in the first
table, is the surplus from customs, apportioned to meet the expen-
diture for the common affairs of the Empire. The receipts were
set down at 11,000,000 florins, or 1,100,000Z., in the budget for
1879. The receipts from all other sources amounted as will be
seen to 4,699,296 florins, or 469,929Z. After deducting the special
receipts of the common ministries and the surplus of the customs
revenue, in all 15,699,296 florins, or 1,569,92!'/., there remained a
sum of 98,031,871 florins, or 9,803,187/., to be provided for, of
which 70 per cent, by Austria and 30 per cent, by Hungary.
In the financial accoimts for the year 1879, the ordinary expen-
diture was estimated at 169,896,751 florins, or 16,989,675Z., and
the extraordinary expenditure at 22,688,393 florins, or 2,268,839Z.,
being a total of 192,565,144 florins, or 19,258,514/. The direct
receipts, fi-om customs, amounted, in 1880, to 97,331,364 florins,
or 9,733,136/., and from other sovirces to 5,815,125 florins, or
581,512/., leaving a deficit of 89,438,655 florins, or 8,943,865/., to
be covered by contributions from Austria Proper to the amount of
59,625,720 florins, or 5,962,577/., and from Hungary to the amount
of 29,812,885 florins, or 2,981,288/.
Austria Proper.
The accounts of actual revenue and expenditure of Austria Proper
are only published after the lapse of a number of years, and are very
intricate. They show generally large deficits, and, in recent years,
a growing expenditure. The budget estimates of revenue and expen-
diture were as follows in the eight years from 1873 to 1880 : —
Tears
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1873
39.367,769
38,992,929
1874
38,980,000
38,730,000
1875
37,308,989
38.223,104
1876
37,894,194
40,386,987
1877
37,663.781
40,556,947
1878
39,979,516
42,312,170 1
1879
39,256,514
47,116,365 1
1880
39,999,577
41,271,291
H
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The principal sources of revenue were given as follows in the
financial estimates for the year 1880 : —
Sources of Revenue
Florins
£
Birect taxes
91,860,000
9,186,000
Customs' duties
28,232,500
2,823,250
Salt monopoly
19,396,000
1,939,600
Tobacco monopoly
59,070,000
5,907,000
Stamps ....
17,300,000
1,730,000
Judicial fees
31,900,000
3,190,000
State lottery
20,200,000
2,020,000
Excise (Verzehrungsteuer) .
59,937,000
5,993,700
State domains and railways
5,642,941
564,294
Post and telegraphs
3,263,000
326,300
MisceUaneous receipts
45,967,503
4,596,750
Total revenue of 18
80 .
382,768,944
38,276,894
The principal branches of expenditure were given as folio ws in the
budget estimates for the year 1880 : —
Branches of Expenditure
Florins
£
465,000
Imperial household
4,650,000
Imperial Cabinet Chancery
69,492
6,949
Reiehsrath ......
725,165
72,516
Council of Ministers ....
880,620
88,062
Ministry of the Interior ....
16,924,469
1,692.446
„ National Defence .
8,368,087
836,808
,, Public Education and Worship
16,010,583
1,601,058
„ Agriculture
10,291,480
1,029,148
,, Finance ....
84,780,698
8,478,069
„ Justice ....
20,392,970
2,039,297
„ Commerce ....
23,630,746
2,363,074
Board of Control
153,000
15,300
Interest on public debt ....
112,935,074
11,293,507
Pensions and grants
38,880,888
3,888,088
Cisleithan portion of the Common Expen-
diture of the Empire, including War
and Foreign Affairs ....
Total expenditure of 1880 .
73,130,642
7,313,064
411,823,914
41,182,391
To the total expenditure for the year 1880, there was added
the cost of occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, estimated at
8,045,000 florins, or 804,500/.
The largest branch of expenditure, as will be seen from the above
table, is the interest on the public debt, the burthen of which falls
mainly on tlie Cisleithan part of the monarchy. This debt has grown
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
15
up gradually since the middle of the last century. It amounted
in 1789, to 349,000,000 florins, or 34,900,000/., and had risen
to 825,000,000 florins, or 82,500,000/., in 1815; to 987,000,000
florins, or 98,700,000/., in 1820; to 1,084,000,000 florins, or
108,400,000/., in 1830; to 1,250,000,000 florins, or 125,000,000/.,
in 1848; and to 3,009,804,134 florins, or 300,980,413/., in 1868.
The war against Prussia and Italy, in the summer of 1866, in-
creased the public debt by about 300,000,000 florins, or 30,000,000/. ;
but, on the other hand, fi'eed Austria from the Lombardo-Venetian
Debt, which, by the terms of the Peace of Prague, of August 23,
1866, was transferred to the kingdom of Italy.
The following table gives the total amount of the public debt of
Austria — including the debt of the Whole Empire, but exclusive of
the special debt of Hungary — on the 1st of July 1879 : —
Consolidated debt — bearing interest
„ „ without interest
Floating debt .....
Annuities ......
Total.
Florins
£
2,781,668.095
122,569,953
82,167,342
905,238
278,166,809
12,256,995
8,216,734
90,523
2,987,310,628 j 298,731,061
The last addition to the Consolidated Debt of Austria Proper, made
in 1877, was a foreign loan of 70,000,000 florins, or 7,000,000/.,
contracted with the Anglo- Austrian Bank of London, the Wiener
Bankverein of Vienna, and the Banque de Paris et des Pays Bas
of Paris.
Recent deficits were mainly covered by a floating debt, bearing
interest in paper money, not inserted in the preceding statement.
In a return issued at the end of June 1876, the floating debt was
estimated at 441,808,419 florins, or 44,180,841/., the total com-
prising 79,944,007 florins, or 7,994,400/. of hypothecary notes, and
361,864,412 florins, or 36,186,441/. of bank notes. At the end of
October 1879, the total amount of the floating debt was pstimated,
after official statements, at 670,000.000 florins, or 67,000,000/.
The total annual interest on the debt amounted, in 1879, to
113,296,080 florins, or ] 1,329,608/. To this sum, Hungary had
to contribute 30,175,277 florins, or 3,017,527/., according to an
agreement come to in May 1868 by the Delegations and the go-
vernments of the Austrian and Hungarian parts of the monarchy,
by which the latter has to pay 30 per cent, towards the charges
of the common debt. The agreement was renewed with some
modifications in 1877. Subsequent to May 1868, all loans were
contracted separately by either Austria or Hungary.
i6
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Hungary.
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure of Hungary
were as follows in each of the eight years from 1873 to 1880 :
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
&
£
1873
15,913,653
19,712,652
1874
24,402,790
25,673,382
1875
21,213,850
22,746,415
1876
22,542,468
24.074,205
1877
21,833,949
23.341,042
1878
21,984,611
23,936,143
1879
22,220,860
25,643,638
1880
23.635,029
25,366,966
The financial estimates for the year 1880 gave the sources of re-
venue and branches of expenditure as follows : —
Sources of Revenue Florins | £
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes and monopolies .
State domains, mines, and railways .
Post and telegraphs
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Total revenue of 1880
84,600.000
83,750,000
21,110,000
9,600,000
24,135,029
8,450,000
8,375,000
2,111,000
960,000
2,413,502
223,095,029
22,309,602
1 Branches of Expenditure
Florins
£
Royal Household .....
4,650,000
465,000
Royal Cabinet Chancery
72,514
7,251
Diet of the Kingdom ....
1,408,677
140,867
Ministry ' ad latus ' . . . .
52,000
5,200
„ of Finance ....
39,950,150
3,995,015
„ „ the Interior
8.500,000
850,000
„ „ Education and Worship
4,713,180
471,318
,, „ Justice ....
9,985,300
998,530
„ Public Works .
14,313,000
1,431,300
,, „ Agricultiire and Commerce .
11,152,615
1,115,261
Public Debt and Pensions
116,928,732
11,692,873
Guaranteed Interest to Private Railways .
19,000,000
1,900,000
Transleithan Portion of the Common Ex-
penditure of the Empire
Total expenditure for 1880 .
62,523,160
6,252,316
293,249.328
29,324,932
The accounts of actual revenue and expenditure since the year
1867 showed large and annuaUy increasing deficits, which gave rise
to the creation of a vast special debt of Hungary. It amounted, at
the end of December 1878, to 434,000,000 fiorins, or 43,400,OOOL
The debt consists of six foreign loans, the first, for 60,000,000
florins, or 6,000,000/., contracted, in 1868 ; the second, of 24,000,000
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
17
florins, or 2,400,000/., issued in 1870 ; the third, of 40,000,000
florins, or 4,000,000/., contracted in 1872 ; the fourth, for
150,000,000 florins, or 15,000,000/., issued in 1873-74; the fifth, for
80,000,000 florins, or 8,000,000/. ; and the sixth, also of 80,000,000
florins, or 8,000,000/., issued in 1877-78.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
According to the returns of the Minister of War for the whole
Empire, the monarchy Austria possessed, at the commencement of
1880, a standing army numbering 239,615 men on the peace-footing,
and 771,556 on the war-footing, composed as follows: —
Description of Troops
Number
Peace
footing
Infantry :■ —
80 regiments of the line, each composed of 3 field
battalions, 2 reserve, and 1 depot battalion
14 Military frontier regiments; 6 of 3, and 8 of ^
battalions ......
1 regiment of ' Kaiser-jjiger,' of Tyrol, and 33 bat
talions of ' Feld-jager ' .
12 companies of ambulance and hospital service
Cavalry:— Total of infantry .
14 regiments of dragoons, 12 heavy, and 2 light
14 regiments of hussars ; and 2 of lancers
Artillery : — Total of cavalry .
12 regiments of field-artillery, each of 14 batteries
of 8 pieces ......
14 battalions of fortress and mountain artillery
j^ . 7 rr. • Total of artillery .
Engineers and Irain : — •"
2 regiments of ' Genie,' each of 4 battalions .
1 regiment of pioneers, of 5 battalions ,
54 squadrons of ' Fuhrwesen,' or train .
Total of engineers and train .
Miscellaneous Establishments : —
Military instruction ....
Topographical survey ....
Commissariat and clothing departments .
Sanitary department ....
Arsenals, military stores, and buildings .
Army studs ......
Military police and gensdarmes
Total of miscellaneous establishments
Total standing army
110,702
12,307
20,251
1,180
144,440
35,793
17,880
7,778
25,658
4,662
War
footing
458,930
53,823
54,463
3,876
571,092
58,794
43,836
18,938
62,774
13,240
2,803
2,401
7,747
24,147
9,866
45,134
2,234
2,234
128
128
3.705
7,200
1,291
6,200
3,000
4,500
5,800
5,800
7,700
7,700
23,858
33,762
239,615
771,556
1 8 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The general staff of the army on active service, in June 1879,
comprised 2 field-marshals, 23 generals of infantry (Feldzeug-
meister) and generals of cavalry; 56 generals of division, and 110
generals of brigade. There were besides, on. the non-active list,
7 generals of infantry and generals of cavalry, SI generals of
division, and 188 generals of brigade.
By the terms of the ' Compromise ' come to Ijetween Austria and
Hungai-y, on which was based a law of army organisation, passed
December 5, 1868, the military forces of the whole Empire are
divided into the Standing army, the Landwehr, or militia, and
the Landsturm. Under the law of 1868, the total strength of the
armed forces, including marine troops, is fixed, for a term of ten
years, at 800,000 men, to which number Austria Proper has to
contribute 470,368, and Hungary 319,632 men. The regiments of
tlie Standing army are under the control of the Minister of War of
the Empire, and the Landwehr under the control of the Austrian
and Hungarian Ministers of Landesvertheidigung. All orders relating
to great concentrating movements of troops must emanate from the
Emperor-King.
The Standing army is formed, after the model of Prussia, on
the system of universal liability to arms. The term of service is
ten years, three of which the soldier must spend in active service,
after which he is enrolled for the remaining seven years in the ai'my
of reserve, with further liability to serve two years in the Landwehr.
Austria-Hungaiy has 25 fortresses of the first rank, namely,
Comorn, Carlsburg, Temesvar, Peterwardein, Eszek, Brod, Carlstadt,
Castelnuovo, Arad, Munkacs, Cracow, Gradisca, Olmtitz, Leopold -
stadt, Prague, Brixen, Theresienstadt, Kufstein, Linz, SalzlDurg,
Buda, Ragusa, Zara, Cattaro, and Pola. The last-named is the chief
naval fortress of the empire. — (Official Communication.)
2. Navy.
The naval forces of Austria-Hungary consisted, at the end of
the year 1879, of 14 ironclads, and 37 other steamers, the majority of
the latter of small dimensions, constructed chiefly for coast defence.
There were, besides, at the same date, 10 sailing ships. The follow-
ing table gives the list of the 14 armour-clad ship.s, in similar arrange-
ment as that describing the British ironclad navy. The columns of
the table exhibit, after the name of each vessel, first, the thickness
of armour at the water-line ; secondly, the number and weight oi
guns; thirdly, the indicated horse-power of the engines; and
fourthly, the tonnage, that is, the displacement in tons. Two partly
armoured frigates, called the Radetzky and Laudon, built on the
composite system, are not included in the list.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
19
Ai-moiir
Guns
Indicated
Displaee-
Names of Ironclads
thickness at
Horse-
ment, or
water-line
Number
Weight
power
tonnage
Fh'sf -class : —
Inches
1
Tons.
Custozza .
H
8
18-ton
6,000
7,060 .,
Tegethoff.
13
6
2o-tx3n
8,000
7,390
Erzherzog Albrecht .
8i
8
18-ton
4,300
5,940
Lissa
6i
12
12-ton
3,550
6,080
K.-iiser
6i
10
18-ton
3,550
5,810
Ferdinand Max
5
14
10 -ton
2,902
5,140
Habsburg
5
14
10-ton
2,902
5,140
Kaiser Max
4i
12
61-ton
1,710
5,140
Don Juan d'Anstria .
4i
12
6i-ton
1,710
3.550
Prinz Eugen .
44
12
6 4 -ton
1,710
3,550
Second-cJass : —
Salamander
4|
10
ex-ton
1,418
3,110
Third-class : —
Leitha
n
2
45-ton
314
310
Maros
H
2
4^- ton
314
310
The tea ironclads of the first class are sea-going cruisers, while
the two of the second class are used for ordinary station service, and
the two of the third class for coast defence. The Custozza^ first in
the list of sea-going cruisers, launched in 1872, is a broadside iron-
clad, 302 feet in length, and 58 feet in extreme breadth, armed
Avith Krupp guns. Likewise a broadside ship, but with an armoured
citadel, and addition of the latest improvements, is the second iron-
clad, the Terjefhoff, 287 feet long, and 71 feet broad. The Tegethoff,
constructed in 1876-78 at the ' Stabilimento Technico,' Trieste,
having a belt of steel 13 inches thick, and armed with six 11-inch
Krupp guns, weighing 25 tons, is considered the strongest ironclad
for aggressive warfare. The ship third in the list, the Erzherzog
Albrecht^ launched in 1872, is 275 feet in length, and 54 in extreme
breadth, also armed with Krupp guns.
The navy of Austria was commanded in June 1880, by 1 ad-
miral, 2 vice-admirals, 5 rear-admirals, 16 captains of ships-of-the-
line, 17 captains of frigates, 18 captains of corvettes, 117 lieu-
tenants, and 232 ensigns and cadets, and manned by 5,771 sailors.
The navy is recruited partly by a general levy from the seafaring
population of the empire and partly by voluntary enlistment. The
term of service in the navy is eight years.
Austria has two harbours of war, Pola and Trieste. Pola, the
chief naval port, is strongly fortified, both towards sea and land,
and has been recently enlarged, so as to be able to accommodate
the entire fleet, while Trieste is the great storehouse and arsenal of
the Imperial navy. — (Official Communication.)
c 2
20
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Area and Population.
The Austrian Empire — exclusive of the Turkish provinces an-
nexed in 1878, but as yet not formally incorporated with it — extends
over an area of 240,943 English square miles, on Avhich lived, at the
date of the last census, taken December 31, 1869, a population of
35,904,435, or 159 per English square mile. According to official esti-
mates, based upon the returns of births and deaths, the total popula-
tion of the Empire had risen to 37,129,968 on December 31, 1876.
The following table gives the area, and total number of inhabi-
tants, of the various provinces of the Empire, distinguishing its two
great political divisions, the German monarchy, and the Hungarian
kingdom, after the retui'ns of the census of December 31, 1869,.
and the official estimates for December 31, 1876 : —
Area :
Population
Provinces of the Empire
English
square miles
Dec. 31,1869
Dec. 31, 1876
German Monarchy : —
Lower Anstria (Unter der Ens)
7,654
1,990,708
2,143,928
Upper Austria (Ober der Ens)
4,631
736.557
746,097
Salzburg
2,767
153,159
154,184
Styria (Steiermark)
8,670
1,137,990
1,178,067
Carinthia (Karnten)
4,005
337,694
338,705
Carniola (Krain) ....
3,856
446,334
469,996
Coast land (Kiistenland)
Tyrol and Vorarlborg .
3,084
600,525
622,899
11,324
885,789
895,653
Bohemia (Bohmen)
20,060
5,140,544
5.361,506
Moravia (Mahren)
8,583
2,017,274
2,079,826 1
Silesia (Schlesien)
1,987
513,352
558,196
Galicia (Galizien)
30,307
5,444,683
6,000,326
Bukowina .....
4,035
513,404
548,518
Dalmatia (Dalmatieii) .
Total, German Monarchy
Kingdom of Hungary: —
4,940
115,903
456,961
467,534 '
1
20,374,974
21,565,435 '
t
Hungary
87,043
11,530,397
11,532,810 j
Croatia and Slavonia .
16,773
1,846,150
1,821,913 1
Transylvania (Siebenburgen)
21,215
2,115,024
2,191,632
Town of Fiume ....
Total, Hungary
Total, Austria-Hungary
8
17,844
18,171
125,039
15,509,415
15,564,526
240,942
35,884,389
37,129,967
It was decided at the Congress of Berlin, by Art. 23 of the Treatj-
signed July 13, 1878, that ' the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina
shall be occupied and administered by Austria-Hungary,' which de-
cision was carried out in the course of the year. The occupation of
these formerly Turkish provinces added a territory of 24,247 Engl.
square miles, with ^1,212,172 inhabitants, to the Austro-Hungarian
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
21
Empire. According to a census taken on June 16, 1879, these new
provinces had the following area and population : —
ProTinces
Area : Population,
English square miles 1879
Bosnia
Herzegovina
Novi-Bazar
Total
16,417 862,202
4,308 207,970
3,522 142,000
24,247 1,212,172
Of the total number of inhabitants in Bosnia and Herzegovina
448,613 are Mahommedans, 496,761 Greek- Orthodox, 209,391
Eoman Catholics, 3,426 are Jews, and the rest belong to different faiths.
Practically belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, though
not incorporated with it by any treaty, is the small principality of
Liechtenstein, enclosed in the Austrian province of Tyrol and
Vorarlberg, with an area of 68 English square miles, and a popula-
tion of 8,320 in 1871. The inhabitants of the jmncipality pay no
taxes, nor are they liable to military service.
The increase of population in Austria-Hungary has not been large
in recent years, owing to a very high rate of mortality among the
population. In Hungary, the deaths exceeded the births, through
pestilence and other causes, by 324,346 in the two years 1872 and
1873. The following table exhibits the number of births, deaths,
and marriages, with the surplus, or otherwise, of bii'ths, in both Austria
Proper and the kingdom of Hungary, for a quinquennial period —
in Austria for the five years 1873 to 1877, and m Himgary for the
iive years 1872 to 1876 — according to the latest official returns: —
Austria Proper.
Years
Bii-ths
Deaths
MaiTiages
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
848,206
848.678
862,828
874,623
851,747
831,326
662,929
634,088
634,363
677,748
194,815
189,017
180,349
176,148
161,337
16,880
185,749
228,740
240,260
173,999
Hungary^
Years
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
Births
Deaths
Tir„™{„™„ JIoreC + )orless(— )
Maxnages Births than Derths
563,362
566,792
572,444
606,956
623,849
580,445
874,055
571,728
499,031
478,684
147,555 - 17,083
153,068 - 307,263
150,137 + 716
147,027 + 107,925
135,011 j + 145,165
22
THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 188].
There are only nine towns with over 50,000 inhabitants in.
A usti-ia-Hnngary, namely, six in Austria Proper, and three in
Hungary. The capital of Austria, Vienna, had 1,020,770 inhabi-
tants, according to a special census taken April 17, 1875, the same
includinc the suburbs. Of the other large towns of Austria Proper,
Prague had 189,949 ; Trieste, 109,324; Lemberg, 87,109; Gratz,
81,119; and Briinn, 73,771 inhabitants at the general census of
1869. At the same date, the three largest towns of Hungary were :
Buda-Pesth, with 270,474; Szegedin, with 70,179; and Maria-
Theresiopel, with 56,323 inhabitants. More than two-thirds of the
popiilation of the monarchy are engaged in agriculture. There
is, however, a constantly increasing tendency towards concentration
of the population in the larger towns.
At the last census, the Germans constituted 38 per cent, of the
inhabitants in the German or Cisleithan part of the Empire, and
nearly 20 per cent, in the Hungarian or Transleithan part. The
people of the Slavonian races formed 49 per cent, of the population
in the Cisleithan, and 10 per cent, in the Transleithan division.
The race third in numbers, the Magyars, constituted 38 per cent,
of the population of the kingdom of Hungary, and not quite
^\ per cent, of that of the German or Cisleithan part of the Empire.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Austria-Hungary, comprising imports and ex-
ports of merchandise, but not bullion, for the whole of the empire,
except the province of Dalmatia — not within the Imperial line of
customs — v/as as follows in each of the ten years 1869 to 1878 : — ■
Years
Imports
Exports
1
Florins
£
Florins
£
1869
420,581,066
42,058,106
438,109,737
43.810,973
1870
435,959,181
43,595,918
395,413,828
39,541,382
1871
540,750,111
54,075,011
467,583,098
46.758.309
1872
613,726,357
61.372,635
387,963,537
38,796,353
1873
583,082.315
58,308.231
423.610,701
42,361,070
1874
568,703,609
56,870,360
449,266,774
44,926,677
1875
552,548,869
55,254,886
504,467,261
50,446,726
1876
616,964,350
51,696,435
509,658,721
60,965,872
1877
555,227,048
55,522,705
662,032,209
66,203,221
1878
579,547,828
57,954,782
698,302,513
69,830,251
Nearly two-thirds of the whole commerce of the Austrian Empire^
both as regards imports and exports, is carried on with Germany.
The next important market for Austria is Turkey, the importations
of which into the Empire average 3,000,000/. in value^ and the
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
23
exports to which are above 5,000,000^. sterling. Tiirkoy is followed
in the commercial ranlc list, but at a long distance, by Italy and
Russia.
The commercial intercourse of Austria with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small ; and it appears in the official returns even
smaller than it is in reality, owing to the geographical position of the
Empire, which necessitates the transit of many Austi'ian goods des-
tined for the British market, and vice versa] through other countries,
as the exports, or imports, of which they come to figure. In the
Board of Trade returns, therefore, only the direct exports and
imports to and from Great Britain and Ireland, by way of the
Austrian seaboard, Trieste, lUyria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, are given.
The declared real value of these direct exports and imports in the
ten years from 1870 to 1879 is shown in the following table : —
Exports from Austria-
Imports of British Home
Years
Hungary to Great Britain
Produce into Austria
£
&
1870
1,104,662
1,715.601
1871
1.238,428
1,588,352
1872
911,607
1,471,113
1873
869,433
1,484,320
187-t
799,544
1,063,649
1875
1,318.889
897,069
1876
855,798
784,634
1877
1,540,980
1,041,603
1878
1.665,857
763,034
1879
1,685,602
799,085
The staple article exported to the United Kingdom from
Austria is corn and flom-, the total value of which, in the year
1879, amoimted to 1,480,514/. This comprised maize, or Indian
corn, valued 629/. ; wheat, valued 9,553/., and wheat flour, valued
1,470,332/. It Avill be seen from the preceding table, that the total
exports from Austria to Great Britain have been nearly stationary
since the year 1870, while the value of the imports of British pro-
duce into Austria-Hungary has been greatly on the decline, the
British imports of 1879 being much less than one-half in amount o£
those of 1870.
The principal imports of British and Irish produce into Austria
are cotton manufactures and iron, the former of the value of
384,318/., and the latter of 58,948/. in 1879. Among the minor
articles of British imports are oil-seed, coals, and woollen goods.
The total length of railways in the Empire open for traffic and
under construction, was as follows on the 1st of January 1879 : —
24
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Austria Proper
Kingdom of Hungary .
Whole Empire
Open for Traffic
In Construction
English miles
7,009
4,246
English miles
1,684
946
11,255
2,630
The work of the Post Office in Austria-Hungary was as follows
in the year 1878 : — T^','^
Letters . . _ .
Post Cards . .'«ei|%
Patterns and Parcels .
Newspapers and Books .
Austria
Number
197 414,000
3o'452,400
53,670,000
71,890,000
Hungary
Kiimber
49,565,000
10,047,000
22,600,000
32,872,000
On the 1st of January 1879, there were 4,006 Post Offices in
Austria Proper, and 1,980 in the kingdom of Hungary.
Tlie Telegraph, in Austria-Hungary, carried 0,430,330 messages,
of Avhich 71,854 were official, in the year 1878. On the 1st
of January 1879, there Avere in Austria Proper 20,875 English
miles, and in Hungary 8,329 English miles of telegraph lines.
The length of wires at the same date was 54,025 miles in Austria
Proper, and 29,238 miles in Hungary. The number of telegraph
stations was 2,418 in Austria Proper, and 911 in Hungary.
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the com-
mercial marine of Austria-Hungary. It gives the number, tonnage,
and crews of all the vessels belonging to subjects of the monarchy
')n the 1st of January 1880 : —
Sea-going steamers (15,560 horse-power) .
Coasting steamers (832 horse-power)
Sailiugvess., inch coasters and fishingsmacks
Total.
Number of
Vessels
Tonnage
Ci-ews
556
1,934
5,397
7,887
278,889
34,334
14,506
327,729
7,038
5,898
15,816
"28,762
Of great importance for the commerce of the Empire is the
' Gesellschaft des Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Lloyd,' established
at Trieste in 1833. The company, which owned on the 1st of
January 1879, a fleet of 69 steamers, of 56,138 tons, mainly
Clyde-built, and ' superintended by British engineers, absorbs the
AUSTKIA-HUNGART. 25
greater part of the trade of Austria ■with the East, through the Suez
€anal, being subsidized, at the rate of 1,730,000 florins, or 173,000Z.
per annum, by the Imperial Government.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Austeia-Htjngary in Geeat Britain.
Ambassador — Count A. Karolyi de Nagy-Karoly, Ambassador to the German
Empire from December 1871 to December 1878. Accredited Ambassador to
Great Britain, February 4, 1879.
Councillor of Embassy — Count Hengelmliller von Hengervar.
Secretaries — Baron von Biegeleben ; Count von Liitzow.
Naval Attache — Captain Count 0. Cassini.
2. Of Great Britain in Austeia-Hungaet.
Ambassador — Eight Hon. Sir Henry George Elliot, G.C.B., born in 1810;
Envoy to Denmark, 1858-59; to the Two Sicilies, 1859-60; and to Italy,
1863-67. Ambassador to the Sublime Ottoman Porte, 1867-77. Appointed
Ambassador to Austria-Hungary, December 31, 1877-
Secretaries — Hugh Eraser ; Hon. John Ashburnham ; G. E. Welby.
Military Attache — Lieut. Col. Hon. E. H. Primrose.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Austria, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Florin, or Gulden, of 100 2seu-Krenzcr, = 'Is.
The Golden Crown of 8 Florins = 16s.
The legal standard in the Empire is silver, and the Florin, divided into 100
' New ' Kreuzer, the unit of money. Practically the chief medium of exchange
is a paper currency, consisting of banknotes of all denominations, from 1,000
florins down to 1 florin, convertible only at a large discount into gold.
Weight.-
The Centner = 100 Pf and
,, Eimer
„ Joch
„ Metzc .
„ Klaftc
and Measuees.
= 123 J lbs. aA-oirdupois.
= 14'94 wine gallons.
= 1-43 acre. '
= 1'7 imperial bushel.
= 67 cubic feet.
il/c/fc= 24,000 Austrian feet = 8,297 yards, or about 4| miles.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Austria-
Hungary,
1. Officxal Publications.
Hof- uud Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8. Wien, 1880.
Tafeln zur Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchie, zusammengestellt von
der Direction der administrativen Statistik. Folio. Wien, 1880.
IVIittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der Statistik, herausgegeben von der
Direction der administrativen Statistik. 8. Wien, 1880.
26 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Jahr 1879. Herausg. von der k.k. statists
Central-Comniission. 11 parts. 8. Wien, 1880.
Navigazione e commercio in porti Austriaci nel 1878. 4. Trieste, 1880.
Keport by Mr. Percy Ffreneh respecting the mining trade in Austria, dated
Vienna, October 1877 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and'
Legation.' Parti. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Harris-Gastrell on the commerce of Buda-Pesth and
of Hungary, dated February 20, 1875 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
No. III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Eeports by Mr. Consul-General Monson on the trade and commerce ofPiume,
and by Mr. Consul Brock on the commerce of Trieste, dated March-June 1876 ;
in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Weikersheim on the finances of Austria-Hungary,
and the trade and commerce of Vienna, dated September 21, 1876 ; in ' Eeports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Ml-. Consul Brock on the commerce of Trieste, dated December 28,
1877; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1878.' 8. London, 1878.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Nathan on the trade and commerce of Austria-
Hungary, by Mr. Vice- Consul Faber on the commerce of Fiume, by Mr. Con-
sul St. John on the trade of Eagusa, and by Mr. Consul Brock on the commerce
of Trieste, dated March 1879 ; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III.
1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Austria-Hungary -vvith Great Britain; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, and British Possessions,
in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official PuBLioATto.vs.
Annuario Marittimo per I'Anno 1878, compilato dal Lloyd austriaco coll' ap-
provazione dell' eccelso i. r. governo centrale marittimo. 8. Trieste, 1880.
Austria. Archiv fiir Consularwesen, Volkswirthschaft und Statistik.
4. 32. Jahrgang. AVien, 1880.
Brachdli (H. F.), Statistische Skizze der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Mon-
archie. 8. Leipzig, 1874.
Fkker (A.), Die Volkerstamme der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchie.
8. AVien, 1869.
Hunfalvi (Dr. J.), A magyar-osztrak monarchia rovid statistztikaja. 8.
Pesth, 1874.
Kdcti (Karl) Uebersicht der Bevolkerung, &c., siimmtlicher Lander der Un-
garischen Krone. 16. Pest. 1872.
Kohn (Ignaz), Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Mo-
narchie. 8. Wien, 1880.
Levy (Daniel), L'Aiiti-iche-Hongrie, ses institutions, &c. Paris, 1872.
Lcger (L.), Histoire de I'Autriche-Hongi-ie, depuis les origines jusqu' a
I'annee 1878. 12. Paris, 1879.
Loher (F. Von), Die Magyaren und andere Ungarn. 8. Leipzig, 1874.
Mulinen (Comte de), Les finances de I'Autriche. 8. Paris, 1875.
Patterson (Arthur J.), The Magyars ; their country and its institutions. 2
Tols. 8. London, 1870.
Prasch (V.), Handbuch der Statistik des Oest. Kaiserstaates. 8. Briinn,1879.
Peca (Dr. Alexander), Oesterreich und der Orient. 8. "Wien, 1875.
Schmitt (F.), Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaates. 8. Wien, 1873.
Worms (Baron Henry de). The Austro-Hungarian Empire. 8. London, 1877»
27
BELGIUM.
(ROYAUME DE BeLGIQUE.)
Reigning King.
Leopold II., born April 9, 1835, the son of King Leopold I.,
former Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and of Princess Loiiise,
daughter of the late King Louis Philippe of the French ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, Dec. 10, 1865 ; married Aug.
22, 1853, to Queen Marie Henriette^ born Aug. 23, 1836, the
daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria.
Children of the King.
I. Princess Louise, born Feb. 18, 1858; married February 4,
1875, to Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, born March 28, 1844,
eldest son of Prince August, cousin of the reigning dulie, and of
Princess Clementine of Orleans, daughter of the late King Louis
Philippe of the French.
II. Princess Stephanie, born May 21, 1864 ; betrothed to Arch-
duke Rudolf, only son of the Emperor of Austria and King of
Hungary, March, 1880.
III. Princess Clementine, born July 30, 1872.
Brother and Sister of the King.
I. Phibp2)e, Count of Flanders, born March 24, 1837 ; lieutenant-
general in the service of Belgium ; married April 25, 1867, to
Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, bom November 17,
1845. Offspring of theimion are four children : — 1. Prince Bau-
douin, born' June 3, 1869. 2. Princess Henriette, born Nov. 30,
1870. 3. Princess Jcsephine, born Oct. 18, 1872. 4. Prince
Albert, bom April 8, 1875.
II. Princess Charlotte, bom June 7, 1840 ; married July 27,
1857, to Archduke Maximilian of Austria, elected Emperor of
Mexico July 10, 1863 ; -yvidow June 19, 1867.
King Leopold II. has a civil list of 3,300,000 francs, or 132,000/.
The kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent state
in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands. The
secession "was decreed on the 4th of October, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, estabhshed in consequence of a revolution which broke
out at Brussels on the 25th of August, 1830. A National Congress
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king of the Belgians on the
4th of June 1831 ; the prince accepted the dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. It was not until after the sign-
ing of the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which established
peace between King Leopold I. and the sovereign of the Netherlands,
that all the States of Europe recognised the kingdom of Belgium.
•i8 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Government.
According to the Charter of 1831, Belgivim is ' a constitutional,
representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legislative power
is vested in the King, the Chamber of Representatives, and the
Senate. The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order
of primogeniture. The king's person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government. No
act of the king can have effect imless countersigned by one of his
ministers, Avho thus becomes responsible for it. The king convokes,
prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers, and makes rules and orders
necessary for the execution of the laws ; but he has no power
to suspend, or dispense with the execution of the laws themselves.
He has the right to declare Avar, and to conclude treaties of peace,
of alliance, and of commerce, communicating the same to the
Chambers as far as may be consistent Avith the interest and safety of
the State. Those treaties Avhich may be injurious to the State, or to
the individual interests of the people, can only have effect after
obtaining the sanction of the Chambers. No surrender, exchange,
or addition of territory can be made except Avhen authorised by a
laAv passed by the Chambers. In no case can the secret articles of a
treaty be destructive or contrary to the public clauses. The king
sanctions and promulgates the laAVS. He has the power of remitting
or reducing the prmishment pronounced by the judges, except in the
case of his ministers, to Avhom he can extend pardon only at the
request of one of the Chambers. He has the power of coining
money according to laAV, and also of conferring titles of nobility,
but Avithout the poAver of attaching to them any privileges. In
default of male heirs, the king may nominate his successor with
the consent of the Chambers. On the death of the king, the
Chambers assemble Avithout convocation, at latest on the tenth day
after his decease. From the date of the kmg's death to the ad-
ministration of the oath to his successor, or to the regent, the consti-
tutional poAvers of the king are exercised in the name of the people,
by the ministers assembled in council, and on their OAvn responsibi-
lity. The regency can only be conferred upon one person, and no
change in the constitution can be made during the regency. The
successor to the throne or the regent can only enter upon his duties
after having taken an oath in presence of the assembled Chambers
to observe the laAvs and the constitution, to maintain the independence
of the nation and the integrity of its territory. If the successor
be under eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of
majority, the tAvo Chambers meet together for the purpose of nomi-
nating a regent during the minority. In the case of a vacancy of
the throne, the tAvo Chambers, deliberating together, nominate pro-
visionally to the regency. They are then dissolved, and Avithin tAvo
BELGIUM. 29.
months the new Chambers must assemble, which provide definitively
for the succession .
The power of making laws is vested in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, the members of both houses being chosen
by the people. The sittings are public, and by the decision of the
majority either Chamber may form itself into a private committee.
No person can at the same time be a member of both Chambers, and
no member can retain liis seat after obtaining a salaried office under
the Government, except on being re-elected. No member can be
called to accoimt for any votes or opinions he may have given in
the performance of his duties. No member can be prosecuted or
arrested during the session Avithout the consent of the Chamber of
which he is a member, except in the case of being taken in flagranti
crimine. Each Chamber determines the manner of exercising its
own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-pre-
sident, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented per-
sonally, and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority,
except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the
members are required for its acceptance ; in the case of an equality
of votes the proposition is throA\Ti out. The Chambers meet annually
in the month of November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but
the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occa-
sions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately.
In the latter case a new election must take place within forty days,
and a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjoiu-n-
ment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers.
The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen
directly by all citizens paying direct taxes to the annual amount of
43 francs, or 11. 15s. Under this qualification, the electoral lists,
at the general election of 1878, contained the name."( of 119,765
electors, the right of sufirage being with 22 in every thousand of
the population, or about one-thirteenth of the adult male popula-
tion. The niunber of depiities is fixed according to the population,
and cannot exceed one memlier for every 40,000 inhabitants. In
the year 1878 they amounted to 136, elected in 48 electoral dis-
tricts. To be eligible as a member, it is necessary to be a Belgian
by birth, or to have received the ' grande natui-alisation ; ' to have
attained the age of twenty-five years, and to be resident in
Belgium. The members not residing in the town where the
Chamber sits receive, during the session, an indemnity of 430 fi-ancs,
or 17Z. 5s., each per month. The members are elected for four years,
one-half going out every two years, except in the case of a dissolu-
tion, when a general election takes place. The Chamber has the par-
liamentary initiative and the preliminary vote in all cases relating to
the receipts and expenses of the State and the contingent of the army.
30 THE STATESMAN S TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The Senate is componed of exactly one-half the number of mem-
bers comprising the Chamber of Representatives, and the senators
are elected by the same citizens who appoint the deputies. The
senators are chosen for eight years ; they retire in one moiety
every four years ; but in case of dissolution the election must
comprise the whole number of which the Senate is composed.
The qualifications necessary for a senator are, that he must be a
Belgian by birth or naturalisation; iii full possession of all political
and civil rights; resident within the kingdom ; at least forty years
of age ; and paying in direct taxes not less than 84Z. sterling.
In those provinces where the list of citizens who possess this last-
mentioned qualification does not reach to the proportion of one in
6,000 of the population, that list is enlarged by the admission into
it of those citizens who pay the greatest amount of direct taxes, so
that the list shall always contain at least one person who is eligible
to the Senate for every 6,000 inhabitants of the province. The
senators do not receive any pay. The presumptive heir to the throne
is of right a senator at the age of eighteen, but he has no voice
in the proceedings imtil twenty-five years of age. All the proceed-
ings of the Senate during the time the Chamber of Representatives
is not sitting are without force.
The Executive Government consists of seven departments, viz.: —
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Hubert J. W. Frere-Orhan,
born April 24, 1812 ; studied law, and entered the journalistic career
in 1830; Minister of Finance 1846-47, and again 1848-52, 1857-61,
and 1868-70. Appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs and Presi-
dent of the Council of Ministers, June 20, 1878.
2. The Ministry of Jiistice. — Jules i?«r«, born 1830; Minister of
Justice, 1865-70. Re-appointed Minister of Justice, June 20, 1878.
3. The Ministry of Public Works. — ]\I. Saiiictelette, appointed
September 9, 1879.
4. TheMinistry of War. — General G^r«<7-y/, appointed Nov. 7, 1880.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — G. Rolin Jacquemijns^ ap-
pointed June 20, 1878.
6. The Ministry of Finance. — Charles Graux, appointed Sep-
tember 9, 1879.
7. The INIinistry of Public Instruction.- — Professor Van Humbeech,
appointed September 9, 1879.
Besides the above responsible heads of departments, there are
a number of ' Ministres d'Etat,' without portfolio, Avho form a privy
council called together on special occasions by the sovereign. The
acting ministers, as such, do not form part of the privy council.
Church and Education.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants do not amount to 13,000,
BELGIUM.
3»
while the JeAVS number less than 1,500. Fnll religious liberty is
gi-anted by the constitution, and part of the income of the ministers
of all denominations is paid from the national treasury. Theamoimt
thus granted in recent annual budgets was 4,568,200 fi-ancs, or
182,728/., to Eoman Catholics ; 69,336 francs, or 2,772/., to Protes-
tants, and 11,220 francs, or 448/., to Jews.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses,
namely, the Archbishopric of ^Nlalines and the Bishoprics of Bruges,
Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Toumay. The archbishopric has three
vicars-general and a chapter of twelve canons, and each of the
bishoprics two vicars-general and a ctanter of eight canons. In
each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees and
voluntary gifts. The salaries paid by the State are comparatively
small, being 21,000 francs, or 840/. to the archbishop ; 16,000 francs,
or 640/. to each of the five bishops ; 2,000 francs, or 80/. to canons,
and from 600 to 800 francs, or 24/. to 32/. to the inferior parish
clergy. At the last <.cnsus, there were 1,322 convents in Belgium, of
which number 178, with 2,991 inmates, were for men, and 1,144,
with 15,205 inmates, for women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the greater
number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is imder a synod com-
posed of the clergymen of the body, and a representative from each
of the congregations. It sits in Bmssels once a year, when each
member is required to be present, or to delegate his powers to
another member. The English Episcopal Church has eight minis-
ters, and as many chapels, in Belgium — three in Briis.sels, and one
in each of the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Spa, and Ghent.
The Jews have a central synagogue in Brussels ; three branch
synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent, and Liege, and two
of the second class at Arlon and Namur.
There are four universities in the kingdom, three of them with
four ' facultes,' or branches of studj^ and one, Louvain, nursery of
the clergy, with five. The following table gives the number of stu-
dents attending the various ' facultes ' in each of the four universi-
ties in the session of 1877-78 : —
Universities
Students of
„, , ; Jurispru-
Theology i deuce
Philosophy
Medicine Sciences
1
Total
Brussels .
Ghent .
Liege
Louvain .
_ 197
— 96
— 198
134 323
59
37
95
106
242
82
163
296
117
54
174
193
615
269
630
1,052
32
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Education is at present almost entirely the monopoly of the
Roman Catholic clergy, and to a great extent in that of the order of
the Jesuits. Elementary education is not yet generally diffused
among the people, and the existing schools are supported by the
communes, the provinces, and the State combined ; the Government
paying one-sixth, the province one-sixth, and the commune four-
sixths of the expenditure. There is no compulsory law of education
in Belgium.
It appears from official returns, based upon recent examinations of
the National Guards, or Civic Militia of the kingdom, that nearly
one-fifth of the grown-up population are unable to read and write.
Luxembourg contains the smallest proportion of illiterate persons,
and the other provinces come in the following order as regards in-
struction: Namur, Antwerp, Liege, Brabant, Limbourg, Hainaut,
"West and East Flanders. In the year 1878, there were 47,957 young
men called out for military service, and of this number 8,222 could
neither read nor write ; 1,957 could read only ; 21,509 could simply
read and Avrite, and 15,669 possessed a superior education. The sum.
devoted by the State to public education amounted in 1878 to
9,701,628 francs, or 388,064^.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public income and expenditure of Belgium in recent years
have mostly been balanced, Avith an occasional surplus. The actual
revenue for the year 1878 — the last of which the accounts were pub-
lished, in 1880— amounted to 264,435,260 francs, or 10,577,408/.,
and the actual expenditure to 272,341,317 francs, or 10,893,652/.,
leaving a deficit of 17,906,057 francs, or 716,240/.
The gross revenue and expenditure of Belgium, for each of the
ten years 1870 to 1880 — actual for the first six, and estimated for
the last four, years — are shown in the subjoined table : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
1871
&
7,124,960
6,774,516
1872
7,556,560
7,336,964
1873
7,368,920
6,957,920
1874
9,185,720
9,456.696
1875
11,148,463
11,688,900
1876
10,909,760
10,790,480
1877
10,351,657
10,857,700
1878
10,161,830
9,857,71)0
1879
10,413,354
10.384,270
1880
11,148,463
11,688,900
BELGIUM.
53
The following table gives the details of the gross revenue and
expenditure for each of the years 1878 and 1879 : —
i Branches of Kxpenditiire
1878
1879
■ Francs
Francs
Interest ou public deht .
61,299,000
74.785,815
Civil list and dotations .
4,454,000
4,535,303
Ministry of Justice
15,778,000
16.272,349
„ Fi)roi2:u AfFiiirs
1,620,000
1,903,535
„ Interior
19,548,000
20,371,424
Public Works
82,510,000
81.354,389
War .
43,869,000
41,063,000
,, FiuaucH
1 15,243,000
15.274,950
Miscellaneous espcnditiu'e
Total expenditure < „
I 1,120,000
4,046.000
1 245,441,000
j 9,817,640
259,606.765
10,384.270
The provisional estimates of revenue for the year 1881 amounted
to 203,720,560 francs, or 10,54S,8227., and the estimates of expendi-
ture for 1880 to 270,37.'), 086 francs, or 11,055,003/., leaving a
deficit of 12,654,520 francs, or 506,181/. The deficit Avas to be
covered by an increase of taxation.
The following table shows the total amount of the iiational liabili-
ties of the Idngdom on the l>t of January 1880 : —
v>
34
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1S81.
Dcscriptiou of Debt Capital
Francs
2J- per
cent. Old Debt 219.959,632
4i
of 1844 .
122,847,182
4'
of 1853 .
141.284,900
4^ ,
of 1857-60 .
' 65,846,400
4i
[of 1865 .
1 58,581,000
4i
of 1867-70 .
! 77.578,200
4
of 1871 .
1 56,894,900
3
of 1873 .
283,085,000
4'
*2 )
Railway Annuities .
Total consolidated Debt
! 495,870,230
i 1,521,947,444
Floating Debt (Bons dii Tresor)
Total Debt
19,400,000
1 1,541,347,444
1 £61,653,898 1
The 2-i% old debt, and tlie first series of the 4-|% debt, repre-
sent the share which Belgium had to take in the national liabilities
of the Netherlands, after separating from that kingdom. Almost the
entire remainder of the debt of Belgium "was raised for, and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of state rail-
ways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of the
debt, with the exception of the 2i% old debt. By a law passed in
the session of 18G9, the government was authorised to reduce the
fixed annual payments out of the sinking fund for the whole of the
4^% debt. By another law, passed in 1879, the whole of the
4'h per cent, debt was ordered to be gradually converted into one of
4 per cent.
Army.
Tlie standing army is formed by conscri^ition, to which every able
man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution
is permitted. The legal period of service is eight years, of which,
however, two-thirds are allowed, as a rule, on furloxigh. According
to the laws in force, the strength of the army is to be of 100,000
men on the Avar-footing, and of 40,000 in times of peace. The war-
footing is prescribed as follows, rank and file: —
Infantry , ,
Cavalry.
Artillery . . ,
Engineers and train
Total, •without officers
Men
Horses
Guns
74,000
7,903
14,513
2,354
6,572
4,050
152
98,770
10,622
152
The actual number of soldiers" under^ arms, on the 1st of June
BELGIUM.
35
1879, amounted to 40,590 rank and file, comprising 23,083 infantry,
5,339 cavalry, 6,937 artillery, 1,2G2 engineers, and 3,0G9 other
troops. Besides the standing army, there is a ' Garde Nationale,' num-
bering 21,600 men, organised, under laws of May 1848 and July 1853,
to maintain liberty and order in times of peace, and to defend the
independence of the country in time of war. The chief military
arsenal of the kingdom is Antwerp, the fortifications of ^vhich were
greatly strengthened and enlarged in the years 1870-76, at a cost of
72,150,000 fi-ancs, or 2,886,000/.
By a royal decree passed Oct. 20, 1874, the kingdom was divided
into two military circumscriptions, the first embracing the provinces
of Antwerp and of "West and East Flanders, and the second Bi-abant,
Hainaut, Liege, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Namur.
Area and Population.
Belgium has an area of 29,455 square kilometres, or 11,373
English square miles. The kingdom is divided into nine provinces,
the area and population of which were as follows at the last
decennial census enumeration, taken December 31, 1876, and the
estimated population on December 31, 1878 : —
Area :
Eng. Sq. Miles
Population
Dec. 31, 1876
Dec. 31, 1878
Antwerp (Anvers)
Brabant
Flanders [^^'^f
Hainaut
Liege .
Limbonrg .
LiixemboiTTg
Namur
1,093
1,268
1,249
1,158
1,437
1,117
931
1,706
1,414
538,381
936,062
684,468
863,458
956,354
632,228
205,237
204,201
315,796
560,020
978,071
693,530
879,682
975,252
650,801
209,343
208,134
321,835
Total
11,373
5,336,185
5,476,668
It Avill be seen that Belgium had, at the end of 1876, a population
of 5,336,185 on an area of 11,373 English square miles, or 469 per
square mile, being the densest inhabited coimtry in Europe.
According to an official report laid before the Chambers in May
1878, there are 2,256,860 Belgians who speak French ; 2,659,890
who speak Flemish; 38,070, German; 340,770, French and Flemish ;
22,700, French and German ; 1,790, Flemish and German ; and
5,490 Avho speak all three languages.
The population of Belgium has increased very steadily since the
establishment of the kingdom in 1830, when it amounted to barely
36
THE .<TATKiMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
four millions. Since that period it rose almost exactly at the rate
of one per cent, per annum. According to the last census returns,
one-fourth of the population of Belgium is engaged in agricultural
pursuits, and another fourth in trade and manufactures.
The population of the kingdom is increasing very rapidly. The
folloAving table gives the number of births, deaths, and marriages,
•with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five years from
1873 to 1877 : —
Surplus of
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
births over
deaths
1873 .
178,491
120,656
40,598
57,835
1874 .
181.728
117,345
40,328
64,383
1875 .
183,301
130,229
39,050
53,072
1876 .
184,845
124,717
38,228
60,128
1877 .
183,122
122,314
36,962
60,808
Laud in Belgium is divided, according to the census of 1876, be-
tween 1,131,112 freehold proprietors, who possess 2,419,799 hectares
of land, out of a total of 2,945,510 hectares. The State owns only
39,289 hectares, and the communes 290,296 hectares. In the thirtv
ye.ars from 1840 to 1876, the number of landed proprietors increased
by 210,175, or 24 per cent. In 1870, there were 21 landowners
to every 100 inhabitants, the highest number being in the province
of Luxembourg, 48 to every 100, and the lowest in West Flanders,
14 to every 100 inhabitants.
The tendency, visible in most European countries, of an agglome-
ra^ionof the people in the larger towns, is also apparent in Belgium,
;nul is particularly showing itself in the capital, which niTmbered, on
ihe 31st of December 1876, 376,965 inhabitants. Besides Brussels,
t were Avere, in 1876, three towns in Belgium with a population of above
40,000 inhabitants, namely, Antwerp, with 150,650; Ghent, with
127,653 ; Liege, with 115,851, and Bruges with 45,097 inhabitants.
There has been in recent years an excess of immigration over
emigration. The number of immierants exceeded the emigrants by
8,545, in 1874 : by 5,215, in 1875^; and by 1,822, in 1876. There
were 15,075 immigrants and 11,847 emigrants in the year 1877.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of Belgium, the same as that of France, is offi-
cially divided into ' general commerce,' including the sum total of
all international mercantile intercoru-se, direct as well as transit,
and ' special commerce,' comprising such imports as are consumed
within and such exports as have been produced in the country.
BELGIUM.
S7
The value of thti general commerce in tlie year 1878 was represented
by 94,263,792/. of imports, and by 80,106,992/. of exports. The
special commerce was as follows in the year 1878: — Imports for home
consumption, 56,047,712/.; Exports cf home produce, 42,972,588/.
France heads the list of importing countries in the special
commerce of Belgium, followed, in order of importance, by
Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Paissia, and the United
States. In the export market of Belgian produce France likewise
takes the first place, follow^ed by Great Britain, the Netherlands,
and Germany.
The commercial intercourse of Belgium with Great Britain is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement ; giving the total exports
from Belgium to the United Kingdom, and the total imports into
Belgium of the produce and manufactures of Great Britain and
Ireland, in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Exports from Belgium
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Belgium
1870
11,247,864
£
4,481,079
1871
13,073,274
6,217,005
1872
13.211,044
6,499,062
1873
13,075,186
7,200,949
1874
15,048,865
5,828,092
1875
14,822,240
.5,781,938
1876
13,848,293
5.875,407
1877
12,888,774
5,304,105
1878
12,386,625
5,525,705
1879
10,725,739
5,104,479
The principal articles of exports from Belgium to the United King-
dom are Avoollen manufactures imd flax, the first, of the value of
1,254,731/., and the second of 928,217/. in 1879. The other
articles of export to Great Britain comprise chiefly metals and
agricultural produce, among them iron, of the value of 612,029/.;
])Utter, of the value of 391,166/. ; and poultry and game, including
rabbits, of the value of 230,054/. in 1879. The imports of British
home produce into Belgium consist in the main of iron, and of
w^oollen and cotton manufactures, the iron of the value of 383,102/.,
the woollens of the value of 629,050/., and the cottons of the value
of 1,257,804/. in the year 1879.
The international commerce of the kingdom is almost entirely
carried on by foreigners, chiefly under the British flag. The com-
mercial marine, on the decline for a number of years, consisted at
the end of 1878 of 48 vessels of an aggregate burthen of 44,980
tons, inclusive of 23 steamers of a total burthen of 29,850 tons.
One of the most important natural productions of Belgium, and
38 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
chief basis of its industry, is coal, "vvhich is found in three out of
the nine provinces of the kingdom, Hainaut, Liege, and Namiu-,
about three-fourths o£ the total annual produce being raised in the
first-named province. The coal mines in Belgium extend over 278
hectares of land, employing 108,000 miners, and producing, on the
average of recent years, 14,000,000 tons of coal per annum. About
one-fourth of tlie total coal produce is exported, mainly to France.
In Belgium the State is a great railway proprietor, and the State
Railway is one of the largest sources of national revenue. The sub-
joined tabular statement shows the length of railways, distinguishing
State and private lines, open in Belgium at the end of 1880 : —
Kilomgtres
Lines built and worked by the State . . .1 595
Lines belonging to Companies, but leased by the,!
State [, ^'-^^^
Total of State Eescau . {^\^^]-^ 1429
T- T At n ■ (Kilom.i 2,029
Lines M-orked by Companies . . . IjyjQeg/; 1^260
Total lines open . . | jjjj^^
(Kilom.: 3.848
2,322
The lines of State I'ailways, though not so extensive as those
belonging to private companies, are far more remunerative. In the
year 1878, the total gross receipts of the State railways amounted
to 93,000,000 francs,"or 3,720,000/., and those of the private lines
10 38,117,312 francs, or 1,524,G92/. The expenditure of the State
railways, in the year 1878 was 55,523,391 francs, or 2,220,932/.,
and that of the private lines 22,729,371 fi-ancs, or 909,175/. The
net receipts, per kilometre, amounted to 16,314 francs, or 652/., on
the State railways, and to 8,959 francs, or 358/., on the private
lines in the year 1878.
Tlie work of the Post Office in Belgiiun was as follows in the
year 1878 :—
' ' Number
Private letters . . < . . ••• -. . 64,460,113
Official letters 9.867,993
Postcards 13,176,514
Packets 28,638,000
Newspapers 68,465,000
On the 1st of January 1880, there were 589 Post Offices in Belgium.
The total revenue of the Post Office in the year 1879 amounted to
6,222,000 francs, or 248,880/.. and the exjienditure to 6,222,501
francs, or 248,900/.
The Telegrajihs in Belgium carried 4,538,239 despatches, private
and official, in the year 1879. On the 1st of January 1880, the
BELGIUM. 39
total length of telegraph lines was 5,234 kilometres, and the length of
wires 22,5 G9 kilometres. There were at the same date 648 telegraph
stations.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of BELGirM rs Great Bbitain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron Solvyns, appointed October IS, 1872.
Councillor. — Baron Whetnall.
Secretary of Legation. — Count G. d'Arscliot.
2. Of Great Britain in Belgium.
Envoy and Minister.— ^ohw Savile Lnmley, K.C.B., born in 1825; British
Charge d' Affaires in Kussia, 1862 and 1865 ; Envoy to Saxony, 1866-67 ; to
Switzerland, 1867-68; and appointed to Belgium, October 19, 1868.
Secretaries of Legation.— Six H. P. T. Barron, Bart. ; William Graham Sand-
ford.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measm-es of Belgium, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Monet.
The Franc , . . . Average rate of exchange, 25 to £1 sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Kilogramme, or Livre . . = 2-20 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonncau
TT ± Tx f Dry measure
. , HectoMre ■{ t ■ • ^
,, iii.^-1- j^ Liquid measure
„ Metre ....
„ Metre Cvhe
„ Kilometre . .
„ Hectare . . .
„ Sciuarc Kilometre ,
= 2,200 „
= 2w5 imperial busliels.
= 22 imperial gallons.
= 3-28 feet.
= 35-31 cubic feet.
= 1,093 yards.
- 2'47 English acres.
= 247'11 English acres,
or 0-386 square miles.
Belgium Avas one of the four Continental States — comprising,
besides, France, Italy, and Switzerland — which formed a Monetary
League in 1865. The four States entered into a Convention by
which they agreed upon the French decimal system, establishing
perfect reciprocity in the currency of the four coimtries, and giving
the franc, livre, or lii^a, the monetary imit of each of them, as well
as its multiples or fractions hi gold or silver, the same course and
value throughout the extent of their respective territories.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Belgium
1. Official Publications.
Almanacli Royal Oificiel de Belgique, contenant les attributions et le per-
sonnel de tons les services publics duroyaume. Annee 1880. Bruxelles, 1880.
Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. 4. Bruxelles. 1880
40 TIIL STATESMAJiS YEAR-LOOK, i881.
Documents Statistiqties, piiblies jiar le depart, de rinterieur, avec leeoneours
de la commission contrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1880.
Population do la Belgique. Eecensement general. Publie par le .Jlinistre
de rinterieur. 4. Bruxelles, 1878.
Statistiqiie generale de la Belgique, publie par leiliiiistre de rintei-it-ur. 8.
Bruxelles, 1865-80.
Tableau general du commerce avec les pays etrangers, publie par le Miuistre
des Finances. 4. Bruxelles, 1880.
Keport by Mr. II. G. Edwardes, Secretary of Legation, on tbe coal sta-
tistics of Belgium for the years 1868, 1869, and"l870, dated Brussels
December 1, 1871 ; in ' Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1872. 8. London. 1872.
Eeport by ]\Ir. H. Barron, Secretary of Legation, on the population,
commerce, and industry of Belgium, dated Brussels. March 5, 1875 ; in ' Eeport,
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1875. 8. London,
1873.
Eeport of Sir Henry Barron, Secretary of Legation, of the finances am!
railways of Belgium, dated Brussels, April 10, 1876; in ' Eeports by H.M.V
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport liy Mr. .1. Savile Ijundcy, Secretary of Legati(jn. on the commerce
and industry of Belgium, dated Brussels, .lanuary 24, 1878; in "Eeport^
from H.M.'s Secretaries and Legation.' No. I. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Sir Henry Barron, Secretary of Legation, on the finances and
railways of Belgium, dated lirnssels, April 16, 1880; in 'Eeports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Emba.ssy and Legation.' Part IV. 1880. 8. London. 188(1.
Eeport by Mr. Vice-Consul D'Arcy on the trade of Ostend, dated Ostend.
December 2, 1874; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Grattan on the trade of Antwerp in 1876, dated
Antwerp, May 31, 1877; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part lY. 1877.
8. London, 1877-
Eeport by Mr. Consul Grattan on the trade of Antwerp in 1877, dated
Antwerp, Jan. 31, 1878; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consiils.' Part II. 1878.
8. London, 1878.
Trade of Belgium with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 187!'.' Imp.
4. London, 1880.
2. Nox-Offici.vl Publication.s.
Annuaire financier do la Belgique. 8. Bruxelles, 1880.
Barari/ (Ch. Victor de), Histoire de la Eevolution Beige de 1830. S.
Bruxelles, 1876.
Jansscns (Eug.), Annuaire de la mortalite, on tableau statistique des causes d<'
deces et du mouvement de la population. 8. Bruxelles, 1879.
Malou (.1.), Notice historique sur les finances de la Belgique. Fol. Paris, 1868\
Meidemans (Aug.), La Belgique, ses ressources agricoles, industriclles et
commereiales. 8. Bnixelles, 1866.
Tarlicr (H.), Almanach du commerce et de Tindustric de la Belgiqai\
8. Bruxelles. 1880.
41
DENMARK.
(KONGERIGET DaNMARK.) ■
Reigning King.
Christian IX., born April 8, 1818, the fourth son of the late
Duke "VVilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GlUcksburg, and
of Princess Louise of Ilesse-Cassel. Appointed to the succession of
the Crown of Denmark by the treaty of London, of May 8, 1852,
and by the Danish law of succession of July 31, 1853. Succeeded
to the throne on the death of King Frederik VIL, November 15,
1863. Married, May 2G, 1842, to Queen Louise, born Sept. 7,
1817, the daughter of Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Frederik, heir-apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married
July 28, 1869, to Princess Loicisa, daughter of King Carl XV. of
Sweden and Norway. Offspring of the union are six children : —
1. Prince Christian, born Sept. 20, 1870. 2. Prince Karl, born
August 3, 1872. 3. Princess Lowisa, born Feb. 17, 1875. 4. Prince
Harcdd, born Oct. 8, 1876. 5. Prince Ingehonj, born Aug. 2, 1878.
6. Princess Thyra, born March 14, 1880.
IL Princess Alexandra,\)Ox\\T)Q(i. 1, 1844; married, March 10,
1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. (See page 189.)
III. Prince Wilhehn, born Dec. 24, 1845 ; admiral in tlie Danish
navy ; elected King of the Hellenes, under the title of Georgios I.,
by the Greek National Assembly, March 31. 1863 ; married Oct. 27,
1867, to Olga Constantinowna, Grand-Duchess of Russia.
IV. Princess Maria Dagmar, born Nov. 26, 1847 ; married, Nov. 9y
1866, to Grand-Duke Alexander, heir-apparent of Russia. (See
page 363.)
V. Princess Thijra, born Sept. 29, 1853 ; married, Dec. 21, 1878,
to Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumberland. (See page 190.)
VI. Prince Waldemar, born Oct. 27, 1858.
Brothers and Sisters of the King.
I. Princess i^recZmca, born Oct, 9, 1811 ; married, Oct. 30, 1834,
to Duke Alexander of Anhalt-Bernburg ; widow Aug. 19, 1863.
II. Vr'ince Friedrich, horn Oct. 2o, 1814; married, Oct. 16, 1841,
to Princess Adelaide of Schaumburg-Lippe, of which union there are
issue five children: — 1. Princess Augusta, born Feb. 27, 1844.
2. Prince Friedrich, born Oct. 12, 1855. 3. Princess Louise, born
Jan. 6, 1858. 4. Princess j\[arie, born Aug. 31, 1859. 5. Prince
Albert, born March 15, 1863.
42
THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
III. Prince Tr?7/ie/m, born April 10,1816; field-marslial-lieutenant
in the service of Aiistria.
IV. Princess Louise, horn Nov. 18, 1820; nominated abbess of
the convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, Aug. 3, 1860.
V. Prince Julius, born Oct. 14, 1824; general in the Danish army.
VI. Prince Hans, born Dec. 5, 1825, general in the Danish army.
The Crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In
1448, after the death of the last male scion of the princely House
of Svend Estridsen, the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I.,
Count of Oldenburg, in whose family the royal dignity remained for
more than four centuries, although the cro-\vn was not render edlhere-
ditary by right till the year 1660. The direct male line of the House
of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king, Frederik VII.,
on November 15, 1863. In vicAV of the death of the king without
direct heirs, the great Powers of Europe, ' taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish monarchy, as
connected with the general interests of the balance of power in
Europe, is of high importance to the preservation of peace,' signed a
treaty at London on May 8, 1852, by the terms of which the suc-
cession to the Crown of Denmark Avas made over to Prince Christian
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, and to the direct
male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of Hesse-
Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark. In accordance
with this treaty, a laAV concerning the succession to the Danish crown
was adopted by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31,
1853.
King Christian IX. has a civil list of 500,000 rigsdalers, or 55,555/.,
settled upon him by vote of the Rigsdag, approved Dec. 17, 1863.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, in addition, an allowance of
60,000 rigsdalers, or 6,666/., settled by law of March 20, 1868.
Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —
House of Oldenburg.
Christian I. . ,
Hans
Christian II. . .
Frederik I.
Christian III.
Frederik II. .
Christian IV.
Frederik III. .
House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- Glilcksburg.
Christian IX., 1863.
The sixteen members of the House of Oldenburg, who filled the
throne of Denmark for 415 years, had an average reign of 26 years.
A.D.
A.-D.
1448
Christian V.
1670
1481
Frederik IV.
1699
1513
Christian VI.
1730
lo23
Frederik V. .
1746
1533
Christian VII.
1766
1559
Frederik VI.
. 1808
1588
Clu-istian VIII. .
. 1839
1648
Frederik VII.
. 1848
DENMARK. 43
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in tlie clip^ter
of Jtme 5, 1849, Avhicli was modified in some important respects
in 1855 and 1863, but again restored, with various alterations, by
a statute which obtained the royal sanction on July 28, 186G.
According to this charter, the executive power is in the king and
his responsible ministers, and the right of making and amending
laws in the Rigsdag, or Diet, acting in conjunction with the sove-
reign. The king must be a member of the EA'angelical Lutheran
Church, which is declared to be the religion of the State. The
Rigsdag comprises the Landsthing and the Folkething, the fomier
being a Senate or Upper House, and the latter a House of Com-
mons. The Landsthing consists of 66 members. Of these, 12
are nominated for life by the Cro^vn, from among actual or former
representatives of the kingdom, and the rest are elected indirectly by
the people, forthe term of eightyears. The choice of the latter 54 mem-
bers of the Upper Hovise is given to electoral bodies composed partly
of the largest taxpayers in the country districts, partly of deputies of
the largest taxpayers in the cities, and partly of deputies from the
totality of citizens possessing the franchise. Eligible to the Lands-
thing is every citizen who has passed his twenty-fifth year, and is a
resident of the district. The Folkething, or Lower House of Parlia-
ment, consists of 102 members, returned in direct election, by
universal suffrage, for the term of three years. The franchise belongs
to every male citizen who has reached his thirtieth year, who is
not in the actual receipt of public charitj^, or Avho, if he has at any
former time been in receipt of it, has repaid the sums so received,
who is not in private sei-vice without having his own household, and
who has resided at least one year in the electoral circle on the lists
of which his name is inscribed. Eligible for the Folkething are all
men of good reputation, past the age of twenty-five. Both the
members of the Landsthing and of the Folkething receive payment
tor their services, at the same rate.
The Rigsdag must meet every year on the first Monday of Octo-
ber. To the Folkething all money bills must in the first instance
be submitted by the Government. The Landsthing, besides its legis-
lative functions, has the duty of appointing from its midst every four
years the assistant judges, four in number, of the Hoiesteret, or
Supreme Court, who, together Avith its own elected members, form
the highest tribunal of the kingdom, and can alone try parliamentary
impeachments. The ministers have free access to both of the
legislative assemblies, but can only vote in that Chamber of which
they are members.
The executive, acting imder the kmg as president, and called
44 THE .STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the State Council — Statsraadet — consists of the ibllowing seven
departments : —
1. The Presidency of the Couacil. — Jacob Broennuni Scavenius
Estrup, appointed President of the Council of Ministers, and
Minister of Finance, June 11, 1875.
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Otto Ditlev, Baron Eosencern-
Lehn, appointed October 11, 1875.
3. Ministry of the Interior. — E. V. IJ. Skeel, appointed Jvme 15,
1875.
-i. Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
J. Scavenius, appointed August 24, 1880.
5. Ministry of Justice and for Iceland.— J. ^L V. Nellemann,
appointed June 11, 1875.
6. Ministry of War. — General W. F. L. Kauft'mann, appointed
January 4, 1879.
7. The Ministry of Marine. — X. F. Itavn, appointed January 4,
1879.
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible lor
their acts, and in case of impeachment, and being found guilty,
cannot be pardoned without the consent of the Folkething.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland,
lias its own constitution and administration, under a charter dated
January 5, 1874, and which came into force August 1, 1874. By
the terms of this charter, the legislative power is vested in the
Althing, consisting of oG members, 30 elected by popular suffrage,
and six nominated by the king. A minister for Iceland, nominated
by the king and responsible to the Althing, is at the head of the
Administration: while the highest local authority is vested in the
Governor, called Stiftamtmand, Avho resides at Keikjavik. Besides
him there are three Amtniands ibr the Avestern, the northern, and
eastern districts of Iceland. — (Official Communication.)
Church and Education.
The established religion in Denmark is the Lutheran, Avhich was
introduced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that
time seized by the Crown, to be delivered up to the University, and
other religious and educational establishments. 'J'he affairs of the
national Church are under the superintendence oi" the seven bishops
of Sjiilland, Lolland, Fyen, Ilibe, Aarhuus, Viborg, and Aalborg.
The bishops have no political character ; they inspect the conduct
of the subordinate clergy, confer holy orders, and enjoy nearly all
the privileges of episcopal dignitaries in Great Britain, except that of
voting in the legislature. Complete religious toleration is extended to
every sect. It is enacted, by Art. 76 of the Constitution, that ' all
citizens may worship God according to their own fashion, provided
DENMARK. 45
they do not oilend morality or public order.' By Art. 77, no man
is bound to contribute to the support of a form of worship of which
he is not a member; and by Art. 79 no man can be deprived of his
civil and political rights on the score of religion, nor be exempted
on this account from the performance of his duties as a citizen.
According to the census of 1870, there were only 14,614 persons,
or less than one per cent, of the population, not belonging to the
Lutheran church. Of this number 4,400, or nearly one-third, were
JeAvs ; the remainder comprised 1,857 Roman Catholics; 1,430
members of the Reformed church, or Calvinists; 2,069 Mormons;
3,157 Anabaptists; 57 members of the Anglican Church ; and 1,181
members of a sect called ' Frimenighed,' or the Free Community.
Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attend-
ance at school being obligatory from the age of seven to fourteen.
In conformity with Art. 85 of the Constitution, education is
afibrded gratuitously in the public schools to children whose parents
cannot afford to pay for their teaching. Besides the university of
Copenhagen, there are 13 public gymnasia, or colleges, in the prin-
cipal towns of the kingdom, which afford a ' classical ' education,
and under them are a large number of Middle Schools, for the-
children of the working classes. Instruction at the public expense is
given in Parochial Schools, spread all over the country, to the number
of 2,940, namely 28 in Copenhagen ; 132 in the towns of Denmark,
and 2,780 in the rural districts. — (Official Communication.)
Revenue and Expenditiu'e.
TJie annual revenue of the State during the five financial years
ending March 31, from 1874 to 1878, averaged 2,750,000/. The
expenditure during this quinquennial period was fully balanced bv
the revenue, with an annual surplus, employed for the reduction of
the public debt.
By the terms of the Constitution of Denmark the annual financial
liudget, called the ' Finantslovforslag,' must be laid on the table of
the Folkething at the beginning of each session. As to the annual
financial accounts, called ' Statsregnskab,' the Constitutional Charter
prescribes them to be examined by four paid revisors, two of whom
are elected by the Folkething and two by the Landsthing. The
revisors are entitled to call for jiersons and j^apers, and their
scrutiny of accoimts is very rigid. Their report is submitted to
both Chambers, which, after due consideration, pass their resolution,
generally to the effect that they have no remarks to make on the
balance-sheet.
In the budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the finan-
cial year ending IMarch 31, 1880, the revtnue was calculated at
46
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
46,557,518 kroner, or 2,586,528/., and the expenditure at 41,049,390
kroner, or 2,280,522/. The chief sources of revenue and branches
of expenditure were as follows : —
Sources of Revenue, 1879-80.
Domains, surplus of . . . . .
Interest of Reserve Fund ....
Direct taxes ... ....
Stamp duty ... ...
Duty on inheritance and transfer of property
Law fees .......
Custom-house dues and Excise on distilleries
Surplus on Postal and Telegraph Department
Surplus on State railways in Funen and Jutland
Contribution from the sinking fund
Miscellaneous receipts
Total reveniie . .
Branches of Expenditure, 1879-80.
Civil List and Appanages .....
Rigsdag and Council of State ....
Interest on National Debt —
Interior ........
Foreign ........
Pensions, including invalids of war
Ministry of Foreign Aifairs
,, Interior ......
„ Justice ......
„ Public Worship and Education .
War
„ Navy ......
,, Finance . . ....
,, for Iceland .....
Miscellaneous expenses .....
Management and sinking fund of the National Debt-
Interior .......
Foreign ........
Public Works, &c
Total expenditure
Kroner
495,0U
,955,365
038,400
,448.000
580,000
,024,000
.081.000
70,779
,118,505
,687,910
,058,545
46,557,518
£2,586,528
Kroner.
1,422,384
306,616
6,702,400
615,300
3.273,395
373,512
1.699,697
2,435,385
982,085
8,722,842
5,357,670
2,950,402
109,600
3,886,375
100,000
72,600
2,039,127
41,049,390
.i'2,280,522
According to these financial estimates, there was a calculated
surplus of 5,508,128 kroner, or 306,007/., in the financial estimates
for the year ending March 31, 1880.
An important feature in the administration of the finances of the
kingdom is the maintenance of a Keserve Fund of a comj)aratively
large amount. On the 31st of March 1868, the Fund stood at
6,317, 000/., or as much as the national revenue for two years, but it
was reduced to 5,687,000/. in 1869, and fiu-ther reduced to 5,033,000/.
in 1871, to 3,746,000/. in 1872, and stood on the 31st of March,
DENMAEK.
47
1878, at 2,132,206/. The object of the Reserve Fund is to provide
means at the disposal of the government in the event of sudden
occuiTences.
The public debt of Denmark, incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary
government, and in part by railway undertakings, and the con-
struction of harbours, lighthouses, and other works of public
importance, amounted to 174,781,950 kroner, or 9,710,108/., on
March 31, 1878. The debt has been in course of reduction since
1866, as shown in the following table, which gives the national
liabilities at six different periods, from 1866 to 1878 : —
Years,
ending March 31
Capital of Debt
1866
1870
1872
1875
1877
1878
Kroner
262,232,680
234,740,700
229,321,567
185,835,623
176.248.442
174,781,950
&
14,568,483
13,041,150
12,740,087
10,324,201
9,791,580
9,710,108
The annual charge of the national debt, comprising interest,
management, and a sinking fimd, is gradually diminishing. It
amounted to the following sums in each of the financial years
from 1875-76 to 1877-78 :—
Years
Kroner
£
1875-76 .
1876-77 .
1877-78 .
12,647,358
12,390,323
9,194,715
702,631
688,351
510,818
The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The latter
consisted, March 1878, in part of an English loan contracted in 1825,
of the original amount of 5,500,000/., paid off entirely in 1879.
Another English loan, raised in London in 1864, was paid off in
1877. (Official Communication.)
Army and Navy.
The army of Denmark consists, according to a law of re-organi-
sation, passed by the Rigsdag on July 6, 1867, of all the able-
bodied young men of the kingdom who have reached the age of 22
years. They are liable to service for eight years in the regular army,
and for eight years subsequent in the army of reserve. The drilling
is divided into two periods : the first lasts six months for the
infantry, five months for the field artillery, and the engineers ; nine
48
THE STATESMA:^ S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
months and two weeks for tlie cavalry ; and four months for the
siege artillery and the technic corps. The second period of drill,
which is for only a portion of the recruits of each branch of arms,
notably those who have profited the least by the first course, lasts
nine months for the infantry, eleven months for the cavalry, and one
year for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to
drill each year during from thirty to forty-five days. By the terms
of the law of 1867, the kingdom is divided into five territorial
brigades, and every brigade into two territorial battaKons, in such
a way that no district and no town, the capital excepted, will belong
to more than one territorial battalion. Every territorial brigade fur-
nishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and one regiment of
cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished one-half by the two
first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three other ones.
The contingent of the engineers is furnished by the whole brigades.
The forces of the kingdom, under the new organisation, comprise
21 battalions of infantry of the line, with 10 battalions of reserve,
and 1 1 of second reserve ; 5 regiments of cavalry, each Avith 3
squadrons active and a depot; two regiments of artillery, in 12
batteries, two of the line and one of reserve ; and two battalions of
engineers. The total strength of the army was as follows at the
commencement of September 1880 : —
Infantry .
Cavalry
Artillery .
Engineers .
Eegular Army
Army of Reserve
Officers
Rank and File
Officers
Rank and File
774
128
145
59
26,992 245
2,180 —
4,755 ! ■ 41
624 —
10,925
2,068
Total .
1,106
34,551
286 1 12,993
The staff of the army was composed, in September 1880, of 25
commissioned and 21 n in-commissioned officers.
The navy of Denmark consisted, at the end of 1880, of 28
steamers, of which eight were armour-clad ships, and the rest un-
armoured vessels, the latter mostly of small size. The following is a
tabular list of the seven ironclads, the columns of the table exhibiting
— similar to that of the British ironclad navy — after the name of
each ship, first, the thickness of armour at the water-line ; secondly,
the number and weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated or nominal
horse-power of engines ; and fourthly, the tonnage, that is, the dis-
placement in tons. The ironclad marked by an asterisk (*) before
the nnnic was launched but not completed at the end of bSSO : —
UE^NMAKK.
49
The largest ironclad in the Danish navy, the Helgoland, was com-
pleted in the summer of 1880. The most remarkable of these ships
is the last in the list, the Tordenskyold, launched in 1880. It is a
torpedo boat, the largest in the Baltic, covered with four-inch steel
armour, laid on horizontally instead of vertically, besides a belt ol'
cork. She is divided into 23 watertight compartments, and carries
two swifr torpedo launches besides appliances to shoot Whitehead's
torpedoes, and is armed with one 15-inch Krupp breechloader, the
heaviest gun in any o£ the Baltic fleets, besides four 5-inch Krupp
breechloaders. All the other armour-clad ships were constructed
after old French models, between the years 1863 and 1872 — the
Eolf Krake launched in 1863 ; the Peder Skram and the Danmark
in 1864 ; the Lindormen and the Gorm, sister turret-ships, in 1868
and 1869 ; and the Odin in 1872. The most powerful of the other
ironclads of the Danish navy is the Odin, constructed at the dock-
yard of Nyholm, near Copenhagen, begun in 1870, and launched in
1873. The Odin, plated with 8-inch iron amidships, and 5-inch
fore and aft, carries four 10-incli guns, of 18 tons each, sheltered
under a rising turret on mid-deck, covering not only the guns bur
also the base of the chimneys and the upper part of the engines.
The prow caiTies a steel battering-ram more than a foot square, and
protruding six feet, so arranged as to be screwed back into the hull.
The Danish navy is recruited, by naval conscription, from the coast
population. It is manned by 1,025 men, and officered by one admiral,
16 commanders, 36 captains, and 181 lieutenants — (Official Com-
munication.)
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of Denmark,
according to the decennial census, taken Februaiy 1, 1870, together
with the estimated population at the end of June 1878 : —
E
50
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Provinces
Area
English sq. m.
Population
Feb. 1, 1870 | June 1878
Seeland and Moen .
Bornliolm ....
Fiinen and Langeland
Lolland-Falster
Jiitland
Total .
2,793
221
1,302
640
9,597
637,711
31,894
236,311
90,706
788,119
693,000
34,000
253,000
94,000
866,000
14,553
1,784,741
1,940,000
The preliminary returns of the last decennial census, taken
February 1, 1880, gave 1,969,464 as the total population of the
Kingdom.
The proportionate increase in the population of Denmark in recent
years has been larger in the towns than in the country districts,
averaging in the former 10'29 per cent., and in the latter only 5-99
])er cent, in the course of 15 years. The following table gives the
total number of births, deaths, and marriages, with the surplus of
births over deaths, in each of the five years from 1873 to 1877 : —
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of births
over deaths
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
56,571
57,278
59,749
61,788
60,850
34,2.50
37,046
39,423
37,365
35,806
14.903
15,260
1.5,915
16,180
15,428
22,321
20,232
20,326
24,423
25,044
The population of the capital, Copenhagen (Kjobenhavn), at the
census of 1880, was 23-5,254.
The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the
state of the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into
larger estates, but encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out
of landed property. It was found at the last census that out of an
average of 1,000 people, 395 live exclusively by agriculture.
Emigration carried off, chiefly to the United States, 3,906 per-
sons in 1871; 6,893 in 1872; 7,241 in 1873; 3,322 in 1874;
2,088 in 1875; 1,581 in 1876; 1,877 in ,1877 ; 2,972 in 1878;
■md 3,118 in 1879.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Denmark is carried on mainl}' with Germany
and vireat Britain. The following table shows the declared value,
according to official returns, of the imports :md exports for each of
the three years, from 187G to 1878: —
DE.SilARK
Tears
Imports
Exports
1876
1877
1878
Kroner A
228,901.043 12,716,758
225,418,322 12,52.:>,240
190,400,000 10,577,778
Ki-oner
180,667,021
164.381,216
15,809,000
£
10,037,057
9,132,289
878,277
5t
The imports of the year 1878 came to the declared value of
84,887,730 kroner, or 4,715,985/. from Germany; and of 53,558,871
kroner, or 2,975,493Z. — including colonial good.s, as well as home
]3roduce — from Great Britain ; while of the exports there were sent
53,279,808 kroner, or 2,959,989/. in value to Germany; and
63,687,943 kroner, or 3,538,219/. to Great Britain.
The commercial intercourse between Denmark, including Iceland,
the Fsroe Islands, and Greenland, and the United Kingdom is shown
in the subjoined tabular statement, exhibiting the value of the total
exports from Denmark to Great Britain and Ireland, aside with the
imports of British and Irish home produce and manuiactures into
Denmark, in each of the ten years, 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Denmark to
Imports of BritishHomeProduce
Great Britain
into Denmark
£
£
1870
3,053,425
2,021,611
1871
2,553.562
1,748,933
1872
3,618,337
2,056,390
1873
3,571,139
2,671,344
1874
3,890,492
2,519,522
1875
4,241,671
2,323,707
1876
4.217.934
2,199,106
1877
3,950.229
1,828,166
1878
4,584,544
1,526,362
1879
4,675,090
1,647,967
The exports of Denmark to the United Kingdom consist almost
entirely of agricultural produce, the principal of them butter, corn
and live animals. The imports of butter rose from 767,190/ in
1870, to 1,347,791/. in 1877, and to 1,673,452/. in 1879. The
total exports of corn and flour amounted to the value of 1,608,962/. in
the year 1879, comprising 963,418/. for barley; 31,554/. for wheat ;
289,614/. for oats and other kinds of grain ; and 324,376/. for
wheat flour. The exports of live animals amounted to the value of
873,101/. in the year 1879, comprising 411,191/. for oxen and
bulls; 285,080/. for cows and calves; 154,837/. for .sheep and
hogs; and 21,993/. for horses. Of British imports into Denmark,
the principal are cotton manufactures, coals, and iron, all of which
52
THE STATESMAN S YEAH-BOOK, 1881.
showed a decreass in value from 1873 to 1878. 0£ cotton manu-
factures the imports amounted to 285,605/., of coals to 378,398/.,
and of iron, wrought and unwrought, to 205,562/. in the year 1878.
On January 1, 1878, the commercial fleet of Denmark consisted of
3,279 vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 258,325 tons. Of these
188, of 45,124 tons, were steamers. Included in this accoimt were
all vessels of not less than 4 tons. The mass of the shipping con-
sisted of vessels under 300 tons. Of vessels over 300 tons there
were 135, of an aggregate burden of 72,015 tons. To the port of
Copenhagen belonged 443 vessels, of a total burthen of 77,233 tons.
In the four years from January 1, 1874 to January 1, 1878, there
was an increase of 409 vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 55,395
tons in the commercial navy.
On the 1st of January 1878, there Avere railways of a total length
of 1,366 kilometres, or 854 Engl, miles, open for traffic in the
kingdom. Of this total, 811 kilometres, or 507 Eng. miles, belonged
to the State. The railways owned and worked by the State comprise
a line through the islands of Falster and Lolland, terminating at
the port of Nakskow, connected with England by steamers ; and
another through the middle and western part of Jutland, terminating^
at the village of Esbjerg, near the frontier of Germany.
The Post Office in the year 1878 carried 25,463,599 letters, and
24,879,891 newspapers. The Telegraphs in the same year carried
940,655 messages, of which 431,197 were internal; 276,146 foreign ;
and 233,312 in transit. The total length of telegraph lines, at the
end of 1878, was 3,040 kilometres, or 1,887 Engl, miles, and the
length of wires 8,600 kilometres, or 5,341 Engl, miles. At the
same date, there were 224 telegraph offices, of which 108 belonged
tc railway companies, and 116 to the State.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of the following^
ten-itories, chiefly islands, in Europe and America. The area and
population are given alter the census return of 1870 : —
Colonies
Area
Engl. sq. miles
Population
1870
Faeroe, or Horse Islands (17 inhabited).
Iceland ......
Greenland
f St. Croix
West Indies { St. Thomas .
[ St. John
.Total ....
510
39,756
46,740
74
23
21
9,992
69,763
9,825
22,760
14,007
1,054
87,124
127,401
DENMARK. 53
The possessions in the West Indies alone are of any commercial
importance. The inhabitants, mostly free negroes, are engaged in the
cultivation of the sugar cane, exporting annually from 12 to 16
million pounds of raw sugar, besides 1 million gallons of rum. The
value of the total exports from St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John
to the United Kingdom amounted to 14,676/., and that of the im-
ports of British produce to 225, .371Z., in the year 1877. The chief
article of export in 1877 consisted of imrefined sugar, valued at
11,440/., while the British imports in 1877 were mainly cotton goods,
of the value of 92,011)/.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Denmark in Great Britain.
Envoy and 3//;HVn-. — Barou Christian Fredcrik von Falbc, accredited June
28, 1880.
Secretary. — P. R. de Krag.
2. Of Great Britain in Denmark.
Envoy and Miiiister. — Sir Charles Lennox Wyke, K.C.B.. G.C.M.C, liorn in
1815 ; Envoy to Guatemahi and Honduras, 1859-60 ; to Mexico, 1860-61 ; and
to Hanover, 1865-66. Appointed Envoy to Denmark, December 16, 1867.
Secret ary . — YAmimA Doughis Veiteli Fane.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Denmark, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
Under a law which came into force on January 1, 1875, the
decimal system of cuiTency was introduced in Denmark, the unit
being the Krone, or Crown, divided into 100 ore. The Krone is
generally accounted of one-half the A'alue of the old unit of currency
of which it took the place, the liir/sdaler, divided into 96 shillings.
Tiie Krone = 100 iJre ... . . Average rate of exchange, Is. IJcZ.,
or about 18 Kroner to 1/. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Pound = 100 Kcint . . = 1-102 avoirdupois, or about lOOlbs.
to the cwt.
„ Ship Lust =2 tons.
, Tonde, or Barrel of Grain'and Salt = 3'8 Imperial bushels.
Coal ■ . . = 4-7
„ Foot = 1-03 English foot.
„ Viertel . . . . - . — 1'7 Imnei-ial gallon.
54 THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Officiax Publications.
Kongelig Dansk Hof og Statsealender. Kjobenhavn, 1880.
Sammendrag af Statistiske Oplysminger. No. 1-7. Statistiske Meddelelser.
8. Kjobenhavn, 1877-80.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Tredie Kaekke. Indeholdende Tabcller over Kon-
geriget Danmarks Vare-Indforsel og Udforsel samt Skibsfert m. m. Udgivet
af det statistiske Bureau. -1. Kjobenhavn. 1872-80.
'Kesiime des principaiix faits statistiqvies du Danemark.' Publie par le
Bureau royal de statistique. No. II. 8. Copenliague, 1879.
Report 'l>y Mr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce
of Denmark, dated Copenhagen, December 31, 1877; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Jlr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances,
Trade, and Shipping of Denmark, dated May 30, 1876; in ' Eeport by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce of
Denmark, dated Copenhagen, June 8, 1877; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeport hj- Mr. J. Gr. F. Eussell, Secretary of Legation, on the finances and
the commerce of Denmark, dated Copenhagen, December 31, 1878 ; in ' Eeports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1879. 8. London,
1879.
Eeports by Mr. Consiil Palgrave and l^y Mr. Yice-Consul Du Bois, on tho
Commerce of the Colonies of St. Croix and St. Thomas, dated Jan.-Feb. 1876 ;
i n ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consul CroM-e on the Trade, Commerce, and Agriculture of
Denmark, dated Copenhagen, Feb. 26 and May 13, 1876; in 'Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part Y. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Trade of Denmark with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the Ignited Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Nox-Official Publications.
Bagqcscii (A.), Den Danske Stat i Aaret 1860. Fremstillet geograpliisk og
statis'tisk, tilligc fra et militairt Standpunkt. 2 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1860-63.
Fdbe-Hansen (V.), and Scliarllng (Wm.), Danmark's Statistik. 8. Kjoben-
havn, 1878-79.
Petersen (C. P. N.), Love og andre offentlige Kundgjorelser, &c., yedkom-
mende Landvaesenet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1865.
Eamah (Harry), The State of Agriculture in Denmark. In ' Journal of tho
Eo3'al Agricultural Society of England.' vol. xxi. 8. London, 1866.
Trai) (J. P.), Statistisk-topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark.
2nd ed. 4 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1872-78.
:)D
FRANCE.
(Republique Francaise.)
Constitution and Government.
TuE present constitution of France, voted by the National Assembly,
elected in 1871, bears date February 25, 1875. It vests the legis-
lative power in an assembly of two houses, the Chamber of Depu-
ties and the Senate, and the executive in a chief magistrate called
President of the Repuljhc. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by
universal suffrage, under the ' scrutin d'arrondissement,' adopted by
the National x\.ssembly, November 11, 1875, The law orders that
every arrondissement has to elect one deputy, and if its popula-
tion is in excess of 100,000, an additional deputy for each 100,000,
or portion thereof. There were 9,992,329 * electeurs politiques,' or
persons possessing votes, at the last general election, in 1878.^ The
only requisite to be an elector is to be possessed of citizenship and
to be of the age of twenty-one years, while the only requisite for
a deputy is to be a citizen and twenty-five years of age. There are
532 members in the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is com-
posed of 300 members, of v/hom 75 hold their seats for life, the va-
cancies being filled by the choice of the Senate. The remaining 225
seats are divided by lot into three classes of 75 each, one class going
out at successive periods of three years. The election of these 225
senators is by an indirect process. In the first instance, the com-
munes and municipalities of France, large and small, elect, by a
majority of their members, each one of the ' electeurs senatoriaux,'
and these, in their turn, after a lapse of two months, meet together to
choose the senators. No other qualification is required for a senator
than to be a Frenchman and forty years of age. The Senate and the
Chamber of Deputies assemble every year on the second Tuesday in
Janiiary, unless a previous summons is made by the President of the
Republic, and they must remain in Session at least five months every
year.
The Chamber of Deputies is elected for the term of four years.
The President of the Republic has the right of convoking the Cham-^
bers for an extraordinary meeting. He is bound to convoke tliem if
the demand is made by one-half of the number of members com-
posing each Chamber. The President can adjourn the Chambers,
but the adjournment cannot exceed the term of a month, nor occur
more than twice in the same session. The Senate has conjointly with
the Chamber of Deputies the right of initiating and framing laws.
56 TJIE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Nevertheless, financial laws must be first presented to and v^oted by
the Chamber of Deputies.
Both the Senators and the Deputies receive payment for their
services, at a fixed rate per diem. In the budget for 1880 the ex-
penses connected with the Senate were fixed at 3,805,600 francs, or
154,624/., and those of the Chamber of Deputies at 6,521,000 francs,
or 260,840/., being a total of 10,386,000 francs, or 415,464/.
The President of the Republic is elected, by a majority of votes,
by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, united in National Assem-
bly. He is nominated for seven years, and is eligible for re-election.
The President of the Republic has the initiative of legislation con-
currently with the two Chambers. He jiromulgates the laws when
they have been voted by the two Chambers. He Avatches over and
insures the execution of them. He has the ris-ht of individual
o
pardon, but cannot j)roclaim a general amnest)^ He disposes
of the armed force ; and he appoints to all civil and military
posts, including tlie heads of the ministerial departments. Every
act of the President of the Repul^lic must be countersigned by a
Minister. The President of the Republic may, with the assent of
the Senate, dissolve the Chamber of Deputies before the legal expi-
ration of its term, but in such event the electoral colleges must be
summoned for new elections within three months. The ministers
as a body are responsible to the Chambers for the general policy of
the Government, and individually for their personal acts. The
President of the Republic is responsible only in case of high treason.
By a special article, appended to the constitution of 1875, dated
July 16, 1875, it is enacted that 'the President of the Republic
cannot declare war without the previous assent of the two Chambers.'
In the event of a vacancy by death, or any other cause, the two united
Chambers must proceed immediately to the election of a new Presi-
dent of the Republic.
President of the Republic. — Francois J. P. Jules Grevy, born at
Montsous-Vaudrez, dep. Jura, August 15, 1808 ; studied law and
admitted to the bar of Paris, 1831 ; member of the Constituent
Assembly, 1848-9, and member of the Legislative Body, 1868-70 ;
member of the National Assembly, 1871-5, and President of the
Assembly, 1871-3; Piesident of the Chamber of Deputies, 1876-9.
Elected President of the Republic for seven years by the Senate and
Chamber of Deputies, assembled in National Assembly, by 563
against 99 votes, January 30, 1879.
The salary of the President of the Republic is fixed at 600,000
francs, or 24,000/., with an additional allowance of 300,000 francs,
or 12,000/., for hoiisehold expenses.
President of the Senate. — Jean Baptiste Leon Say, boi-n 1826 ;
studied political, economy, and published a number of statistical and
FRANCE. 57
financial works; administrator of the Northern Kail way of France,
1865-70 ; Prefect of the department of the Seine, 1871-2 ; Minister
of Finance 1872-3, and again 1875-78. Elected President of the
Senate, October 1878.
President of the Chamber of Deputies.— Jjcon Gamhetta^ born at
Cahors October 30, 1838; studied law, and entered the bar of
Paris, 1859; elected member of the Legislative Assembly, 18G9;
member of the Provisional Government of France, 1870-71, and
Dictator, October 1870 to February 1871. Elected President of
the Chamber of Deputies, June 1880.
The last Ministry, appointed by the President of the Republic,
consists of eleven members, namely : —
1. President of the Council of Ministers.— Jules Ferry, born
at Paris in 1823 ; studied law and admitted to the bar, 1848 ;
member of the Legislative Body, 18G9-70 ; member of the Govern-
ment of National Defence, 1870-1 ; Prefect of the department of
the Seine, 1871-2; Ambassador to Greece, 1872-3; Minister of
Public Instruction and Fine Arts, 1879-80. Appointed President
of the Council of Ministers, September 23, 1880.
2. jNIinister of the Interior. — M. Constans, formerly Under Secre-
tary of State for the Home Department ; appointed May 18, 1880.
3. Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Jules Barthelemy de Saint-
Hilaire, born at Paris, August 19, 1805; entered the Civil Service,
1830; Secretary of the Provisional Government of France, 1848.
Appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, September 23, 1880.
3. Minister of Finance.— Joseph Magnin, born at Dijon, Jan. 1,
1824; appointed September 23, -1880.
5. Minister of Justice. — Charles Le Royer, born at Geneva,
Switzerland, in 1816 ; studied law and admitted to the bar of Lyons,
1839. Appointed Minister of Justice, February 5, 1879.
6. Minister of Commerce and Agriculture. — Charles Tirard, born
at Geneva, November 10, 1826; studied jurisprudence, 1846-50;
appointed Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, February 5, 1879.
7. Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts.— Jules Ferry
President of the Council, appointed, ad interim, October 1, 1880.
8. Minister of Public Works.— M. Sadi Carnot; appointed Sep-
tember 23, 1880.
9. Minister of War.— Genera Farre ; appointed October, 1,
1880.
10. Minister of Marine.— Vice -Admiral Clone ; appointed Sep-
tember 23, 1880.
11. Minister of Posts and Telegraphs. — Louis Cochery^ born 1830 ;
studied jurisprudence and admitted to the bar in 1856 ; Under-
Secretary in the Ministry of Finance, 1873^-79.^ Appointed
First Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, February 5, 1879.
5^ THE STATESMAIS'S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The following is a list of the Sovei'eigns and Governments of
France, from the accession of the House of Boui'bon : —
House of Boi'.rbo/i i House of Bourbon — Orlians
Henri IV. . ' . .1589-1610 , Louis Philippe ( + 1850) . 1830-1848
Louis XIIL, 'le Juste' .1610-1643 ! c i ^ -.i
LouisXIV., 'le Grand' . 1643-1715 i -„ .. Second Bepubhc
Louis XV. . . . 1715-1774 ! -t^^visional Government,
Louis XVL ( + 1793) .1774-1792
First Eepublic
Convention . . . 1792-1795
Directoire . . . 1795-1799
Consulate . . . 1799-1804
Feb.-Dec. . . . 1848
Louis Napoleon, President 1848- 1852
Emjyire, Restored
Xapoleon in. ( + 1873) . 1852-1870
I Third Ecpublic
Einpire I Government of National
Napoleon L(+ 1821) . 1804-1814 i Defence . . . 1870-1871
House of Bourbon, Eestored { Louis A.Thiers, President 1871-1873
Louis XVIII. . . .1814-1824 i Marshal MacMahon „ 1873-1879
Charles X. (+1836) . 1824-1830 ! F. J. P. Jules Grevy „ 1879
The average duration of the eighteen Governments of France
since the accession of the House of Bourbon was 16 years.
Church and Education.
The population of France, at the census of May 1872, consisted
of 35,387,703 Roman Catholics, being 98-02 per cent, of the total
population, of 580,757 Protestants, or 1-6 per cent, of the popula-
tion, of 49,439 Jews, and 85,022 members of other sects.
All religions are equal by law, but only the Eomau Catholics,
Protestants, and Jews, have .state aIlov>-anccs. In the budget for
1880, the.se allowances were as follows : —
Francs
Roman Catholic prelates and clergy . . 41,508,295
Roman Catholic Churches, seminaries, &c. . 10,205,400
Protestant clerg-y 1,416,000
Jewish rahhis 188,900
Protestant and Jewish places of worship . 80,000
Total .... 53,398,595 or £2,135,944
There are eighty-six prelates of the Roman Catholic Church —
namely, seventeen archbishops and sixty-nine bishops. The Protes-
tants of the Augsburg Confession, or Lutheran.s, are, in their relio'ious
affairs, governed by a General Consistory, v>diile the members of the
Reformed Church, or Calviaists, are under a council of administra-
tion, the seat of which is at Paris. At the census of 1872, the
clergy of all denominations was found to number 150,654 indivi-
duals, while their families, supported by them, numbered 24 204
and their servants 41,817, being a totjil of 216,675 23ersons, equal
to O'G per cent, of the population of France.
FRANCE.
59
Public education in France is entirely under tlie supervision of tiie
Government. The highest schools, or universities, go by the name
of ' facultes de I'etat,' and are fifteen in number, at Paris, Aix,
Besan(:on, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Douai, Grenoble,
Lyon,'Monpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Eennes, and Toulouse. In the
session of 1879-80, the total number of students— ' total des in-
scriptions'— at these 15 high schools was 41,185, of whom 15,885
studied law ; 14,269 philosophy or ' lettres ' ; 9,618 medicine ;^ and
1,413 sciences. The number of students at the ' faculte de I'etat'
at Paris alone was 20,167, or nearly one-half of the total number.
Next to it in numbers stood the high school of Bordeaux, with
3,507 students. Some of the ' facultes de I'etat ' have but few stu-
dents, such as Clermont, Avhich had 46, and Besancon 38 students
in the session of 1879-80. Together with the general census of May
1872, there was an official inquiry into the educational state of the
nation, which, being very carefully made, gave, it is reported, accurate
results. In the inquiry of 1872, the population was divided into three
groups, according to ages, the first comprising all children imder six ;
the second the growing generation between six and twenty ; and the
third all the grown-up persons above twenty. The following table
gives the total net results of the educational census of 1872 : —
Degree of Education
Groups of Ages
i
Under six years
From 6 to 20
Above 20 years
Unable to read or WTite .
Able to read only .
Able to read and write
Unascertained
Total
Total
3,540,101
292,348
151,595
. 1 .38,042
2.082,338
1,175,125
5,458,097
! 70,721
7,702,362
2,3(5.130
13,073,057
214,005
• 1 4,022,086
! 8,786,281
23,294,554 '
popvdation .
36,102,921 1
It Avill be seen from the preceding table that nine-tenths of the
children under six ; more than a fifth, but less than a fourth of the
youths of both sexes imder twenty; and more than a third of the
grown-up population of men and women, are unable to read or
write. Setting aside the four millions of children under six years of
age, it may be said that thirty per cent, of the population of France
are entirely devoid of education.
The census of 1872 .showed an extraordinary difference in the
degree of education between the 87 departments of France, the
percentage of ignorance ranging between six and sixty. The
following tabular statement shows the departments in the order
of educational advancement, giving the percentage of all individuals
above six years of age unable to read or write : —
6o
T][E STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Percentage of
Percentage of
Departments
individuals un-
able to read or
Departments
individuals un-
able to read or
write
write
Doubs
6-9
Charente-Inferienre .
32-2
Menrthe-et-Moselle .
8-,3
Saone-et-Loirc .
32-3
Haute-Marne .
8-4
Loiret
32-4
Jura
9-3
Maine-et-Loire
32-4
Meuse
97
Mayenne .
32-7
Vosges
10-0
Gard
33-7
Seine
11-4
Loire-Infericure
33-7
Marne
11-8
Ile-et-Vilaine .
34-6
Haute-Saune
11-9
Puy-de-D6me .
35-9
Seiue-et-Oise .
12-0
Herault .
36-1
Aiibe
12-4
Ardeche .
36-4
Rlun (Belfort) .
12-7
Nord
36-6
Cote-d'Or .
13 3
Sarthe
36-7
Hautcs-Alpes .
14-3
Denx-Sevres
37-2
Rhone
14-,')
Loir-et-Cher
37-6
Orne
15-9
Yauchiso .
37-6
Ardennes .
16-4
Haute-Garonne
37-7
Calvados .
16-5
Var ....
37-7
Lozero
20-3
Lot .
38-7
Seine-et-Marnc
20-4
Gers
39-6
Isfere
21-0
Tarn
40-4
Oise
21-8
Lot-ct-Gai-onne
41-5
Aveyron .
22-0
Aude
41-6
Haute-yavoie .
22-4
Tarn-et-Garonno
42-0
Savoie
23-2
Corse (Corsica )
42-8
Eure-et-Loire .
23-4
C6tes-du-Nord .
43-2
Cantal .
23-5
Indre-et-Loii'e .
43-3
Ain ....
24-1
Crcusf
46-6
Yonne
24-2
Nievro
47-4
Manche .
25-9
Charente ,
48-4
Aisno
26-3
Vienne
48-6
Haiites-Pyrenees
27-2
Pyrenees-Orientalts .
49-6
Bouches-du-Eli6ne .
27-6
Vendee
50 8
Eure
27-8
Morbilian
62-1
Seine-Inft-ricure
28-7
AUier
52-5
Somme
28-8
Ariege
63-4
Basses-Pyrenees
28-9
Correzo
55-8
Drome
29-1
Finisterc .
56-3
Basses-Alpes .
29 2
Indre
568
Gironde .
29-2
Cher
57-3
Loire
29-5
Landes
67"6
Pas-de-Calais .
29-6
Dordoguo
60-3
Alpes-Maritimes
31-8
ILiute- Vienne .
61-8
Hante-Loire
31-8
General Average
31. G
It will be sefen tliat, as a rule, education is most advanced in the
north-eastern departments of France, and least in the south-western
FRANCE.
6l
departments. In the departments now constituting the German
' Reichsland ' of Alsace-Lorraine, France lost the most educated
portion of her former inhabitants. The progress of education indi-
cated in the census returns of 1866 and 1872 was very slight, due
to some extent to the loss of these provinces.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The budgets of revenue and expenditure were as follows in each
of the eight years, from 1873 to 1880 :—
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
£
Francs
£
1873. . .
2,467,470,630
98,698,825
2,374,804,134
94,992,165
1874. . .
2,533,262,199
101.330,488
2,532,689,922
101,307,597
1875. . .
2,588,900,623
103,.55G,025
2,584,452,831
103,378,113
1876. . .
2,575,028,582
103,001,143
2,570,000,475
102,800,019
1877. . .
2672,140,530
106,885,621 J
2,667,296,751
106,691,870
1878. . .
2,793,377,804
111,735,112
2,781,035,095
111,241,404
1879. . .
2,995,670,613
119,826,825
2,961,274,851
118,450,994
1880. . .
3,130,725,288
125,229,011
3,130,494,244
125,219,769
The principal sources of revenue and branches of expenditure in
the budget estimates for eacli of the two years 1879 and 1880 were
as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes .....
Special taxes assimilated to direct
taxes .....
Produce of domains
Produce of forests .
Registration duties .ind stamps
Customs and salt .
Indirect taxes
Posts . ...
Tax on personal property ' Inipot de
3 p. 0/0 ' .
Produce of telegraphs
' Produits universitaires'
Revenue of Algeria
Tax xipon civil pensions.
Miscellaneous receipts .
Produce of prisoners' "work
' Ressources extraordinaires ' .
Total Revenue
Francs
395,077,000
26,000,000
14,772,000
38,102,600
613,776.000
283,982,000
1,035,997,600
108,763,000
34,142,000
18,532,000
4,540,559
27,552,100
18,891,000
90,625,695
5,880,000
279,037,0.09
2,995,670,613
£119,826,825
Francs
401,209,200
25,615,800
14,850,700
38,102,600
628,816,000
311,499,000
1,059,853,000
108,703,000
34,274,000
21,177,000
4,620,365
27,937,700
19,438,000
95,435,245
5,880,000
381,008,488
3,178,480,098
£127,139,204
62
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Branches of Expenditure
1879
1880
Francs
Fnmcs
Public debt and dotations
1,220,445,287
1,239,161,900
Ministry of justice
34,312,000
34.098,142
,, foreign affairs .
12,919,300
13,216,800
„ the interior
66,682,766
66,453,694
Service of Algeria .
2.j,913,860
27,483,860
Ministry of finance
20.800,000
20,000,000
,, war
552,941,362
567,984,444
,, marine and colonies .
211,352,377
212,784,275
,, public instriiction,
and fine arts .
116,882,354
66.711,406
,, agriculture and com-
merce
34,059,692
35,393,537
„ public works — ordi-
nary ser\nce .
79,737,698
81,329,465
„ extraordinary service
326.228,155
427,460,295
Cost of collecting the revenue
241,150,000
241,235,000
Drawbacks and restitutions . ,
Total expenditure . .
17,850,000
17,312,000
2,961,274,851
3,050,624,818
1
£118,450,994
£122,024,993
In the pi-eliminary budget for the year 1881, drawn up by the
minister of finance, the revenue for the year Avas estimated at
2,752,794,830 francs, or 110,111,793/., and the expenditure at
2,754,432,600 francs, or 110,177,304/., leaving a deficit of 1,637,770
francs, or 65,511/.
The following were the principal sources of actual revenue and
Ijranches of actual expenditure in the year 1869, distinguished as the
last ' normal year,' or year before the war and invasion, according
to the final 'budo-et reorle': —
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes .....
Special taxes assimilated to direct taxes
Produce of domains .
Produce of forests
Begistration duties and stamps
Customs and salt . .
Indirect contributions
Posts
Universities — ' produits universitaires '
Revenue of Algeria . , ,
Tax upon civil pensions . .
Various receipts
* Eessources extraordinaires ' .
Total rereniie .
456,983.648 fr.
144,612,873
627,379,876
94,628,646
Francs
332,439,521
7,132,115
11,153,178
12,893,354
•1,323,605,043
4,024,062
15,023,618
15,378,541
60,826,121
15.718,015
1.798,193,568
£71,927,742
FRANCE.
63
Branches of Expentliture
Public debt and dotations
Ministry of justice .
„ foreign affairs
,, tlie interior
Service of Algeria . _
Ministry of finance .
„ war
,, marine and colonies
„ public instruction, worship and fine arts
,, agriculture and commerce
„ public works — ordinary service
,, „ extraordinary service
Cost of collecting the revenue ....
Drawbacks and restitutions ....
Total expenditure .
Francs
519,911,610
36,080.550
13,899,963
75,443,09^^
38,011,760
20,357,989
384,157,428
175,753,949
87,952,029
16,454,673
83,562,728
51,059,139
227,026,216
10,542,767
1,740,213,900
^69,608,556
The enormot;sly increased expenditure of recent years, compared
with 1869, due principally to the augmented public delot, and, to a
lesser extent, to cost of the army (see p. 69), was covered chiefly by
the imposition of new indirect taxes. Foremost in the list of these
Avere greatly raised customs duties, and stamps, both sources pro-
ducing together upwards of 430,000,000 francs, or 17, "200,000/. per
annum. To provide for increased disbursements connected with the
army, the National Assembly, on the proposition of the Minister of
Finance, voted likewise a variety of new indirect taxes, among them
on sugar, wines, salt, and ti'ansports by railway.
When laying one of the last budgets before the National
Assemblv, the Minister of Finance gave an account of the total
direct cost of the war and foreign occupation of 1870-73, and of the
resources, from loans and new imposts, raised to cover the expendi-
ture. The following two tables embody a summary of the state-
ments of the ^Minister of Finance
Cost of the War and Foreign Occupation 0/ 1870-73.
War expenditure, extraordinary, in 1870
in 1871
Foreign occupation of 1871-73 .
Provisioning of Paris
Grants to the families of soldiers
Interest on sums due to Germany
Maintenance of German troops
Kepayment of fines, &c., levied by Germans
Disbursements on account of the loans of 1870-
Loss from non-payment of taxes, 1870-71
Miscellaneous expenditure
War indemnity to Germany
Total
Francs
1,173,016,000
700,222,000
.38,807,000
169,518,000
50,000,000
:"i()2.005,000
248,625,000
61,708,000
631,168,000
364.189,000
548,564,000
6,000,000,000
9,287,882,000
£^71. 51 5,280
64
THE STATESMAJi .S YEAIl-EOOK, 1881.
Eesourccs raised to cover the E.rjxnditure of the War and Foreign Occupation
o/ 1870-73.
Francs
1,013,471,000
92,197,000
120,309,000
91,288,000
1,530,000,000
325,000,000
2,225,994,000
3,498,744,000
83,915,000
154,899,000
152,06.5,000
Proceeds of loans raised iu 1870
Sale of rentes of the army dotation
Funds of the ' garde mobilis^e .
Sale of provisions for Paris
Loan from the Bank of France .
Loan from the Eastern Rail way Company
Proceeds of the national loan of 1871
., „ M „ of 1872
Produce of new imposts in 1871
„ „ ,. in 1872
Estiinat<'d produce of new imposts in 1873
Total .;;;;.
9,287,882,000
£371,515,280
The necessity cf further loans to cover proLuble deficits Avas
foreshadowed in the presentation of the budgets for 1875 and 1876.
There were deficits, more or less in amount, throughotit the period
of the Empire, as well as under preceding governments. Almost
uninterruptedly, so as to make it (he rule and not the exception, the
budgets voted by the representatives of the nation showed a small
surplus, while the ' compte definitif,' piiblished a number of years
afterwards, exhibited a large deficit.
The following is a statement of the deficits of former periods, from
1814 till the last completed year of the reign of Napoleon III. : —
Periods
Bourbon Monarchy : April 1, 1814, to July 31, 1830 .
Reign of Louis Philippe : August 1, 1830, to Feb. 28, 1848
Second Republic: March 1, 1848, to Dec. 31. 1851
Second Empire: Jan. I, 1852, to Dec. 31, 1869 .
Total
Deficits
&
810,920
39,914,520
14,374,960
85,541,580
140,641,980
The average annual revenue and annual expenditure during each
of the four periods here given were as follows : —
Periods
Average Annual
Revenue
Average Annual Deficit
Expenditure ^^''"*
First: 1814-30 .
Second: 1830-1848
Third: 1848-51 .
Fourth: 1852-69 .
£
39,777,800
48,855,040
59,918,560
78,507,730
£
39,828,520
51,072,520
63,512,320
83,260,040
£
50,720
2,217,480
3,693,760 ]
4,752,310 1
The continued deficits from 1814 to the end of 1869 were covered
by loans, inscribed in the ' Grand livre de la dette publique,' dating
FKANCE. 65
from the year 1793, when a general consolidation was made of
all the debts, annuities, and other Government obligations, which
were converted into a perpetual five per cent. ' rente,' entailing an
annual charge of 174 millions of francs, or 6,960,000Z. The divi-
dends were not, however, paid at first, except in assignats, or paper
of a fictitious value, and six years later the Government was forced
to compound with its creditors. The debt had become reduced by
confiscation of property of the ' emigres 'to 120 millions of francs of
' rente,' which was reduced by a fresh conversion to 40 millions, the
public being reimbursed the remaining two-thirds in bonds ex-
changeable for the confiscated lands of the church and the nobles.
Thus at the commencement of the 19th century the annual charge
of the National Debt of France was only about 1,600,000/., or less
than one-tenth of that of Great Britain. The extension of the
French debt made little progress under Napoleon I., and from 1800
to 1814, a period of fourteen years of almost continuous war, the
annual charge increased but from 40 miUions of francs to 63 mil-
lions, and of the 23 millions added to the yearly charge, 10 millions
represented 'rente' created to repay debts left by the Government
of the Directory to its successor. In reality the debt was only
increased diuring the Consulate and the Empire by 7 miUions of
f)-ancs of ' rente,' or 140 millions of capital, the famous maxim of
Napoleon the First that ' he would make war support war,' being
literally adhered to, as shown by these simple debt-figiires. After
the fall of the Emperor the expenses of the Government were greatly
enhanced. The Restoration increased the annual charge of the debt
between 1814 and 1830 from 63 millions to 165 millions of francs,
but that period had to bear the penalty of the doings of the
former Governments, and the loans issued by it were required to pay
the war indemnity of 700 millions, the indemnity of 1,000 millions
paid to the 'emigres' for their confiscated property, and the burden
of the occupation of a foreign army of 150,000 men. The 'rente '
created under the Restoration in reality amounted to 165 millions
of francs, but during the Avhole of the period a regular system of
amortisation was maintained, and 54 millions of 'rente' were re-
deemed ; at the same time a saving of 6 millions was obtained by a
conversion of the debt in 1825, and 3^ millions of ' rente,' having
reverted to the State, were annulled. The excellent administration
of several Ministers of Finance had in the meantime so improved
tlie credit of the country that from 7^ to 9^ per cent., the cost of
the loans from 1815 to 1818, a loan of 8.0 millions of francs in 4 per
cent, 'rente' was obtained in 1830 from the house of Rothschild at
102-^. This was the only instance in the financial history of France
of a loan being negotiated above par.
The total public debt of France amounted on January 1, 1879,
F
66
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
to a nominal capital of 19,862,035,983 francs, or 794,481,439/., the
interest on which, or ' rente,' was 746,802,952 francs, or 29,936, 198L
The number of ' inscriptions ' of ' rente,' that is of individual holders
was 4,380,933. The following table shows the nominal capital of
each of the four descriptions of ' rente,' the interest, or amount of
* rente,' and the number of holders on January 1, 1879 : —
Description of Rente
Nominal Capital
Interest, or amount
of Rente
Number of Holders
of Rente
3 per cent. .
4 „ . .
4^ „ . .
5 „ . .
Total .
Francs
12.103,352.167
11,152,400
832,061,176
6,917,470,240
Francs
363,040,565
446,096
37,442,779
345,873,512
1,788,114
786
159,459
2,432,574
19,862,035,983
748,404,952
4,380,933
The following table shows, after official returns, the number of
holders of ' rente,' together with the amount of ' rente,' at decennial
periods from 1798 to 1870, and from 1870 to 1879 :—
Years :
Number of Holders of
Amount of Annual
January 1
Rente
Rente
Francs
1798
24,791
25,111,785
1810
145,663
56,730,583
1820
199,697
172,784.838
1830
195,370
204,696,459
1840
265,447
195,911,137
1850
846,330
229.608,758
1860
1,073,801
338.356,589
1870
1.2.54,040
358.087,510
1871
1.269,739
386,222.343
1872
2,147,130
502.126,250
1876
3,473,475
626,120,206
1878
4,130,040
690,013,493
1879
4,380,933
748,404,952
It will be seen that the national debt in recent years has been
steadily undergoing the process of complete subdivision among the
population of France, the number of the public fundholders having
come to approach that of the freeholders of the soil. (Seepage80.)
At the commencement of 1879, the total burden of the capital
of the public debt of France was 515 francs, or 201. 12s. per head
of population ; while the burden of the interest, or rente, was 19
francs, or 15s. \0d. per head of population.
All the departments of France, as well as many of the great towns,
have their own. budgets and debts, which latter were largely increased
FRANCE.
67
loy the war. The budget estimates of the city of Paris for each of
the years 1879 and 1880 Avere as follows : —
Revenue: — Ordinary receipts .
Extraordinary receipts .
Total reveniie .
Expenditure : — Ordinary expenditure
Extraordinary expenditure
Total expenditure
1879
1S80
Francs
223,724,548
4,760,786
Francs
228,635,125
4,987,000
228,485,334
£9,139,413
233,622,125
£9,344,885
Francs
223,724,548
4,760,786
Francs
221,635,125
11,987,000
228.485,334
£9,139,413
233,622,125
£9,344,885
In the provisional budget estimates for the year 1880, the total
revenue Avas calculated at 233,102,579 francs, or 9,324,103Z., and
the total expenditure at 231,041,489 francs, or 9,241,659^.
The principal source of revenue in the budget of the city of Paris
is from tolls upon articles of general consumption, called ' droits
d'octroi,' estimated to produce 125,398,041 francs, or 5,015,922/., in
1879, and 128,713,600 francs, or 5,148,544Z._, in the year 1880.
The principal branch of expenditure is for interest and sinking
fund of the municipal debt, which, at the end of September 1880,
amounted to 2,295,000,000 francs, or 91,800,000/.
Army and Navy.
1. Anivj.
The military forces of France are in a state of nearly completed
reorganisation, on the basis of a ' loi sur le recrutement,' voted
by the National Assembly on July 27, 1872, supplemented by
two fiu'ther organisation laws, passed on July 24, 1873, and March
13, 1875. * The first article of the law of 1872 enacts universal
liability to arms : ' Tout Fran(jais doit le service militaire per-
sonnel.' By Arts. 2 and 4, substitution and enlistment for money
are forbidden, and by Art. 3 it is ordered that ' every French-
man not declared unfit for military service may be called up,
from the age of twenty to that of forty years, to enter the active
army or the reserves.' The constitution of these divisions of
the armed forces is prescribed in the third chapter, the first
article, as follows : ' Every Frenchman not declared unfit for military
service must be for five years in the Active Army — " I'armee active " ;
f2
68 THE statesman's year-book, 188i.
for four years in the Reserve of the Active Army — " la reserve de
I'armee active" ; for five years in the Territorial Army — "I'armee
tei ritoriale " ; and for six years in the Reserve of the Temtorial
Army — " la reserve de I'armee territoriale." ' The Active Army is
composed of all the yonng men, not otherwise exempted, who have
reached the age of twenty, and the Reserve of those who have
passed through the Active Army. Neither the Active Army nor its
Reserve are in any way localised, but drawn from and distributed
over the whole of France. On the other hand the Territorial
Army and its Reserve are spread over fixed regions, determined
from time to time by administrative enactments.
The principle of universal liability to arms, laid down at the
beginnins-, is not carried out strictly in all the enactments of the
law of 187 "2, which admits of various exemptions from the military
service due by all Frenchmen. Beside those rejected on physical
grounds — les jeunes gens que leurs infirmites rendent impropres a
tout service — there are entirely exempt from service, first, the eldest
of orphans having neither father nor mother; secondly, the only son,
or the eldest of sons, or the grandson, or the eldest of grandsons, of
a widow, or wife separated from her husband, or a father upwards
of seventy ; thirdly, the eldest of two brothers liable for service at
the same time ; fourthly, the younger of two brothers, having his
elder brother actually sei-ving in the Active Army ; and fifthly, the
younger son of a family whose elder brother had died in the service,
or has been discharged for wounds <<v illness contracted in the field.
There are, moreover, partly or conditionally exempted the pupils of
the ^cole polytechnique and of the Ecole forestiere ; the teachers
and pupil teachers in public schools ; the professors of various
institutions; the artists who have trained any of the ' Grands Prix'
of the institute of France ; and, finally, the members and novices of
all religious associations devoted to teaching, and all ecclesiastics
borne on a list drawn up by their episcopal superiors. Partial or
additional exemption from military service may also be granted by
the municipal councils and other local authorities to all young men
who contribute to the support of their families, or who are engaged
in studies or avocations that would suffer from interruption. These
latter exemptions ai-e subject to the revision of military councils
established in each department of France.
The law of 1872 permits young men who can prove a certain
amount of education by passing an examination to enlist as volun-
teers for one year only, and to obtain exemption thereby from
service in the Active Army. They must maintain and clothe
themselves at their own expense. All soldiers in the Active Army
who have learnt their duties, and who can read and write, may be
sent on furlough, at the end of a year, for an indefinite time.
FRANCE. 69
According to the budget of the Ministry of "War for 1880, the effec-
tive strength of the whole French army is composed of 496,44*2 men
and 124,279 horses; but the Gendarmerie and the Garde Republicaine
are included in these figures, and they amount together to 2/, 132
men and 13,480 horses. The army properly so called was, therefore, in
1880, made up of 469,310 men and 110,7*99 horses. Of these 52,424
' men and 15,756 horses were assigned to Algiers; the remaining
416,886 men and 95,043 horses were quartered in France and the
various colonial stations. For recruiting the army in 1880, it was esti-
mated that 165,598 conscripts would be required. Of these 107,113
were to be assigned to the infantry, 18,045 to the cavalry, 24,647
to the artillery, 4,718 to the engineers, 5,759 to the military train,
and 5,316 to the administrative branches.
Notwithstanding the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, resulting in a decrease
of population of more than a million and a half, the expenditure for
the army has largely increased since the war with Germany. In
the year 1869, the actual expenditure for the army amounted to
384,157,428 francs, or 15,366,297/. ; while in the estimates for 1880,
voted by the Chamber of Deputies, the amount stood at 567,984,444
francs, or 22,719,378/., being an augmentation of 183,827,016
francs, or 7,353,081/. The rise was due mainly to the increase in
the numbers of the army imder the new organisation.
The organisation of the French army, under the law known as
the ' loi des cadres,' passed by the National Assembly, March 13,
1875, is as follows :
Infantry :
144 regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of 4 com])anies, be-
sides 2 depot companies.
80 battalions of chasseurs a pied, each of 4 companies, with 1
depot company.
4 regiments of zouaves, each of 4 battalions of 4 conipanies, with
one depot company.
3 regiments of Tirailleurs Algeriens, each of 4 liattalions ol' 4
companies.
1 regiment of Legion Etrangere, of 4 battalions of 4 companies.
3 battalions of Infanterie Legere d'Afrique.
The troops of the last four divisions form a special class, enrolled
as the 19th corps d'armee.
Cavalry :
12 regiments of cuirassiers,
26 regiments of dragoons.
32 regiments of light cavalry, including 20 of chasseurs and 12 of
hussars.
4 regiments of Chasseiu-s d'Afi-ique.
3 regiments of Spahis.
^o
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Ariillery and Engineers :
38 regiments of field artillery, forming 19 brigades, each of 13
batteries.
2 regiments of artillery pontonniers, each of 14 companies.
10 companies of artillery workmen for factories, &c.
57 companies of train artillery.
4 regiments of sappers and miners, each of 5 battalions of 4 com- '
panies.
The total effective force of the French army — ' effectifs du pied
de paix ' — both in men, including officers, rank and file, and in
horses, was reported as follows to the Chamber of Deputies in the
session of 1880: —
Divisions
Men
Horses
Infantry ....
Cavalry .....
Artillery ....
Engineers (Genie)
Train (Equipages militaire.s) .
Administrative troops .
' Gendarmerie ' . . .
281.601
68,617
66,331
10,960
9.392
38,782
27,014
2,649
59,023
32,690
733
7,680
4,452
13,667
Total .
502,697
120,894
The whole of France is divided into 18 military regions, each
under a general of division, and subdivided into districts, of the same
circiunference as the departments, under a general of brigade. The
fortified places are specially administered by a ' service des fortifi-
cations,' with ' chefs-lieux,' or head-quarters, at Arras, Bayonne,
Besan^on, Bourges, Brest, Cherbourg, Grenoble, Langres, La Eo-
chelle, Le Havre, Lille, Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nantes,
Perpignan, St. Omer, Toulon, and Toulouse. Before the war ot
1870-71, there were two more of these ' chef-lieux,' Metz and
Strasbourg, which also contained the chief military establishments,
manufactories, and stores. To replace them, it was ordered, by a
decree of the Government, issued in July 1872, to create military
establishments at Avignon, Perpignan, Quiberon, and Rouen.
2. Navy.
The war navy of France was composed, at the end of 1880, of
59 ironclads, 264 unarmoured screw steamers, 62 paddle-steamers,
and 113 sailing vessels. The following statement gives the number
of vessels of each, class, their horse-power, and armament : —
FRANCE.
n
Classes of Vessels
Number
Horse-power
Guns
1. Ironclads {Batiments cuirasses): — •
' Batiments de Combat ' . . .
30
118,819
828
• Cuirasses de 2nd raug'
15
35,013
88
Coast-guards (Garde-cotes cuirasses) .
7
13,353
11
Floating batteries (Batteries flottantes).
Total, Ironclads
7
35,000
44
481
59
202,185
2. Screw Steajiees {Bcitiments a helke) : —
Ships of the line (Yaisseaux)
29
16,680
386
Frigates (Fregates) ....
24
10,100
574
Corvettes (Corvettes) ....
21
7,940
156
Avisos (Avisos) ....
63
8,975
172
Gunboats (Canonniferes)
78
1,871
95
Transports (Transports)
47
10,222
160
Special boats (Batim. speeiaux) .
Total, Screw Steamers
2
24
4
264
55,812
1,547
3. Paddle Steamers {Batiments a roties) : —
Frigates (Fregates) ....
11
3,450
32
Corvettes (Corvettes) . . .
7
1,870
18
Avisos (Avisos) ....
Total, Paddle Steamers
44
3,345
104
62
8,665
154
4. Sailing Vessels {Batiments a voiles) : —
Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)
2
—
440
Frigates (Fregates) ....
11
—
57
Corvettes (Corvettes) ....
7
—
25
Brigs (Bricks) .....
7
—
26
Transports (Transports)
26
—
42
Smaller vessels (Batiments de flotille) .
Total, Sailing Vessels
Total War Navy
60
—
82
113
498
—
672
266,662
2,854
The following is a tabular list of the 59 ironclads of the French
navy, either afloat, or nearly completed, at the end of 1880. The
columns of the table exhibit, similar to that descriptive of the British
ironclad navy, after the name of each ship, first, the thickness of
armour at the water-line ; secondly, the number and weight of guns;
thirdly, the indicated or nominal horse-power of engines; and
fourthly, the tonnage, that is, displacement in tons. Each vessel of
the French navy is enrolled at one of the five great ' divisions
maritimes ' of the country — namely, 1. Cherboiu-g; 2. Brest;
3. Lorient; 4. Rochefort ; and 5. Toulon; and in the following
list the initial letter of these ports, preceding the name of each iron-
clad, denotes the division on the register of which it stands.
Those ironclads marked with an asterisk (*) before their names
were not completed, at the end of 1880 : —
72
THE STATESMAN S YEAH-BOOK, 1881.
Division
Maritime
T.
B.
L.
C.
C.
B.
T.
L.
B.
L.
B.
T.
B.
C.
C.
B.
B.
T.
B.
T.
T.
T.
L.
B.
T.
L.
Names of Ironclads
Batiments de Combat :
Devastation
Foudroyante .
Amiral-Duperr^
*Tempete
*Tonneur
*Fulminant
*Furieux
*Veugeur
*Tonnant
Redoutable
Trident
Friedland
Colbert
Marengo
Ocean .
Suffi'en
Flandre
Gauloise
Guyenne
Heroine.
Magnanime
Provence
Revanche
Savoie .
Siirveillante
Valeureuse
Couronne
Gloire .
Solferino
7h
H
6
5^
H
51
5i
'H
5-
H
5i
5
Guns
Number Weight
110
36
52
38-ton 1
25-ton J
38-ton 1
25 -ton/
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton
38-ton \
24-ton/
24-ton/
18 -ton J
1 8-ton I
12-tonJ
24- ton 1
1 8-ton/
88-ton/
17 -ton/
18 ton/
7 -ton /
1 8-ton \
7-ton/
1 2-ton \
7-ton /■
1 2-ton 1
7-ton/
12-ton/
7-ton J
12 -ton/
7-ton/
12-ton/
7 -ton J
1 2-ton '\
7-ton /
1 2-ton \
7-ton/
1 2-ton/
7-ton J
1 2-ton i
7-ton j"
12-ton/
7-ton/
10-ton/
7 -ton J
6 2 -ton
6-ton
Indicated
horse-
power
Displace-
ment, or
tonnage
Tons
4,200
9,600
4,200
9,600
4,200
4,200
4,200
4,200
3,800
3,800
3,800
8,000
5,495
5,495
5.495
4,452
4.452
4,452
6,000
8,658
4,800
8,164
4,800
8,164
4,800
8,164
3,673
7,360
3,673
7,360
3,673
7,360
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
5,700
3,500
4,000
5,700
6,786
FRANCE.
73
Armour
Guns
indicated
Displace-
Division
Maritime
Names of Ironcla<Js
thickness
at water
line
horse-
power
ment, or
tonnage
Tons
Number
Weight
Inches
Cuirasses de 2nd rang :
B.
Lagalissonniere
6
{t
7-ton -^
5 -ton/
3,963
3,445
E.
Triomphante
6
it
7-ton 1
5- ton/
3,963
3,445
T.
*Victorieuse .
6
I 4
6
7-ton'i
5-ton/
7-ton
3,963
3,445
L.
Alma .
6
1,897
3,445
R.
Armide .
6
6
7-ton
1,897
3,445
C.
Atalante
6
6
7-ton
1,897
3,445
T.
Belliqueuse ,
6
6
7 -ton
1,897
3,445
C.
Jeanne d'Arc
6
6
7-ton
1,897
3,445
E.
Montcalm
6
6
7-ton
1,897
3,445
L.
Eeine Blanche
6
6
7 -ton
1.897
3,445
T.
Thetis .
6
6
7 -ton
1,897
3,445
T.
*Bayard .
6
4
12 -ton
1,987
3,445
L.
*Duguesclin .
6
4
12-ton
1.987
3,445
R.
*Turenne
6
4
12-ton
1,987
3,445
T.
*Vaul)an
Garde-cotes cuirasses :~
6
4
12-ton
1,987
3,445
L.
*Indomptable .
10
2
38-ton
4,200
6,000
B.
Cerbere
9
2
12-ton
1,508
3,700
E.
Tigre .
9
2
12-ton
1,508
3,700
C.
Belier .
8
2
12-ton
1,508
3,700
L.
Boule-Dogue
8
2
12-ton
1.508
3,700
C.
Taui'eau
8
1
20-ton
1,508
3,700
B.
Onondaga
Batteries fiottantes : —
H
2
12-ton
1,61 :]
2,5o0
C.
Embuscade .
6
5
6|-ton
500
1,422
L.
Imprenable
oA
4
ei-ton
500
1,422
L.
Arrogante
b'
9
6-ton
500
1,338
L.
Implacable
0
9
6-ton
500
1,338
L.
Opiuiatre
5
9
6 -ton
500
1,338
C.
Protectrice
5
4
6-ton
500
1,338
L.
Eefuge .
5
4
6-ton
500
1,338
The three most powerful of the ironclads of the French navy-
are the turret-ships Devastation, the Foudroyante, and the Amiral-
Duperre. They were designed nearly on the same lines, are 312
feet in length, and are constructed mainly of steel. Next on the
list of the * batiments de combat,' or ships for offensive warfare,
stand the six ironclads, all with l\h inch armour, still incomplete
74 THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
at the end of 1879, and differing in nothing except in stength from
the preceding ones. In the whole of them, horizontal steel armour
is used in sufficient strength to render the decks bomb-proof, and
guns are mounted en barbette, capable of being used in all direc-
tions. Not much inferior to the first nine of the ' batiments de
combat ' are the next five in the list, the Eedoutable, the Trident,
the Friedland, and the Colbert. The length of each of these ships^
is 314 feet, breadth 57 feet ; they have a central battery, and two
open top-fixed turrets. Most of the remaining ironclads of the
' batimeots de combat ' class are of antiquated construction, and, as
will be seen from the list, with armour of not more than from 5 to
7| inches in thickness. By a recent decision of the Minister of
Marine, the majority of them are to be struck off from the ' effectif
normal' in 1885.
The ' iron-clads of the second rank,' enumerated in the preceding
tabular list, fifteen in number, are held to be available only for
defensive warfare, while the seven ships of the next class, ' garde-
cotes cuirasses,' are, as indicated by the name, destined solely for
the protection of the maritime border of France. At the head of
this last class stands the Indomptable, launched at Lorient in the
summer of 1879.
Among the unarmoured steamers of the French navy the most
notable are the frigates Duquesne and Tourville, both constructed for
high speed, calculated at seventeen knots. They are sister-ships ;
the first launched at Rochefort, and the second at Toulon, in 1876.
They are each 309 feet long, and 50 feet broad, with engines
of 6,000 horse-power, and a displacement of 5,340 tons. Each
of these ships is armed with 27 guns, of which 20 are of a
bore of b^ inches, and sev.en of 9j inches. Of the remainder
of the 264 xmarmovu-ed screw .steamers of the French navy, more
than one-half are not in active service, being either stripped of
their guns, or on the reserve list. Only two out of the twenty-
nine ships of the line of this class, the ' Louis XIV.,' 480 horse-
power, with 116 guns, and the ' Jean-Bart,' 400 horse-power, with
66 guns, were afloat in 1879, and in all other cases the service was
carried on by smaller screw and paddle steamers. A considerable
proportion of the 113 sailing vessels are employed as ' Garde-peches,'
on the fishing grounds near the coasts of France.
By a resolution of the National Assembly passed in the session of
1875, large additions were made to the navy of Avar, an annual
credit of 30,000,000 fi-ancs, or 1,200,000Z., being set aside for the
purpose, to be applied to 50 vessels, the construction of which was
either to be finished, continued, or simply commenced Avithin five
years. The greater number of these vessels are being built in the-
government dockyards at Brest, Cherbourg, and Toulon.
FKANCE. 75
The French navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by
voluntary enlistment. The marine conscription was introduced as
early as the year 1683. There is an ' Inscription maritime,' on
the lists of which are the names of all male individuals of the
* maritime population ; ' that is, men and youths devoted to a sea-
faring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age. The number ot
men thus inscribed fluctuates from 150,000 to 180,000. Though all
are liable to conscription, the government, as a rule, dispenses from
taking men over forty and under twenty, as well as pilots, captains,
the fathers of large families, and able seamen who have signed for
long voyages. The time of service in the navy is the same as that
in the army, with similar conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs,
and leave of absence for lengthened periods. It is enacted by the
law of 1872 that a certain number of young men liable to service in
the Active Army may select instead the navy service, if recognised
fit for the duties, even if not enrolled in the 'Inscription maritime.'
For administrative purposes, France is divided into five ' divi-
sions maritimes,' and subdivided into twelve ' arrondissements
maritimes,' as follows : —
Divisions Arrondissements
1. Cherboiirg Diinkerque— Le Ha\Te. .
2. Brest Brest — Saint Servan.
3. Lorient Lorient — Nantes.
4. Eochefort Eochefort — Bordeaux — Bayonne.
5. Toulon Marseilles — Toulon — Ajaccio.
At the head of the administrative government of each maritime
division is a Vice-admiral bearing the title of ' Prefet maritime.'
In December 1879 the French navy was ofiicered by 19 vice-
admirals in active service, and 13 on the reserve list ; 30 rear-
admirals in active service, and 21 on the reserve list; 109
captains of first-class men of war ; 209 captains of frigates ; 648
lieutenants; and 516 ensigns.
Area and Population.
The area of France at the census of May 1866, embraced 543,051
square kilometres, or 208,865 Engl, square miles, and the popu-
lation at the same date numbered 38,067,064. At the census of
May 1872, the area was reduced to 529,050 square kilometres, or
203,480 Engl, square miles, and the population numbered only
36,102,921. Thus France suffered in the interval of six years a
loss of territory amounting to 14,001 square kilometres, or 5,385
Engl, square miles, and a loss in population of 1,964,143. The
next census, taken December 31, 1876, showed an increase of
802,867 in the total population. The following statement gives the
76
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
summary of the enumerations of May 1866, of May 1872, and of
December 31, 1876 :—
Census dates
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
209,580
204,177
204,177
Population
Average
Population
per sq. mile
May 1866 .
May 1872 .
December 31, 1876
38,067,064
36,102,921
36,905,788
181
176
180
The increase of population between 1872 and 1876 was ascribed
in part to immigration from the provinces ceded to Germany under
the Treaty of Peace, concluded May 10, 1871. By its terms, France
lost one entire department, that of the Bas-Rhin ; two arrondissements,
with fractions of a third, of the adjoining department of the Haut-
Rhin ; and the greater portion of the department of the Moselle.
The following table gives the area, in English square miles, and
the population of the present 87 departments of France — or 86,
excluding the small district of Belfort, remnant of the old depart-
ment of Rhin — according to the census returns of May 1872, and of
December 31, 1876 :—
Area:
Population
Departments
Engl. sq.
miles
May 1872
Dec. 31, 1876.
Ain ......
2,239
363,290
365,462
Aisne .
2,839
552,439
.360.427
Allier .
2,822
390,812
405,783
Alpes (Basses-)
2,685
139,332
136,166
Alpes (Hautes-)
2,158
118,898
119,094
Alpes-Maritimes
1,482
199,037
203,604
Ardeche
2,136
380,277
384,378
Ardennes
2,020
320,217
326,782
Ariege
1,890
246,298
244,795
Aube .
2,317
255,687
255,217
Aude .
2,438
285,927
300,065
Aveyron
3,376
402,474
413,826
Belfort, district of (Rhin)
235
56,781
68,600
Bouches-du-Rhone
1,971
554.911
556,379
Calvados
2,132
454,012
450,220
Cantal
2,217
231,867
231,086
Charente
2,294
367,520
373,950
Charente-Inferieure
2,635
465,653
465,628
Cher ....
2,780
335,392
345,613
Corr^ze
2,265
302,746
311,525
Corse
3,377
258,507
262,701 1
Cote-d'Or .
3,383
374,510
377,663
C6tes-du-Nord
2,659
622.295
630,957
Creuse
2,150
274,663
278.423
Dordogne
.
3,546
480,141
489,848
FRANCE.
17
Area:
Population
Departments
Engl. sq.
niiles
May 1872
Dec. .31, 1876
Doubs . , . . .
2,018
291,251
306,09i
Drome
2,518
320,417
321,756
Eure .
2,300
377,874
373.629
Eure-et-Loire
2,268
282,622
283,075
Finistere
2,595
642,963
666,106
Gard .
2,253
420,131
423,804 !
Garonne (Haute-)
2,429
479,362
477,730
Gars .
2,425
284,717
283,546
Gironde
3,761
705,149
735,242
Herault
2,393
429,878
445.053
Ille-et-Vilaine
2,597
589,532
602,712
Indre .
2,624
277,693
281,248
Indre-et-Loire
2,361
317,027
324,875
Isere .
3,201
575,784
581,099
Jiu-a .
1,928
287,634
288,823
Landes
3,599
300,528
303,508
Loir-et-Cher
2,452
268,801
272,634
Loire . . .
1,838
550,611
590,613
Loii-e (Haute-)
1.916
308,732
313,721
Loire-Inferieure
2,654
602,706
612.972
Loiret
2,614
353,021
360,903
Lot .
2,012
281,404
276,512
Lot-et-Garonne
2,067
319,289
316.920
Lozere
1,996
135,190
138.319
Maine-et-Loire
2,749
518,471
517,258
Manche
2,289
544,776
539,910
Marne .
3,159
386,157
407,780
Marne (Haute-)
2,402
251,196
252.448
Mayenne
1,996
350,637
351,933
Menrthe-et-Mosel]
e
2,025
365,137
404,609
Meuse
2.405
284,725
294,059
Morbihau .
2,625
490,352
506.573
Nievre
2,632
339,917
346,822
Nord .
2,193
1,447,764
1,519,585
Oise
2,261
396,804
401,618
Orne . . ' .
2,354
398,250
392,526
Pas-de-Calais
2,551
761,158
793,140
Puy-de-D6me
3,070
566,463
570,207
Pyrenees (Basses-
) '.
2,943
426,700
431,525
Pyrenees (Hautes
) .
1,749
235,156
238,037
Pvre n ^es-Oriental
PS
1,592
191,856
197,940
Rhone
1,077
670,247
705,131
Snone (Haute-)
2,062
303,088
304.052
Saone-et-Loire
3,302
598,344
614.309
Sarthe
2,396
446,603
446,239
Savoie
2,224
267,958
268.361
Savoie (Haute-) .
1,667
273,027
273,801
Seine .
184
2,220,060
2,410,849
Seine-Inferieure .
2,330
790,022
798,414
Seine-et-Marne .
2,215
341,490
347,323
7^
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Area :
Population |
Departments
Engl. sq.
miles.
May 1872
Dec. 31,1876
Seine-et-Oise ....
2,164
580,180
561,990
Sevres (Dexix-)
2,317
331,243
336,655
Somme
2,379
557,015
556,641
Tarn .
2,217
352.718
359,232
Tarn-et-Garonne
1,436
221,610
221,364
Var .
2,349
293,757
295,763
Vaucluse
1,370
263,451
255,703
Vendee
2,588
401,446
411,781
Vienne
2,691
320,598
330,916
Vienne (Haute-)
2,130
322,447
336,061
Vosges
2,266
392,988
407,082
Yonne
Total
2,868
204,092
363,608
359,070
36,103,421
37,405,793
The population, on the 31st of December 1876, was composed of
18,373,639 males and 18,532,149 females, the excess of females over
males being less than in any other state of Western Europe.
The increase of population between the two census periods
1872 and 1876, amounting to 802,867, did not extend over all the
departments of France, as will be seen from the preceding table.
In twenty departments there was a decline of population, the greatest
in Seine-et-Oise, which had 18,190 inhabitants less at the end of
1876 than in May 1872. In the ministerial report accompanying
the census returns of 1876, it was stated that the decrease of popu-
lation in nearly one-fourth of the departments of France was due to 'a
decline in the number of marriages, and excess of deaths over births.'
The increase of population in France within the last century
and a half has been comparatively less than in any other State of
Western Europe. The natural increase, from the surplus of births
over deaths, amounted, when at its highest, between the years
1820 and 1830, to not quite 280,000 per annum, and during
part of the decennial period 18.50 and 1860, sank to 51,200 per
annum. There was a slight recovery during the first half of the
next decennial period, but in the year 1869, the surplus of
births over deaths had again fallen to 84,206. In the following
two years, 1870 and 1871, the deaths exceeded the births, the
excess of deaths amounting to 103,394, in 1870, and to 444,889
in 1871. In the year 1872 there was again a surplus of 172,937
births, and the surplus continued in 1874 and 1875. The birth-rate
per hundred inhabitants was 3'11 in 1827, and had fallen to 2'62 in
1868. It fell to 2-57 per cent, in 1869, and to 2-26 per cent, in
1871, and was 2-61 in 1873, and 2-64 in 1875— a birth-rate lower
than that of any other country in Europe.
FRANCE.
79
The following table, compiled from the last official returns, gives the
number of births, deaths, and marriages, with the surplus ( + ) or
deficiency ( — ) of births over deaths, in each of the fifteen years
from 1863 to 1877 :—
1
'
Surplus (+) or de-
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
ficiency (— ) of
1
1
Births
over Deaths 1
1863
1,012,794
846,917
301,376
+
165,877 '
1864
1.005,880
860,334
299,579
+
145,546
1865
1,005,753
921,887
298,838
+
83,866
1866
1,006,258
884,573
302,186
+
12], 685
1867
1,007.515
866,887
300,333
+
140,628
1868
984,140
922,038
301,225
+
62.102
1869
948,526
864,320
303,482
+
84,206
i 1870
943.515
1,046,909
223,705
—
103,394
1871
826,121
1,271,010
262,476
—
444,889
1872
966,001
793,064
352,754
+
172,937
1873
946,364
844,588
321,238
+
101.776
1874
954,652
781,709
303,113
+
172,943
1875
950,975
845,062
305,427
+
105,913
1876
966,682
834,074
291,366
+
132,608
1877
944,576
801,956
278,094
+
142,620
Not included under either the births or deaths of the above table
are the ' mort-nes,' or dead-born. The number of ' mort-nes ' was
39,778 in 1863, and, gradually increasing, reached 43,387 in the
year 1877. The births of 1877 consisted of 885,734 legitimate, and ol
57,842 illegitimate, or 'natural,' children, the latter forming 6*13 per
cent, of the total. In the capital, represented by the department of
the Seine, the proportion of illegitimate children was 25*21 in the year
1877. The proportion of male to female children born was 106 to
100 previous to 1840, but since the latter date the male prepon-
derance has been gradually declining, and in 1876 had fallen to
105-2 to 100 for th'e whole"'of France ; to 102-1 to 100 for all Paris
births, and to 100- 1 to 100 for illegitimate children born in the
district of the capital.
The population of France, like that of most other European coun-
tries, is agglomerating ever more in towns. In 1846 the rural
population constituted 75-58 per cent, of the total, and the urban
24-42 per cent. ; in 1856, the rural had fallen to 72-69, and the
urban risen to 27-31 per cent. ; in 1866, the rural was 69-54, and
the urban 30-46 per cent. ; and finally, at the census of 1876,
it was found that the rural population constituted but 65 "10,
and the urban 34-90 per cent, of the entire population. But
though the rural population is decUning, more than one -half of the
8o
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
total population still depends on agriculture as a means of living.
The census returns of 1872 showed that there were 18,513,325 in-
dividuals— comprising 5,970,171 heads of families, and the rest de-
pendents— engaged in agriculture.
According to the latest official returns, the distribution of the
soil of France, a surface of 529,054 square kilometres, or 52,904,974
hectares, was as follows : —
Distribution of the Soil
Area
Hectares
Arable land (terres labourables)
Vineyards (vignes)
Woodland (bois de forets) ......
Meadows (prairies natiirelles) .....
Commons and waste lands (patiirages et pacages) .
Uncultivated land (terres ineultes) ....
Buildings, roads, rivers, canals, <S:c
26,300,777
2,582,776
8,357.066
4,224,103
3.131,243
4,425,703
3,883,366
Total
52,905,034
Land is very eqvially divided among the whole of the population.
According to the latest official returns the cultivated land of France
was divided into 5,550,000 distinct properties. Of this total the
properties averaging 600 acres numbered 50,000, and those
averaging 60 acres 500,000, while there were five millions of
properties under six acres.
There Avere at the enumeration of December 31, 1876, twenty-four
towns with more than 50,000 inhabitants, namely : —
Paris .
Lyon .
Marseille
Bordeaux
Lille .
Toulouse
St. Etienne
Nantes
1,988,806
342,815
318,868
215,140
162.775
131,642
126,019
122.247
Rouen .
104,902
Nimes
. 63,001
Le Havre
92,068
Limoges .
. 59,011
Roubaix
83,661
Eennes .
. 57,177
Eeims .
81,328
Angers .
. 56,846
Toulon .
70,509
Montpellier
. 55,258
Amiens.
66,896
Besan^on
. 54,404
Brest .
66,828
Nice
. 53,397
Nancy .
66,303
Orleans .
. 52,167
The total number of dwellings in France at the census of 1872
was 7,704,913, of which 7,409,614 were inhabited, 254,391 unin-
habited, and 40,908 in course of construction. There were, on the
average, 14"47 houses per square kilometre, and each house con-
tained 1'24 family,and 4-68 perrons. Except in the departments of the
Seine and the Rhone, the vast majority of dwellings contained but
one family, indicative of a nation of small proprietors.
There is scarcely any emigration from France, the only exodus
that has taken place in recent years consisting in a movement of the
Basques, in the department of the Hautes-Pyrenees, to quit the
FRANCE.
8i
country, in order to escape military sei-vice. In 1873 there emi-
grated 10,000 Basques to South America, chiefly to the Argentine
Confederation and Uruguay, and in 1874 the number rose to 12,000.
The stationary character of the mass of the population is shown also
by there being little migration within the country. At the census of
1872 it was found that of the total of 36,102,921 individuals con-
stituting the population of France, 30,676,943 were born within the
registration districts. Thus out of every 100 individuals but 1.^
had quitted their native commune, and 85 lived where they were
born. Almost the whole of the existing migration is that from the
rural districts into the towns of France.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of France is officially divided into ' commerce
general,' which comprises the entirety of imports and exports, in-
cluding goods in transit, and ' commerce special,' which embraces
the imports consumed within, and the exports produced within the
country. The general commerce of the year 1879 was valued in
imports at 4,350,000,000 francs, or 174,000,000/., and in exports at
4,820,000,000 francs, or 192,800,000/.
The following table gives the value, in francs and pounds sterling,
of the total imports and the total exports of the special commerce of
France — exclusive of coin and bullion — in each of the fifteen years,
from 1865 to 1879 :—
Years
Imports for Home Consumption
Exports of Home Produce
Francs
£
Francs
£
1865
2,641.803,000
105,672,120
3,088,451,000
123,538,040
1866
2,793,526,000
111,741,040
3,180,623,000
127,224,920
1867
3,026,581,000
121,063,240
2.825,955,000
113,038,200
1868
3,303,723.000
132,148,920
2,789,926,000
111,597,040
1869
3,153,162.000
126,126,480
3,074,981,000
122,999,240
1870
2,781,493,000
111,259,720
2,860,157,000
114,406,280
1871
3,393,249,000
135,729,960
2,865,613,000
114,624,520
1872
3,447,465,000
137,898,600
3,679,007,000
147,160.280
1873
3,554,789,000
142,191,560
3,787,306,000
151,492,240
1874
3,718,011,000
148,720,440
3,877,753,000
155,110,120
1875
3.672,286 000
146,891,440
4,022,162,000
160,886,480
1876
3,988,363,000
159,534.520
3,575,594,000
143,023,760
1877
3,756,368,000
150,254,720
3,484,323,000
139,372,920
1878
4,460,974,000
178.438,960
3,369,807,000
134,792,280
1879
4,594,837,000
183,793,480
3,163,090,000
126,523,600
The following statement shows the value of each of the four groups
of imports and of the three groujis of exports, according to the
classification adopted by the French Douane, or Custom House, in
each of the years 1878 and 1879 : —
Q
82
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
1878
1S79
Imforts : —
Articles of food
Francs
1,543,308.000
Prancs
1,823,609,000
Raw materials ....
2,251,776,000
2,126601,000
Manufactures ....
447,133,000
420,918,000
Other articles ....
Total
I
218,757,000
223,709.000
4,460,974,000
£178,438,960
4,594.837,000
£183,793,480
Exports : —
Manufactures ....
1,867,142,000
1.736,491,000
Articles of food and raw materials
1,320,865,000
1,254 193,000
Other articles ....
Total
{
181,800,000
173,406.000
3,369,807,000
£134,792,280
3,163,090,000
£126,523,600
The imports of coin and bullion — not included here; — were of the
value of 339,170,000 francs, or 13,566,800/., and the exports of the
value of 424,543,000 francs, or 10,981,720/., in the year 1879.
The foreign coinmcrce of France is chiefly with Great Britain,
Belgium, Germany, and Italy — Great Britain ranking far above any
other country, the exports to it, in particular, being more than
double in vahie to those to Belgium, the next export market in
order of importance.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the declared value of the
total exports sent from France to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the total imports of British and Irish produce and manuliictures
into France, in each of the ten years, from 1870 to 1879: —
Years
Exports from France to United
Imports of British Home Pro-
Kingdom
due into France
1870
37,607,514
£
11,643,139
1871
29,848,488
18,205,856
1872
41,803,444
17,268,837
1873
43,359,234
17,291,973
1874
46,518.571
16,370.274
1875
46,720,101
15,357,127
1876
45,304,854
16,085,615
1877
45,823,324
14,233,242
1878
41,378,896
14,824,885
1879
38,459,096
14,988,867
The chief articles exported from France to the United Kingdom
are silk-, woollen-, and leather manufactures, sugar, wine, butter,
eggs, and spirits, as brandy. T.'ie following table gives tlie de-
FRANCE.
83
•clai-ed value, in pounds sterling, of the eight staple articles exported
trom France to the United Kingdom in each of the two years 1878
and 1879 :—
staple exports from France to the United Kingdom
1878
1879
£
£
Silk manufiictures .....
8,551,212
8,242 266
Woollen „
3,923,667
3,387.274
Leather „
1,732,969
1,422,058
Sugar, refined
3,391,378
2,258,093
Wine .
2,775,990
2,472,588
Butter
3,179,326
2,264,591
Eggs . . .
1,599,776
1,391.609
Spirits: brandy .....
1,387,250
2,117,376
These eight articles constitute about two-thirds of the totiil ex-
ports from France to the United Kingdom. The remaining third
comprises a great variety of objects, mostly food substances.
The principal ai-ticles of imports of British home produce into
France are woollen and cotton manufactures, and coals. The fol-
lowing table exhibits the declared value of these three articles
of British produce imported fi-oni the United Kingdom into France
during each of the two years 1877 and 1878 : —
staple imports of British produce into France
1878
1879
£
3,172,532
1,781,202
1,364,130
Woollen manufactiires
Cotton „ ...
Coals
£
3,167,961
2,038,289
1,312,993
The rest of the imports of British produce into France are ot a
miscellaneous character, not exceeding half a million sterling per
annum in value. Chief among these minor articles of British im-
ports stand wrought iron and copper.
It will be seen from the preceding tables that the value of the
exports from France to the United Kingdom is thrice the amount of
the imports of British produce.
At the head of French exports to the United Kingdom stands
that of silk manufacture ; the most important of industries of the
country. Its activity, however, fluctuated much in recent years,
owing to the ravages caused by an epidemic on the breaking of
cocoons, the product of the silkworm. Previous to the outbreak
of the epidemic, in 1851, the annual value of raw silk produced was
G 2
84
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
estimated at over 100 mUlions of francs, or 40,000,000/., but it
fluctuated, since then, as follows: —
Production of silk cocoous
Yearts
Weight
Value
Kilogrammes
Francs
1852 .
12,065,542
55,742,804
1862 .
9 758,804 51,916,837
1866 .
16,436,258 98,,597,.548
1867 .
14,082,945 98,580,515
1868 .
10,687,054
85,496,432
1869
8,076,545
60,170,260
1870
10,186,584
65.713.464
1871
10,226,699
58,564,596
1872
9,893,163
68,756.424
1873
8,333,128
.59,165 308
1874
9,021 410
41, ,588.700
1875
10,773,945
47,297,618
1876
2,387,369
11,101,265
1877
11,703,664
57,113,880
1878
7.794,705
33,906,966
The strength of the French mercantile navy, exclusive of small
fishing vessels — ' bateaux de la peche cotiere' — is shown in the fol-
lowing table, which gives the number and tonnage of the vessels,
classed according to tonnage, on Jan. 1, 1878, and on Jan. 1,1879 : —
18
rs
18"
9
0
Vessels
Tons
171,477
Vessels
Tons
f 800 tons and npward,s .
124
127 ^
180,233
, 700 to 800 tons .
57
42,162
61 1
45,016
, 600 to 700 „
95
62,535
98
61,404
, 500 to 600 „
106
57,773
98 1
53,439
, 400 to 500 „
199
88.. 386
183 '
81,408
, 300 to 400 „
281
98,552
272
96,033
, 200 to 300 „
485
114,.558
430
107,177
, 100 to 200 „
927
127,148
912
127,.584
, 60 to 100 „
982
75,724
965
74,584
, 60 to 60 .,
371
20,408
370
20,338
Under 50 .
11,822
130.405
12,011
15,527
128,667
975,883
Total
15,449
1 989,128
The above statement comprises both sailing vessels and steamers.
The total number of steamers on Janviary 1, 1879, was 588, of
FKANCE.
^5
245,608 tons, and 80,118 horse-power. Nearly two-thirds of the
total steam tonnage of France belong to the ' Messageries Maritimes,'
a company very largely subsidised by the government for carrving
the mails. Since the year 1873, when the total tonnage was 1,089,075,
there was a gradual decline of the French mercantile navy.
France has a great wealth in minerals, more particularly coal and
iron. Coal is found in three different districts — the first, in the
north, called the Valenciennes basin ; the second, the Central of
France ; and the third, the Southern of France basins. The total
production of coal amounted to 16,804,500 tons in 1877, and to
17,096,520 tons in 1878. The coal production more than doubled
from 1860, when it was 8,309,622 tons. Of iron, France produced
3,125,170 tons in 1878, more than one-half of the total in the
Eastern departments of Meurthe et Moselle and Haute Mame.
The growth of the railway system of France dates from the year
1840. By a law passed June 11, 1842, the work of constructing
railway was left, to private companies, superintended, however, and,
if necessary, assisted in their operations, by the State. Under this
arrangement, the whole of the railways, were classed under two
divisions, called ' ancien reseau,' or Old net-AVork, and * nouveau
reseau,' or New net-work ; the former, representing the main
arteries of traffic, and the latter the by-roads, laid down, with a view
to public utility rather than to profit. On this account, the lines
coming under the designation of New net-work received the grant
of a state guarantee of 4 francs per cent, interest, -with 65 centimes
additional for a sinking fund, on the expended capital.
The following table shows the length of railways built each year
in France since 1853, and the total open for traffic on the first of
January of each year : —
Years
Lines opened
during the year
Total length
open at the end
of the year
Years
Lines opened
during the year
Total length 1
open at the end \
of the year t
Kilometres
Kilometres
Kilometres
Kilometres
1853
316
3,862
1866
515
13,583
1854
190
4,052
1867
953
14,536
1855
589
4,641
1868
1,193
15,729
1856
886
5,527
1869
606
16,336
1857
664
6,191
1870
795
17,130
1858
1,262
7,453
1871
665
17,750
1859
1,222
8,675
1872
672
17,665
1860
393
9,086
1873
111
17,776
1861
365
9,433
1874
763
18,539
1862
672
10,105
1875
542
19,081
1863
982
11,087
1876
721
19,802
1864
944
12,031
1877
555
20,357
1865
1,037
13,068
1878
680
21,037
86
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1S81.
It will be seen that from January 1, 1871, to January 1, 1872, the
length of railways opened for traffic declined from 17,750 to 17,665
kilometres, notwithstanding that 665 kilometres of lines were opened in
the year 1871. The deficiency was caiised by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine,
which necessitated the sale of 750 kilometres of railway, belonging
to the Eastern Company, to the Government of Imperial Germany.
The French railways at present are almost entirely in the hands
of six great companies. They are, first, the Paris, Lyons, and
Mediterranean ; secondly, the Paris-Orleans ; third, the Northern ;
fourth, the Western ; fifth, the Southern ; and, sixth, the Eastern,
companies. The following two tables give the length of lines open
for traffic at the beginning of 1879, and the total receipts in the years
1877 and 1878 of each of the six great and of the minor companies : —
Old Net-work,
1
i Companies
i
Length of lines
Eeceipts
Jan. 1, 1879
1877
1878
Paris-Mediterranean
Pai'is-Orleans ....
Northern
Western .....
Southern. ....
Eastern
Minor Companies
Total ....
Kilometres
4,053
2,017
1,311
900
796
578
51
Francs
258,462,529
101,941,227
106,933,243
70,188,020
48,149,237
41,274,719
5,087,571
Francs
268,973,731
110,313,875
117,646,911
80,578,962
50,918,331
46,585,678
5,626,446
680,643,934
9,706
632,036,546
New Net-work.
Length of lines
Receipts
, Jan. 1, 1879
1877
1S78
Paris-Mediterranean
Paris-Orleans .
Northern .
Western .
Southern .
Eastern .
Minor companies
Kilometres
1,537
2,306
609
1,943
: 1.405
i 1,941
2,766
Francs
18.072,296
41,798,270
13,211,537
34,415,101
21,382,649
52,960,626
28,322,575
Francs
19,731,122
43,726,532
14,314,000
36,399,282
22,349,648
56,483,497
32,237,203
Total . . .
•
12,507
210,163,054
225,241,284
The total length of all the railways open for traffic on the 1st of
January 1879 was 22,213 kilometres, or 13,871 English miles.
FRANCE. 8/
and the total gross receipts in 1878 amounted to 905,885,218 francs,
or 36,235,408/.
By a law which passed the Chamber of Deputies, in the session of
1878, there will be added 16,000 kilometres, or 10,000 English
miles, of railways, before the end of the year 1888. To provide for
the cost of tlie new network of railways, the Chamber granted a cre-
dit of 3,000,000,000 francs, or 120,000,000/.
At the 1st of January 1879 there were 57,760 kilometres, or 36,101
English miles, of lines of telegraphs, comprising 164,000 kilometres,
or 102,500 English miles, of wire. At the same date there were
2,958 telegraph offices. The number of telegraphic despatches sent
during the year 1878 was 10,994,960, of which 1,177,597 were
international messages. The total revenue from telegraphs in the
year 1878 amounted to 18,676,973 francs, or 747,079/. There
were annual deficits since the establishment of State Telegraphs in
March 1851.
The number of letters forwarded by the French post-office in
the year 1878 was 446,646,000, and they produced a revenue of
79,023,935 francs, or 3,160,957/. The post-office besides forwarded
in 1878 printed matter and parcels to the number of 549,124,000
at a revenue of 19,704,815 francs, or 788,192/., and issued money
orders to the number of 9,304,840, and the value of 275,942,808
francs, or 11,036,712/. During the years 1849 to 1857, the corre-
spondence by letters increased at the rate of 12^ per cent, a year ;
from 1858 to 1869, the increase was 3^ per cent, per annum ; and
from 1869 to 1878 it was at the rate of 4 per cent, per annum.
France entered the General Postal union of the principal states o£
the world on January 1, 1876.
Colonies.
The Colonial Possessions of France, dispersed over Asia, Africa,
America, and Polynesia, embrace, inclusive of the so-called ' Pays
proteges,' or Countries under Protection, a total area of 537,007
square kilometres, or 335,629 English square miles. Not comprised
in the list is Algeria, which has a government and laws distinct from
the other Colonial Possessions, being looked upon, partly from its
proximity to France, and partly from serving as camp and practice-
field of a large portion of the standing army, as a more immediate
annex of the mother-country. Algeria, as well as all the other colonies,
are represented in the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and con-
sidered to form, politically, a part of France. The estimated area and
population of the various Colonies and Countries under Protection,
together with the date of their first settlement, or acquisition, is shown
in the subjoined table, compiled from the latest official returns.
88
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
I. Colonies.
Asia : —
Possessions in India .
Cocliin-China ....
Total of Asia
Africa : —
Senegal settlements .
Gold coast and Gaboon
Island of Eeunion, or Eoui-bon .
„ St. Marie .
Islands of Mayotte and Nossi-Be
Total of Africa .
America : —
Guiana, or Cayenne .
Guadeloupe and Dependencies .
Martinique ....
St. Pierre and Miguelon .
Island of St. Bartholomew
Total of America .
Polynesia : —
New Caledonia ....
Loyalty islands.
Marquesas islands .
Tahiti, or Otaheite .
! Total of Polynesia.
Total, colonies
Date of
Acquisi-
tion
Area.
Square
kilometres
Population
1679
1861
1637
1843
1649
1635
1843
1604
1634
1635
1635
1878
1854
1864
1841
1880
509
56,244
227,063
979,116
66,753
1,206,179
250,000
20,000
2,511
910
520
607,398
186,133
207,886
6,110
20,717
273,941
1,028.244
24,432
151,594
139,109
3,799
2,802
90,854
1,645
988
210
56
93,753
321,736
17,400
2,147
1,244
1,175
29,000 1
15,000
10,000
13,847
f21,966
446,413
67,847
2,624,006
II. Protected Countries.
Date of
Acquisi-
tion
Area.
Square
kilometres
Population
Asia : —
Kingdom of Cambodge .
Polynesia : —
Touamotou islands .
Gambier ,,
Touboua'i and Vavitou
1862
1844
1844
1845
83,861
6,600
30
103
1,020,000
8,000
1,500
550
Total, protected countries .
90,594
1,030,050
Total, colonies and protectorates
537,007
3,654,056
I
FRANCE. 89
The commercial intercourse of the Colonial Possessions of France
is almost entirely with the mother-country, being restricted by
special legislation to this channel. But the only colonies possessing
commercial importance are the islands of Reunion, on the coast
of Africa, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies.
The trade between the Colonial Possessions of France and the
United Kingdom Is very small. The only group with which there is
any notable conmiercial intercourse is that of the West India Islands,
which sent exports of the value of 11,854/., consisting mainly of
raw sugar, to the United Kingdom in the year 1879. The imports
of British home produce into the French West India Islands were
of^the value of 183,075/. in 1879, the chief article imported being
cottons, of the value of 95,154/.
It is calculated that the total number of natives of France, not in the
army and navy, settled throughout the whole of the Colonial Posses-
sions, is under 2,000. A large penal settlement was formed in the
colony of Guiana during the years 1852-60, and another at New
Caledonia in 1871-72, both for political prisoners.
Slavery was abolished throughout the Avhole of the Colonial Pos-
sessions of France by a decree of February 28, 1848.
For an accoimt of the government, revenue, population, and com-
merce of Algeria, see Part II., Africa, of the Statesman's Tear-book.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of France in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — M. Challemel-Laeour. Accredited ambassador to Great
:Britain, July 2, 1880.
Secretaries. — Baron d'Estournelles ; Count d'Aunay ; M. C. Blondel.
Military Attache. — Captain Marquis de la Ferronays.
Naval Attache. — Captain Leon de la Chauvi^re.
2. Of Great Britain in Feancb.
Ambassador, — Rt. Hon. Lord Lyons, G.C.B., born in 1817; Envoy to the
United States, 1858-64; and Ambassador to Turkey, 1865-67. Appointed
Ambassador to France, July 6, 1867.
Secretaries. — Francis Ottiwell Adams, C.B.; George Sheffield; Hon. W. A. C.
Barrington; N. E. O'Conor; Hon. H. G. Edwardes.
Militarij Attache. — Major-General J. Conolly, C.B.
Naval Attachp. — Capt. E. H. Howard, R.N.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of France, and the British
•equivalents, are —
Money.
"The Franc, of 100 centiines . . Approximate value 9^rf., or 25 Francs to
£1 sterling.
90 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Weights and Measures.
The Graonmc .....= 15'434 grains troy, or aliout
Kilogramme
Quintal Metrique
Tonneau „ .
Litre, Liquid Measm-e
Hectolitre /Liquid Measure
\ Dry Measure
Metre ....
Kilometre
grammes eqiial to an ounce.
= 2"2{)o lbs. avoirdupois,
= 220
= 2200
= 1"76 Imperial pints.
= 22 „ gallons.
= 2'7o „ bushels.
3-28 feet or 39-37 inches.
= 1093 yards, or nearly o furlongs, or
4 mile.
= 35-31 cubic feet.
„ Metre Cube']
„ Sterc J ' ' '
„ Hectare . . . . . = 2-47 acres.
,, Kilometre Carre . . . = 247 acres, or 2J K.C. to 1 square
mile.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
France.
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire de la Marine et des Colonies. 1880. 8. Paris, 1880.
Annuaire statistique de la France. 1880. 8. Paris; 1880.
Budget des recettes ct des depenses de I'exercice 1880. ' Jomuial Oificiel.'
4. Paris, 1880.
Bulletin des Lois de la Kepublique fran^aise. 8. Paris, 1880.
Bidletin officiel du Ministere de I'lnterieur. Paris, 1880.
Compte general de I'administration de la justice civile et commerciale en
France pendant I'annee 1878. 4. Paris, 1880.
Compte general de I'Administration de la Justice crimineUe en France,
par le Garde des Sceaux, Ministre dc la Justice. 4. Paris, 1880.
Denombrement de la population de la France et d'Algerie, 1876. 8.
Paris, 1878.
Documents statistiques reunis par I'administration des douanes sur le com-
merce de la France. 4. Paris, 1880.
Enquete sur la marine marchandc. 4. Paris, 1878.
Ministere des Finances : Comptes generaux de TAdministration des Finances.
Paris, 1880.
Ministere de I'Agriculture, du Commerce et des Travaux publics : Archives
statistiques. Paris, 1880.
Eapport fait au nom de la commission de la reorganisation de I'arm^e, par
M. le General Charcton. 4. Versailles, 1875.
Situation economique et commerciale de la France. Expose comparatif pour
les quinze anuees de la periode 1864-1878. Paris, 1880.
Statistique de la France. Mouvement de la population pendant les annees
1873-77. 4. Paris, 1879.
Tableau du Commerce general de la France, avec ses Colonies et les Puis-
sances etrangeres, pendant I'Annee 1879. 4. Paris, 1880
Tableau general des mouvements du cabotage pendant I'annee 1879. Direc-
tion generate des douanes et des contributions indirectes. 4. Paris, 1880.
Keport by Mr. L. S. Sackville West on the Tenure of Land in France,
dated Paris, Nov, 19, 1869 ; in ' Eeports from H. M.'s Kepresentatives respect-
ing the Tenure of Land in the several Countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol.
London, 1870.
FRANCE. 91
Report by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the Finances of France, dated Paris, March
1880; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part il. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Eeport by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the Returns of Revenue and Foreign T-ade
of France in the year 1875, dated Paris, Feb. 10, 1876 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the Budget of 1876 and 1877, and the-
National Debt of France, dated Paris, April 12, 1876; in 'Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Air. F. 0. Adams on the French Budgets of 1877 and 1878, dated
Paris, January 29, 1877 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part I. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the Finances and Railways of France, dated
Paris, Feb. 20, 1878 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the French Postal and Telegraphic Service,
dated Paris, Nov. 15, 1878; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' Part I. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by Mr. F. 0. Adams on the Finances and Commerce of France, dated
Paris, Feb. 15, 1879 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by Mr. Tice-Consul Stigand on the Commerce and Industry of the
Consular District of Boulogne, dated Sept.-Dec. 1875 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1870. 8. London, 1876.
Report by IVIr. Consul Wooldridge on the Trade and Commerce of French
Guinea, dated Cayenne, March 11, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Consul Hotham on the Trade of Calais ; by Mr. Consul
Shortt on the Commerce of Corsica ; and by Mr. Consul Perry, on the Trade
of Reunion, dated April-May, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Hunt on the Commerce of Bordeaux, dated Sept. 30,
1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1878. 8. London,_1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Rainals on the Trade and Industry of the district
of Brest; by Mr. Yice-Consul Hayes-Sadler on the Commerce of La Rochelle;
by Mr. Consul Mark on the Trade and Commerce of Marseille ; and by Mr.
Consul Clipperton on the Trade and Commerce of Nantes ; dated March-May,
1877 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consids.' Part III. 1877. 8. London. 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Yereker on the Trade of Cherbourg; by Mr Consul
Bernal on the Commerce and Shipping of Havre ; and by IVIr. Vice-Consul
MacGregor on the Trade of St. Malo, dated Jan.-Feb. 1878; in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Rainals on the Commerce of the Departments of
Finistere, C6tes-du-Nord, and Morbihan ; by Mr. Consul Vereker on the Trade
of Cherbourg ; by Mr. Consul Bernal on the Commerce of Havre ; by IVIr. Vice-
Consul Hayes Sadler on the Trade of La Rochelle ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul
MacGregor on the Trade of St. Malo, dated Jan.-Feb. 1879 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IL 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Reports by Mr. Consul Hunt on the Trade of Bordeaux ; by ]Mr. Consul
Hotham on the Trade of Calais ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Taylor on the Trade
of Dunkirk, dated March 1879 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III.
1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of France with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
92 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
2. Non-Officlax Publications.
Annuaire de I'economie sociale. 8. Paris, 1880.
Annuaire des etablissements fran9ais dans I'lnde. 12. Pondichery, 1880.
Audiffret (Marquis de), Etat de la fortune nationale et du credit public de
1789 a 1873. 8. Paris, 1875.
Block (Maurice), Annuaire de I'Economie politique etde la Statistique. 1880.
16. Paris, 1880.
Colle (E.), La France et ses colonies au 19ine siecle. 8. Paris, 1878.
Crisenoy {De), Memoire de rinseription maritime. 8. Paris, 1872.
David (J.), Le credit national. 8. Paris, 1872.
Delarbre (J.), La marine militaire de la France. 8. Paris, 1877.
Dufour (G-abriel), Traite general du droit administratif. 8 vols. 8. Paris,
1872.
Dupont (P.), Annuaire de la marine pour 1880. 8. Paris, 1880.
Germain (Felix), Dictionnaire du budget. 8. Paris, 1878.
Helie (F. A.), Les constitutions dela France. 8. Paris, 1878.
Ingouf (J.), L'avenir de la marine etdu commerce exterieur de la France. 8.
Paris, 1877.
Kleinc (E.), Les richesses de la France. 12. Paris, 1872.
Lavi/el (Auguste), La France politique et sociale. 8. Paris, 1878.
iai'er<:/?i€(Leoncedc), Economieruralede la France. 4me ed. 18. Paris, 1878.
Lemi (M.), De rAcci-oissement de la Population en Fx-ance et de la Doctrine
de Malthus. 8. Paris. 1866.
Moussy (N.), Tableau dcs finances de la France. 8. Paris, 1875.
Prat (Th. dc), Annuaire protestant: Statistique generale des diverses
branches du Protestantisme fran9ais. 8. Paris, 1880.
Reclus {Elisee), La France. Vol. I. of ' Nouvelle Geographie Universelle.'
8. Paris, 1877.
Boussan (A.), L'armee territoriale et la reserve de I'arm^e. 8. Paris 1874.
Statistique centrale des Chemins de fer. 4. Paris, 1879.
Frayc (M. G.), Le budget del'Etat. 8. Paris, 1876.
Vui'try (Adolphe), Etude sur le regime financier de la France. 8. Paris, 1879.
93
GERMANY.
(Deutsches Reich.)
Reigning Emperor and King.
Wilhelm I., German Emperor, and King of Prussia, born
March 22, 1797, the second son of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of
Prussia, and of Princess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; educated
for the military career, and took part in the campaigns of 1813 and
1814 against France; Governor of the province of Pomerania,
1840; Military Governor of the Rhine provinces, 1849-57; appointed
Regent of Prussia during the illness of his brother, Oct. 9, 1858 ;
ascended the throne of Prussia at the death of his brother, Jan. 2,
1861. Commander-in-chief of the German armies in the war against
France, July 1870 to March 1871 ; proclaimed Emperor of Ger-
many at Versailles, January 18, 1871. Married June 11, 1829, to
Augusta^ German Empress, and Queen of Prussia, born Sept.
30, 1811, the daughter of the late Grand-Duke Karl Friedrich of
Saxe-Weimar.
Heir Apparent.
Prince Friedreich Wilhelm, born October 18, 1831, eldest son of
the Emperor-King ; field-marshal in the army of Prussia (see
Prussia,' p. 110).
The Imperial throne of Germany has always been filled by
election, though with a tendency toAvards the hereditary principle of
succession. Originally, the Emperor was chosen by the vote of all
the Princes and Peers of the Reich, but the mode came to be
changed in the fourteenth century, when a limited number of Princes,
fixed at seven for a time, and afterwards enlarged to nine, assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being ac-
knowledge^ were called Electors. With the overthrow of the old
Germanic Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Electoral
dignity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was retained
sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, the last of them
dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. The election of the present Emperor
was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on
the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany.
Since the creation of the Imperial dignity by Charlemagne,,
crowned ' Kaiser ' at Rome, on Christmas-day in the year 800, there
have been the following Emperors of Germany : —
94
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
House of Charlemagne.
Karll., 'Der Grosse' . 800-814
Ludwig I., ' Der Fromme ' 814-840
Ludwig II., ' Der Deiitsclie ' 843-876
Karl II., ' Der Kahle ' . 876-877
Karl, 'Der Dicke' . . 881-887
Arnulf .... 887-899
Ludwig III., ' Das Kind ' 900-91 1
House of Franconia.
Konradl. . . . 911-918
House of Saxont/.
Heinrich I., 'Der Vogelsteller' 919-936
Otto I., ' Der Grosse ' . 936-973
Otto II. ... 973-983
Otto III. . . . 983-1002
Heinrich II. . . . 1002-1024
House of Franconia.
Koiirad II., 'Der Salier' . 1024-1039
Heinrich III. . . . 1039-1056
Heinrich IV. . . . 1056-1106
Heinrich V. . . . 1106-1125
House of Saxony.
Lothar II., ' Der Sachse ' 1 125-1137
House of Hohenstaufen.
Konradlll. '. . . 1138-1152
Friedrich I., 'Barbarossa ' 1 152-1190
Heinrich VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philipp . . . 1198-1208
Otto IV. ... 1208-1212
Friedrich II. . . . 121 '2-1 250
Konrad IV. . . . 1250-1254
First Interregnum.
Wilhelm of Holland . 1254-1256
Eichard of Cornwall . 1256-1272
House of Habsburg.
Eudolfl. . . . 1273-1291
House of Nassau.
Adolf .... 1292-1298
House of Habsburg.
Albreehtl. . . . 1298-1308
Houses of Luxemburg and Bavaria.
Heinrich VII. . . . 1308-1313
Ludwig IV., 'Der Baier' . 1313-1347
Karl IV. . . . 1348-1378
Second Interregnum.
Wenceslaus of Bohemia . 1378-1400
Ruprecht 'Von der Pfalz' 1400-1410
Sigmund of Brandenbui-g 1410-1437
House of Habsburg.
Albrecht II. .
Friedrich III. .
Maximilian I.
Karl V.
Ferdinand I. .
Maximilian II.
Rudolf II.
Matthias
Ferdinand II. .
Ferdinand III.
Leopold I.
Joseph I.
Karl VI.
Karl VII.
1438-
1440-
1493-
1519-
1558-
1564-
1576-
1612-
1619-
1637-
1657-
1705-
1711-
1742-
■1439
1493
1519
•1558
-1564
1576
■1612
1619
1637
1657
1705
1711
1740
1745
House of Habsburg-Lorraijie.
Franz I. .
Joseph II.
Leopold II.
Franz II.
1745-1765
1765-1790
1790-1792
1792-1806
Third Interregnum.
Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815
German 'Bund' . .1815-1866
North German Confedera-
tion .... 1866-1871
House of Hohenzollern.
Wilhelm L . . .1871
The average duration of reign of the above fifty-five Emperors
of Germany Avas seventeen years.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Empire bears date April 16, 1871. By its
terms, all the states of Germany ' form an eternal union for the protec-
tion of the realm and the care of the welfare of the German people '
' schliessen einen ewigen Bund zum Schutze des Bimdesgebiets,
und zur PHeee der Wohlfahrt des Deutschen Volkes.' The supreme
GERMANY.
95
direction of the military and political aiFairs of the Empire is vested
in the King of Prussia, who, as such, bears the title of Deutscher
Kaiser. According to Art. 11 of the Constitution, ' the Kaiser
represents the Empire internationally' — 'hat das Reich volkerrcJit-
lich zu vertreten' — and can declare war, if defensive, and make peace,
as well as enter into treaties with other nations, and appoint and
receive ambassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, the
Kaiser must have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council,
in which body, together with the Eeichstag, or Diet of the Realm,
are vested the legislative functions of the Empire. The Bundes-
rath represents the individual states of Germany, and the Reichstag
the German nation. The members of the Bundesrath, 59 in number,
are appointed by the governments of the individual states for each
session, while the members of the Reichstag, 397 in number, are
elected by universal suffrage and ballot, for the term of three years.
The various states of Germany are represented as follows in the
Bundesrath and the Reichstag : —
Number of
Number of
states of the Empire
members in
deputies In
i
Bundesrath
Reichstag
Ivingdom of Prussia . .
17
236
,, ,, Bavaria. ....
6
48
„ ,, "Wurtemberg ....
4
17
,, ,, Saxony .....
4
23
Grand-Duchy of Baden . . . .
3
11
„ ,, 3Jecklenburg-Schwerin .
2
6
„ ,, Hesse ....
3
9
„ „ Oldenburg
1
.S
,, „ Saxe-Weimar .
3
,, ,, Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1
Duchy of Brunswick .....
3
,, „ Saxe-Meiningen ....
2
„ Anhalt
2
,, ,, Saxe-Coburg-Gotlia .
2
„ „ Saxe-Altenbiu-g ....
Principality of Waldeck ....
„ „ Lippe ....
„ ,, Sehwareburg-Rudolstadt .
„ ,. Si'liwarzbnrg-Sondershausen
, „ „ Reuss-Schleiz .
1 „ ,, Schaumburg-Lippe .
„ ,, Reuss-Greiz
Free town of Hamburg ....
„ „ „ Liibeck. . . . .
„ ,, „ Bremen ....
Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine
Total
15
59
397
96 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
The total number of electors to the Reichstag inscribed on the
lists was 9,124,311 at the general election of 1878, while the number
of actual voters was 5,834,843 at the same election.
Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual session,
convoked by the Kaiser. The Kaiser has the right to prorogue and
dissolve the Reichstag, bvit the prorogation must not exceed sixty days ;
while in case of dissolution new elections have to take place within sixty
days, and a new session has to open within ninety days. All laws
for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority of the
Bimdesrath and the Reichstag. The Bundesrath is presided over
by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the Empire, and the Presi-
dent of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies.
The laws of the Empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the Reichs-
tag, to take effect must receive the assent of the Kaiser, and be
tountersigned when promulgated by the Chancellor of the Empire.
The latter, in his capacity as President of the Bimdesrath, has the
right to be present at the deliberations of the Reichstag.
ChanceUor of the Empire. — Prince Otto von Bismarck-SchOn-
Amise??, born April 1,1815; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and
Gottingen ; member of the Constituent Assembly of Prvissia, 1848;
Minister Plenipotentiary of Prussia at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ;
Ambassador to the Court of St. Petersburg, 1859-62 ; Ambassador
of Prussia to the Emperor of the French, 1862; Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and chief of the Coimcil of Ministers of Prussia, September
23, 1862 ; Chancellor of the North German Confederation, 1867-70 ;
appointed Chancellor of the Empire, January 19, 1871.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the
Bundesrath, in addition to its legislative fimctions, represents also a
supreme administrative and consultative Board, and as such
has seven standing committees, namely for army and naval
matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways,
posts, and telegraphs ; civil and criminal law ; financial accounts ;
and foreign affairs. Each committee consists of representatives of at
least four sta,tes of the Empire ; but the foreign affairs committee
includes only the representatives of the kingdoms of Prussia,
Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg.
Churcli and Education.
The last census, of December 1, 1875, showed the religious divi-
sion of the population of the states composing the German Empire
as follows :— Protestants, 26,718,823; Roman Catholics, 15,371,227 ;
Christian sects of various denominations, 116,735; and Jews,
520,575. Expressed in percentages, the proportion of Protestants
in the Empire in -1875 was 62-5 per cent. ; of Roman Catholics, 36
GERMANY.
97
per cent. ; of other Cliristians, 0"3 per cent. ; and of Jews, 1*2 per
cent. (For further particulars as to divisions of creeds, see the
various States.)
Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany. The
laws of Pi-ussia, which provide for the establishment of elementary
schools, supported from the local rates, in every town and village,
and compel all parents to send their children to these or other
schools, exist, with slight modifications, in all the states of the
Empire. It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation
of the united German army, that all recruits of the year 1878 could
at least read and -write, though in some of the southern states,
notably Bavaria, a small nmuber of the yovmg men enterinfj
military service were declared of inefficient education, * mangelhafte
Schulbildung.' (For further particulars see Prussia, pp. 118-19.)
There are twenty- one universities in the German Empire, all
of them, with the exception of one, having four ' faculties,' or divi-
sions of studies, namely theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, and
medicine. The following table gives the list, in alphabetical order,
of the universities, with the numbers of professors and teachers, and
that of the students in the summer of 1879 : —
UniTereities
1 Professors
Students
1 Teachers
Theology 1
Jurisprudence 'philosophy
Medicine
Total, i
Berlin .
I 214
150 '
888
1,185
346
2,569
Bonn
' 104
175 1
312
422
154
1,063
Breslau .
107
109
369
584
178
1,240 1
Erlangen
64
140
50
93
132
415 1
Freiburg
57
39
119
79
181
418'
Giessen .
55
18
106
103
108
335
Gottingen
125
94
309
471
114
988
Greifswald
62
56
89
145
235
525
Halle .
105
203
125
469
117
914
Heidelberg
; 110
34
410
203
103
750
Jena
78
68
142
248
87
545
Kiel .
65
36
29
95
92
252
Konigsberg .
89
40
176
315
135
666
Leipzig .
160
366
958
1,222
335
2,881
Marburg
68
60
82
'l98
110
450
Munich .
136
86
413
409
456
1,364
Miinster
30
116
— .
206
.
322
Rostock .
41
26
31
61
39
157
Strassburg
90
44
101
333
168
646
Tiibingen
88
427
354
192
164
1,1.57
Wiirzburg
66
140
102
1 205
475
922
The number of students in the preceding table includes only those
matriculated at each university. There were besides the total
H
98 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
above given, a certain number of non-matriculated students — ' zum
Besuch der Vorlesungen bereclitigt' — the vast majority of them,
namely, 1,794, at the university of Berlin. Among the matriculated
students at the university of Leipzig there were 2,038 foreigners in
the summer of 1879.
Fourteen of the twenty-one universities of the Empire are Pro-
testant, that is teach only Protestant theology. These Protestant
high schools are Berlin, Erlangen, Giessen, Gcittingen, Greifswald,
Halle, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel, Kcinigsberg, Leipzig, Marburg,
Rostock, and Strassburg. In four universities, namely Freiburg,
Munich, Mlinster, and Wurzburg, the faculties of theology are
Roman Catholic. The remaining three are mixed, attended by
both Pi-otestant and Roman Catholic students of theology.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed, according to
Art. 70 of the Constitution, fi-om the revenues arising from customs,
certain branches of excise, the profits of the post, and telegraphs.
Should the receipts from these various sources of income not be
sufficient to cover the expenditiu-e, the individual states of Germany
may be assessed to make up the deficit, each state being made con-
tributory in proportion to its population. The common expenditure
is to be voted, ' as a rule ' — in der Regel — only for one year ; but
also for any longer term 'in special cases' — in besondern Fallen.
The financial year, formerly coeval with the calendar year, was made
to run from the 1st of April to the 31st of March in 1877.
The total actual revenue of the Empire in the year ending March
31, 1877, amounted to 661,750,587 mark, or 33,087,529/., and the
total actual expenditure to 617,461,855 mark, or 30,873,092/., leaving
a surplus of 44,288,732 mark, or 2,214,437/. In the budget estimates
for the financial year ending March 31, 1881, the total revenue was
set down at 539,252,640 mark, or 26,962,632/., and the expendi-
ture at the same amount. The budget accounts of the Empire
distinguish between ordinary, or ' continual ' (fortdauernde) ex-
penditure, and extraordinary, or ' for once ' (einmalige) disburse-
ments. In the budget of the Empire for 1879-80 the sum of
419,022,949 mark, or 20,951,147/., was placed under the head of
ordinary, and that of 121,998,588 mark, or 6,099,929/., of extra-
ordinary disbursements. The estimated total ordinary', or ' continual '
expenditure for the financial year ending March 31, 1880, was
distributed as follows : —
Mark
Imperial Chancery and Treasury .... 5,187,791
Reichstag 351,580
Foreign Department 6,335,925
Imperial Army 321,184,910
GERMANY.
Imperial Navy ......
Imperial Court of Eailway-affairs .
Interest of Debt of the Empire
Imperial Audit (Eechnimgshof )
Imperial Judicature (Reichs-Justiz-Verwaltung~l
General Pensions ......
Invalid Fund ......
Imperial Chancery of Alsace Lorraine .
Total ordinary expenditure .
99
Mark
•/o, 122,780
260,750
8.482,500
460,79P
1,230,540
17,217.736
33,015,879
171,760
419,022,949
£20,951,147
The extraordinary expenditure for the financial year ending
March 31, 1880, was distributed as follows : —
Imperial Chancery and Treasury
Reichstag ....
Department of Foreign Affairs
Imperial Post and Telegraphs
Imperial Army
Imperial Navy
Imperial Audit
Court of Imperial Jiidieature
State Railways
Imperial Mint
Expenditure in remission of war taxes, France
Total extraordinary expenditure
Ordinary expenditure .
Total expenditure .
Mark
3,092,751
30,000
370,000
10,123,180
43,114,249
20,614,010
10,000
301,200
16,386,326
22,700,000
5,256,872
1219;) 8^1588
ear ending March 31,,
419.022,949
541,021,537
^27,051,076
The estimated receipts for the financial y
1880, embraced the following branches of Imperial revenue :
Mark
Customs and Excise Duties .
Stamp Duties .....
Profits of Posts and Telegraphs .
State Railways .....
Interest of the Invalid Fund of the Empire
vSurplus of former years
Imperial Bank .....
Interests of Imperial Funds .
Miscellaneous Receipts (extraordinary supply)
Total direct revenue .
Contributions of states to Imperial revenue
Total revenue to cover expenditure
251,698,360
7,793,300
15,622,958
9,910,000
33,015,879
1,130,000
2,105,000
6.270,172
112^79.478
440,425,147
90,371,390
530,796,537
£26,539,826
The contribution of the principal states of the Empire to the
revenue for the year 1879-80 was calculated as follows:- Prussia
44,199,312 mark; Bavaria, 19,015,557 mark; WUrttembero-'
6,777,330 mark; Baden, 4,864,561 mark; Saxony, 4,739 618
mark; and the Reich-sland Alsace-Lorraine, 3,425,579 mark.
In the budget of the Empire the sums received from France as
H 2
lOO THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
war indemnity were not entered, but placed to a separate accounts
Of the war indemnity, agreed upon by Treaty of Feb. 26, 1871,.
amounting to five milliards of francs, or 200,000,000/., Germany had
received the total at the end of September 1873. Besides this Treaty
indemnity, Germany received a tribute of 6,000,000/., from the city
of Paris, and levied contributions in some of the French depart-
ments, the total sum paid into the Imperial exchequer amounting,
inchisive of interest, to about 220,000,000/. Of this sum nearly
one-half was portioned out among the twenty- five States of the Ger-
man Empire. Of the other half, in accordance with various laws
passed by the Reichsrath, 12,500,000/. were paid to France for the
Alsace-Lorraine Railways, and 6,000,000/. for the fortresses in the
Reich sland.
The German Empire, as such, had no public debt at the time of
its re-establishment, in 1871, but one has been created in recent
years. At the end of Sept. 1879, the total funded debt amounted
to 175,216,186 mark, or 8,760,809/., including a loan of 97,484,865
mark, or 4,874,243/., granted by a law of the Reichstag, passed
June 14, 1878. The whole debt bears interest at 4 per cent. Be-
sides the funded there exists an tuifunded debt, represented by
* Reichs-Kassenscheine,' or Imperial treasure bills, outstanding to the
amount of 167,000,000 mark, or 8,350,000/., at the end of September,
1879.
As a set-off against the debt of the Empire there exist a variety of
invested fvmds, of a total amount of 865,487,928 mark, or 43,274,396/.
These funds comprise an 'Invalidenfond' of 562,748,410 mark,
or 28,137,420/.; a ' Festungsbaulbnd,' of 153,976,402 mark, or
7,698,820/., and a ' Kriegs-schatz ' of 1 20,000,000 mark, or 6,000,000/.
The funds were created out of the French war indemnity, and are
yearly increasing by interest, notably the last of them, the ' Kriegs-
schatz,' or war-treasure, which can be drawn upon only in case of a
foreign war, or invasion.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
By the Constitution of April 16, 1871, the Prussian obligation to
serve in the army is extended to the whole Empire, it being enacted
by Art. 57, that ' every German is liable to service — wehrpflichtig —
and no substitution is allowed.' The time of service is thus pre-
scribed by Art. 59 of the Constitution. Every German capable of
bearing arms — ' wehrfiihig' — has to be in the standing army for seven
years, as a rule from the finished twentieth till the commencing
twenty- eighth years of his age. Of the seven years, three must be
spent in active service — ' bei den Fahnen ' — and the remaining four
GERMANY. 10 1
in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve, he has
to form part of the Landwehr for another five years. The strength
of the German army on the peace footing was fixed in the Army
Bill, which passed the Reichstag in the session of 1874, at 401,659
men for a term of seven years, commencing on the 1st of January
1875, and ending on the 31st of December 1881. The volmiteers
of one year's service are not reckoned in the number at which the
peace effective is fixed. By the Army Bill, the Prussian military
legislation is applied to all the states of the Empire.
The strength of the armed forces of the Empire was greatly aug-
mented by a law called that of the Landsturm, which passed the
Eeichstag in the session of 1875. Under this law, the army is
increased by the addition of all men callable of bearing arms, who
are not either in the Line, the Reserve, or the Landwehr. The
new force, the Landsturm, is divided into two classes, the first class
comprising all able-bodied men up to the age of 42, who are not
already in the army, and the second including the rest. The first
class is organised into 293 Landsturm battalions on the model of the
293 existing Landwehr battalions, which adds 175,800 men to the
German forces. By application of the law, the German army,
without the second class of the Landstixrm, which is not to be orga-
nized for the present, will number about 1,800,000. men.
The (J3rd Article of the Constitution of 1871 enacts ' the whole
of the land forces of the Empire shall form a united army, in war
and peace imder the orders of the Kaiser ' — ' die gesammte Land-
macht des Reichs wird ein einheitliches Heer bildeu, welches im
Krieg und Frieden unter dem Befehle des Kaisers steht.' The
sovereigns of the principal states have the right to select the lower
grades of ofiicers ; and the King of Bavaria, by a convention, signed
Nov. 23, 1870, has reserved to himself the special privilege of
superintending the general administration of that portion of the
German army raised within his dominions. But the approval of the
Kaiser must be obtained to all appointments, and nothing affecting
the superior direction of the troops of any state of the Empire can
be done without his consent. It is enacted by Art. 64 of the Con-
stitution of 1871 that 'all German troops are bound to obey uncon-
ditionally the orders of the Kaiser' — 'alle deutschen Truppen sind
verpflichtet, den Befehlen des Kaisers unbedingt Folge zu leisten ' —
* and must swear accordingly the oath of fidelity.' Art. 65 of the
Constitution gives the Emperor the right of ordering the erection
of fortresses in any part of the Empire ; and Art. 68 invests him
with the power, in case of threatened disturbance of order —
* wenn die offentliche Sichei'heit bedroht ist ' — to declare any coimtry
or district in a state of siege.
The army of the German Empire was formed in October 1879, of
lo:
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881,
150 regiments of infantry, including the guards ; 20 battalions of
jiiger, or riHemen ; 93 reginaents of cavalry, 49 regiments of
artillery, 20 l^attalions of engineers, including a railway regiment,
and 18 battalions of military train. The following table shows the
strength and organisation of the Imperial army on the peace-
footing : —
Peace-footing
Officers
8,894
Rank and file
Horses
Guns
Infantry, 150 regiments
258,652
4,228
Jager, 20 battalions
482
11,247
140
—
Cavalry, 93 regiments .
2,902
65.512
68,515
—
Field Artillery, 36 regiments
1,800
30,637
17,100
1,200
Fortress Artillery, 29 bat-
talions ....
640
14,985
224
—
; Engineers, 20 battalions
400
10,150
250
—
Train, 18 battalions .
300
5,049
3,600
—
1 Depots of Landwelir, 274
' battalions
600
4,703
3
—
! Staff Division
2,061
—
3,329
—
Total
18,079
400,935
97,389
1,200
The following table shows the strength and organisation of the
Imperial army on the war-footing : —
War Footing
Officers
Kank and file
Horses
Guns
Infantry, including guards
Jager or riflemen
Cavalry ....
Field Artillery
Fortress and Coast Artil- ")
lery . . . /
Engineers
Train and administration .
Eailway and telegraph "\
division . , J
Staff division .
Total .
19,426
780
3,487
2,213
1,370
837
724
250
2,108
885,388
41,184
108,276
88,319
56,800
33,669
44,010
8,700
7,000
20,988
1,098
112,304
78,066
8,200
8,251
44,255
1,780
6,600
2,124
576
31,195
1,273,346
281,542
2,700
Not included in the above statements are the troops of the field
reserve, organised in 1876, calculated to number 250,000 men, and
those of the Landsturm (see page 101). It is calculated that with
the addition of the latter, Germany may place in the field at any
time two millions and a half of armed men, without drawing upon
the last reserves.
The Empire is divided for military purposes into 17 districts, each
represented by one corps d'armee. The guards alone, recruited from
Prussia and Alsace-Lorraine, do not belong to any special division.
GERMANY.
lO-
For details regarding the German army, its formation, mode of
service, and general organisation, see Pnissia, 'Army,' pp. 123-25.
Since the Franco-German war, the fortress system of Germany
has been entirely remodelled, and a number of old fortified places,
deemed useless, have been abolished, and many new ones erected,
and others enlarged. The Empire is at present divided into nine
' fortress districts ' (Festungs-Inspectionen), each including a certain
area with fortified places. The following table gives a list of these
districts, and the names of the fortresses in each, the fortified places
of the first class, serving as camps — mit verschanzten Lageru — being
distiugui-shed by itahcs, while those specially designed for railway
protection, or obstruction — Eisenbahnsperren — are marked by
asterisks (*), and coast fortresses by a dagger (f). The table is
drawn up afl:er official returns, dated November 1879.
Districts
1. Konigsberg
2. Danzig
Konigsberg
Marienburg
Dirseliau*
Memelt
Pillaut
Danzig
Stralsund I"
Thorn
Swinemunde t
Kolbergt
Posen
Neisse
Glogau *
Glatz
Kustrin
Konigsteiu *
Magdeburg
Torgau*
Spandau
Mayence
Ulm
Eastatt
Neu-Breisach
8trassh.irg
Mets
Saarlouis *
Diedenhofen *
Bitsch*
Cologne
Dusseldorf*
Koblenz
Wesel*
Ehrenbreitstein
Sonderburg-Diippel
Kielt
Trave moiitlit
Elbe mouth t
Friedrichsort t
Weser mouth t
Ems mouth t
Wilhelmshavent
Inqolstadt
Germersheim.*
3. Posen ....
4. Berlm ....
6. Mayence (Mainz) .
6. Metz ....
7. Cologne (Coin)
8. Altona ....
9. Mimich (Miinchen) .
It will be seen that at the end of 1879, the Empire had 17
fortified places of the first class, serving as fortified camps, and 26
other fortresses. "Works for enlarging six of the fortresses of the
first class, namely. Thorn, Posen, KUstrin, Mayence, iStrassburg,
and Metz, were in hand at the same date, the most important of
these works, consisting of the building of a wide girdle of outer
104
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
fortifications, being nearly completed at Strassburg and Metz.
(Official Communication.)
2. Navy.
The formation of a German navy, due to the initiative of Prussia,
dates from 1848, and rapid progress has been made in it for the last
ten years. The fleet of war of the Empire consisted, at the end of
1880, of 22 ironclads, including 3 not completed, 59 other steamers,
and 4 sailing vessels.
The following is a tabulated list of the 20 ironclads, divided into
frigates, corvettes, and gunboats. The columns of the subjoined table
exhibit, similar to that descriptive of the British ironclad navy, first,
the thickness of armour at the water-line ; secondly, the number and
size of guns ; thirdly, the indicated horse-power of the engines ; and
fourthly, the tonnage, that is, displacement in tons. The ironclads
marked by an asterisk (*) before their name were not completed
at the end of December 1880 : —
A 1 monr-clad ships
Frigates: —
Kiiiser
Deutschlaud
Konig Wilhelm
Friedrich der Grossr-
Preussen .
Friedrich Karl
Kroiiprinz
Corvettes : —
Haiisii
Sachseia .
Bayern
"Wiirttemberg
Buden
Gtmboats : —
Arminius .
Wespe
Viper
Biene
Skorpion .
Miieke
Basilisk .
Camaeleon
*H .
*I .
Armour
Guns 1
thiclcness at
water line
Inches
1
K umber
Weight
10
f 8
22-ton-l
I 3
18-ton J
10
/ 8
22-ton 1
I 3
18-ton/
81
25
18-ton '
8^
it
2 6 -ton 1
21 -ton/
8i
f 4
I 2
26-ton T
21 -ton/
5
18
12-ton
5
18
12^ ton
6
10
12 -ton
8
8
22-ton
8
8
22 -ton
8
8
22-ton
8
8
22-ton
H
4
7-ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
4
30 -ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
4
30-ton
Indicated
Displace-
horse-
ment, or
power
tonnage
7,800
7,560
7,800
7,560
7,800
9,602
5,327
6,550
5,327
6,748
3,450
5,819
4,735
5,303
2,960
3,553
5,600
3,497
5,600
7,135
5,600
7,135
5,000
7,135
1,200
1,588
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,000
600
1,00(1
600
1,000
GERMANY. IO5
The two most powerful ships of the navy are the ironclads
Xaiser and Deutschland, both built by Messrs. Samuda, Brothers,
Poplar, the first launched March 19, and the second September 12,
1874. The Kaiser and Deutschland are sister-ships, 285 feet
long, constructed alike in every respect, after the designs of Mr.
Edward J. Reed, formerly constructor to the British navy. Each
is protected with an armour belt extending all fore and aft, from 5
feet 6 inches below the water-line to the main deck, and has an
iirmour-plated battery, fitted with eight 22-ton steel breech-loading
Krupp guns, arranged to fire broadside. In addition to these eight
guns, there is another gun of 18 tons weight placed aft, capable of
being trained to an angle of fifteen degrees. The thickness of
armour-plates on the vital parts of the belt and battery is ten
inches; elsewhere it is eight inches, reduced at the ends of the
ship. The upper and main deck beams of each ironclad are com-
pletely covered with steel plating.
The next most powerful ironclads of the German Imperial navy
are the turret- ships, Friedrich der Grosse and Preussen. They
were built at German dockyards, after the same model, during the years
1873 and 1874. Each of them has two turrets, with armour of the
thickness of eleven inches round them, and the centre, and of seven
inches fore and after, while the armament consists of four 26-ton
guns in the turrets, and two 21 -ton guns placed fore and
aft. Not much inferior in size to these two turret-ships are
the ironclads Konig Wilhelm, Prinz Friedrich Karl, and
Kronprinz. The Kiinig Wilhelm, built at the Thames Iron-
Avorks, Blackwall, and launched on the 25th of April, 1868, was de-
signed by the former Constructor of the British navy, and carries 25
18- ton guns, made of Krupp's hammered steel. The armour
is 8^ inches thick amidships, tapering gradually downwards to a
thickness of 7 inches at 7 feet below the water-line. Behind the
bowsprit and just forward of the stern are two bulkheads, each of
6 inch armotir and 18 inch of teak, which continue from the lower
deck up through the main deck, and rise to the height o£ 7 feet
above the spar deck, where they are curved into the form of
semicircular shields, each pierced with portholes for cannon and
loopholes for musketry. Within these shields are four 300-pounders,
which can be used to fire straight fore and aft, or as broadside gims.
The Prinz Friedrich Karl, was built at La Seyne. near Toulon,
after the model of the French frigate the Couronne. The Kronprinz,
built at Poplar, by Messrs. Samuda Brothers, and launched in 1867,
is constructed with armoiu'-plating 5 inches thick, so arranged as to
protect the rudder and steering apparatus, as well as the whole of the
lower deck. The armament consists of 18 steel breech-loading guns
of 12 tons, besides two small pivot guns.
I06 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Among the other vessels of the German navy, the most remarkable
are two torpedo steamers, completed in 1877, the Zieten and the
Ulan. They are sea-going ships for offensive warfare, constructed
for great speed, calculated to be not less than 20 knots per hour.
Both are protected, in their most vulnerable parts, mainly under the
bows, by steel armour.
There were under construction at the end of 18<S0, besides the
ironclads enumerated in the preceding list, a number of unarmoured
vessels, nearly all designed for great speed. The chief of them were
four frigates, constructed on the same pattern, the Bismarck, Blucher,
Moltke, and Stosch, each with engines of 2,500 horse-power, the
armament consisting of sixteen 80-pounder guns.
The German navy was manned, at the end of 1880, by 5,189
seamen and boys, and officered by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 3 rear-
admirals, 15 captains, and 401 lieutenants. There were, besides,
1,297 marines, artillery, numbering 458 men, in all a total of 7,365
officers and men. The sailors of the fleet and marines are raised by
conscription fi-om among the seafaring population, which is exempt
on this account from service in the army. Great inducements are held
out for able seamen to volunteer in the navy, and the number of these
in recent years has been very large. The total seafaring population
of Germany is estimated at 80,000, of whom 48,000 are serving in
the merchant navy at home, and about 6,000 in foreign navies.
Germany has three ports of war, at Kiel and Danzig, on the
Baltic, and at Wilhelmshaven in the Bay of Jade, on the North Sea.
The last-named, most important of harboiirs for the newly-created
German navy, Avas opened by the Emperor-King on the 17th June,
1869. The port of Wilhelmshaven is a vast artificial construction
of granite, and comprises five separate harbours, with canals, sluices
to regulate the tide, and an array of dry docks for ordinary and iron-
clad vessels. The first harbour is an artificial basin, flanked by
granite moles, respectively 4,000 and 9,600 feet long. This basin,,
called ' the entrance,' is 700 feet long and 350 wide, and leads to
the first sluice, 132 feet long and 66 wide. The next basin, or outer
harbour is 600 feet long and 400 wide; the second sluice, imme-
diately behind, as long and as wide as the first. Then follows a canal
3,600 feet long, varying in width from 260 to 108 feet, and having
about halfway another harbour for dredging-steamers and similar
craft. This leads to the port proper, consisting of a basin 1,200 feet
long and 750 wide, with a smaller basin for boats. At the back of
the principal harbour there are two large ship3'ards.
Area and Population,
The following table gives the area and population of the twenty-five
States of Germany in the order of their areas, and of the Reichsland
GERMANY.
107
of Alsace-Lorraine, together with the average density of population
of each, as returned at the census, taken December 1, 1875 : —
states of the Empire
Area,
English sq.
Population,
Dec. 1 1875.
Density of
population per
miles
Eng. sq. mile
I. Prussia ....
137,066
25,742,404
188
n. Bavaria ....
29,292
5,022,390
170
III. Wiirtemberg
7,675
1,881,505
245
IV, Saxony ....
6,777
2,760,586
407
V. Baden ....
5,851
1,507,179
257
"VT. Meeklembiirg-Schweriii
4,834
553,785
114
Vn. Hesse
2,866
884,218
307
Vni. Oldenbm-g ....
2,417
319,314
132
IX. Brunswick ....
1,526
327,493
214
X. Saxe-Weimar
1,421
292,933
206
XI. Mecklemburg-Strelitz .
997
95,673
95
XII. Saxe-Meiningeia .
933
194,494
208
Xni. Anhalt ....
869
213,665
245
XIV. Saxe-Coburg
816
182,599
223
XV. Saxe-Altenburg .
509
145,844
286
XVI. Waldeck ....
466
54.743
117
XVII. Lippe ....
445
112,452
256
XVIII. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
340
76,676
225
XIX. Schwarzbiirg-Sondershausen .
318
67,480
212
XX. Reuss-Schleiz
297
92,375
311
XXI. Scbaumburg-Lippe
212
33,133
155
XXII. Reuss-Greiz.
148
46,985
317
XXIII. Hamburg ....
148
388,618
2,625
XXIV. Liibeck ....
127
56,912
448
XXV. Bremen ....
106
142,200
1,345
Eeichsland of Alsace-Lorraine
Total
1
5,580
1,531,804
227
212,091
42,727,360
201
At the census of December 1, 1875, the number of males was
20,986,701, and the number of females 21,740,659, being an excess
of 753,958 females over males in the total population of the Empire.
The popvxlation of Germany was 23,103,211 in 1816, at the end
of the great wars against France, and thirty years after, in 1837, it
had risen to 30,010,711, representing an average annual increase of
nearly 1^ per cent. At the general census of 1858, the population
of Germany was found to be 35,334,538, showing an average annual
increase of little more than ^ per cent. ; while, the return of the
census of 1867, the last preceding the great war against France, gave
a total of 38,495,926 souls, amounting to an average annual increase
of f per cent. From the census of 1867 to that of 1871, the war
intervening, the increase was only at the rate of 0'58 per annum ;
but from 1871 to 1875 it rose to 1-01 per cent, per annum.
The following table exhibits the comparative census results of
the years 1871 and 1875, with the increase or decrease, both abso-
io8
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
lute and per cent, per annum, in each of the 25 states of Geraiany,
ranked according to population in 1875, and in Alsace-Lorraine : —
Absolute Increase +
Population,
Population,
Increase + | or
states ot tne iimpire
Dec. 1, 1871
Dec. 1, 1875
or Decrease —
Decrease — p.ct. p. an.
I.
Prussia
24,605,842
25,742,404
+ l,136,562i + 1-13
II.
Bavaria
4,863,450
5,022,390
+
158,940 + 0-82
in.
Saxony
2,556,244
2,760,586
+
204,342 + 1-92
IV.
Wiirtemberg
1.818,539
1.881,505
+
62,966 + 0-85
V.
Baden .
1,461,562
1,607,179
+
45,6171 + 0-76
VI.
Hesse .
852,894
884,218
+
31,324' + 0-85
vn.
Mecklembiirg-
Schwerin .
\ 557,707
553,785
-
3,922 - 0-18
^t:ii.
Hamburg
338,974
388,618
+
49,644 + 3-41
IX.
Brunswick
312,170
327,493
+
15,323 + 1-20
X.
Oldenburg
314,591
319,314
+
4,723 + 0-35
XI.
Saxe-Weimar
286,183
292,933
+
6,750 + 0-58
XII.
Anhalt .
203,437
213,565
+
10,128 + 1-23
XIII.
Saxe-Meiningen
187,957
194,494
+
6,537: + 0-80
' XIV.
Saxe-Coburg
174,339
182,599
+
8,260 + 1-17
XV.
Saxe-Altenburg
142,122
145,844
+
3,722 + 0-65
XVI.
Bremen
122,402
142,200
+
19,798| + 3-82
XVII.
Lippe
111,135
112,452
+
1,317| + 0-20
xvm.
Meeklemburg-
Strelitz
1 96,982
95,673
-
1,309 - 0-35
XIX.
Reuss-Schleiz
89,032
92,375
+
3,343 + 0-92
XX.
Schwarzburg-Ru-
dolstadt .
1 75,523
76,676
+
1,153 + 0-38
XXI.
Schwarzburg-Son-
dershausen
1 67,191
67,480
+
1
289 + 0-11
XXII.
"Waldeck
56,224
54,743
—
1,481 - 0-70
xxin.
Liibeek
52,158
56,912
+
4,754 + 2-18
XXIV.
Reuss-Greiz .
45,094
46,985
+
1,891 + 1-03
XXV.
Schaumburg-Lippt
3 32,059
33,133
+
1,074 + 0-75 1
Alsace-Lorraine
Total
. 1,549,738
1,531,804
-
17,934 _ 0-23
1 40,973,549
42,727,360
+ l,753,81ll + 1-01
The population of Alsace-Lorraine given in the second column in
the preceding table is that of the French census of December 31,
1866, thus making the interval brought under comparison nearly
five years, instead of four as in the rest of Germany.
It will be seen that the increase of population dui-ing the census
period was greatest in the three Free Towns, Bremen, Hamburg,
and Lubeck, and, next to them, in Saxony, while it was less in
Prussia, and that the decrease of population was largest in the
Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in the whole
GERMANY.
109
German Empire, during each of the five years from 1873 to
1877 :—
Tears
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1,682,737
1,724,412
1,757,701
1,747,277
1,818,510
1,122,158
1,172,393
1,133,627
1,162,493
711,157
400,282
386,746
366,912
347,810
547,810
560,579
552,019
624,074
594,784
1,107,353
Emigration, Avhich formerly assumed larger proportions in Germany
than in any other country of Europe, has been gradually declining
in recent years. It reached its highest point in 1854, when over a
quarter of a million of persons left the country, then sank gradually
till 1862, in which year the number fell to 27,529, and from thence
rose again, with fluctuation, till the year 1872, when there were
155,595 emigrants to the United States alone. In 1873, the total
emigration fell to 130,937 ; in 1874 to 75,502 ; in 1875 to 56,289 ;
in 1876 to 37,803; and in 1877 to 21,964. From 1875 to 1877,
the number of immigrants was nearly as large as that of emigrants.
During the twenty-two years iirom 1846 to 1877, the total emigration
to the United States, which absorbs the best classes of emigrants,
numbered 2,685,430 individuals. It is calculated that each presented,
on the average, a money value of 200 marks, or lOZ., so that the
total loss by this emigration amounted to 26,854,300^. The gra-
dually decreasing stream of emigration mainly flowed through Ham-
burg and Bremen. (See Hamhurg, page 176, and Bremen, P^ge
179.)
Trade and Commerce of Germany.
See pp. 181-85.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
See pp. 185-86.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Germany,
See pp. 186-88.;
no
STATES OF GERMANY.
I. PRUSSIA.
(KONIGREICH PrEUSSEN.)
Reigning King.
Wilhelm I., born March 22, 1797, the second son of King
Friedrich Wilhelm III. and of Princess Lonise of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz ; educated for the military career, and took part in the
campaigns of 1813 and 1814 against France; Governor of the
province of Pomerania, 1840; Commander-in-Chiof of the Prussian
troops against the revolutionary army of Baden, June 1849 ; Military
Governor of the Ehine provinces, 1849-57 ; appointed Regent of
the kingdom during the illness of his brother, Oct. 9, 1858 ;
ascended the throne of Prussia at the death of his brother, Jan.
2, 1861. Commander-in-Chief of the German armies in the war
against France, July 1870 to March 1871 ; proclaimed German
Emperor at Versailles, January 18, 1871 . Married June 11, 1829, to
Augusta, Queen of Prussia, born Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter of
the late Grand-Duke Karl Friedrich of Saxe-Weimar.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, heir-apparent, born Oct. 18, 1831 ;
Field-Marshal in the German army ; married Jan. 25, 1858, to
Victoria, Princess Royal of Great Britain, of which marriage there
are issue six children : — 1. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born Jan. 27,
1859 ; betrothed to Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-
Augustenburg, born May 3, 18G0. 2. Princess Charlotte, born
July 24, 1860; married Feb. 18, 1878, to Prince Bernhard, eldest
son of Duke George II. of Saxe-Meiningen ; oifspring of the union
is a daughter, Feodora, born May 12, 1879. 3. Prince Hefnrich,
born Aug. 14, 1862. 4. Princess Victoria, born April 12, 1866.
5. Princess Sophie, born June 14, 1870. 6. Princess Margarethe,
born April 22, 1872.
II. Princess Louise, born Dec. 3, 1838, married Sept. 20, 1856,
to Grand-Duke Friedrich of Baden (see page 147).
Brother of the King.
PrincajfiTar/, born June 29, 1801 ; Feld-zeugmeister, Commander-
in-chief of the Prussian artillery ; married. May 26, 1827, to Princess
Marie of Saxe-Weimar; widower, Jan. 18, 1877. Issue of the
union are three children : —
I. Prince Friedrich Karl, born March 20, 1828 ; Field-Marshal
in the German army ; married, Nov. 29, 1854, to Princess Maria
of Anhalt, by whom he lias four children : — 1. Princess jNIarie, born
GERMANY — PRUSSIA. Ill
September 14, 1855 ; married August 24, 1878, to Prince Hendrik
■of the Netherlands; widow, Jan. 13, 1879. 2. Princess Elizabeth,
bora Feb. 8, 1857, and married Feb. 18, 1878, to Prince August,
hereditary Grand-duke of (31denburg. 3. Princess Louise, bom
July 25, 1860, and married March 13, 1879, to Prince Arthur of
Great Britain, Duke of Connaught. 4. Prince Friedrich Leopold,
born Nov. 14, 1875.
II. Princess Louise, born IVIarch 1, 1829, and married, June 27,
1854, to the Landgrave Alexis of Hesse-Philippsthal, from whom she
was divorced, March 6, 1861.
III. Princess Anna, born May 17, 1836, and married. May 26,
1853, to Landgraf Friedrich of Hesse.
Nephew and Niece of the King.
I. Prince Albrecht, born May 8, 1837, son of the late Prince
Albrecht, brother of the King ; Commandmg General of the tenth
corps d'armee ; married April 19, 1873, to Princess Marie, born
August 2, 1854, daughter of Duke Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg, by whom
he has offspring two sons : — 1. Friedrich, bom July 15, 1874. 2.
Joachim, born September 27, 1876.
II, Princess Alexandrine, born Feb. 1, 1842, sister of the preceding,
married Dec. 9, 1865, to Prince Wilhelm of Mecklenbiu-g-Schwerin.
Cousins of the King.
I. Prince Alexander ^ born June 21, 1820, the son of the late
Prince Friedrich of Prussia.
II. Prince Gcorg, brother of the preceding, bom Feb. 12, 1826.
The kings of Prussia trace their origin to Coimt Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor, Count
Friedrich L, built the family-castle of Hohenzollern, near the
Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern,
Friedrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of the Holy
Eoman Empire, in 1273, and received the Burgraviate of Nurem-
berg in fief; and his great grandson, Friedrich VI., was invested by
Kaiser Sigismund, in 1415, with the province of Brandenburg, and
obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A century after, in 1511, the
Teutonic knights, owners of the large province of Prussia, on the
Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht, a younger son of the family of
Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-IMaster, and he, after a while, de-
clared himself hereditary prince. The early extinction of the male line
of All^recht brought the province of Prussia by marriage to the Elec-
tors of Brandenbiu-g, who, by early adopting Protestantism, acquired
.a very important position as leaders of the new faith in Northern
■Germany. In the seventeenth century, the Hohenzollern territories
became greatly enlarged by the valour and wisdom of Friedrich
Wilhelm, ' the Great Elector,' under whose fostering care arose the
first standing army in central Europe. The Great Elector, after
112 THE CTATESMAN's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
a reign extending from 1640 to 1688, left a country of one
and a half millions, a vast treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops,
to his son, Friedrich I., who put the kingly crown on his head at
Konigsberg, on the 18th of January 1701. The first king of Prussia
made few efforts to increase the territory left him by the Great
Elector ; but his successor, Friedrich Wilhelra I., acquired a treasure
of nine milhons of thalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling,,
bought family domains to the amount of five millions thalers, and
raised the annual income of the country to six millions, three-fourths
of which siun, however, had to be spent on the army. After adding
part of Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son
and successor, Friedrich II., called ' the Great,' a state of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half millions inhabitants. Friedrich II.
added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, Avith one and a quarter
million of souls ; and this, and the large territory gained in the
first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,840 square miles,
witli more than five and a half millions of inhabitants. Under the-
reign of Friedrich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm XL, the State was
enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of Ansjiach and
Baireuth, as Avell as the vast territory acquired in another partition
of Poland, which raised its area to the extent of nearly 100,000
square miles, with about nine millions of souls. Under Friedrich
Wilhelm III., nearly one half of this state and population was taken
by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna not only restored the
loss, but added part of the kingdom of Saxony, the Rhinelands, and
Swedish Pomerania, moulding Prussia into two separate pieces of
territory, of a total area of 107,300 square miles. This was shaped
into a compact state of 137,066 square miles, with a population of
22,769,436, by the war of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the kings of Prussia enjoyed the
whole income of the state domains, amounting to about a million
sterling per annum. Since the establishment of constitutional
Government, however, this arrangement has been changed, and the
domains have become public property, in so far as the income is
paid into the public exchequer, after deduction of certain sums pro-
vided for the ' Krondotations Rente,' or civil list. The amount of
the civil list was fixed by Art. 59 of the constitution of January 31,
1851 ; but in 1859 it was raised 500,000 thaler, and in 1868 a
further 1,000,000 thaler. At present the total 'Krondotations
Rente,' as far as it figures in the budgets, amounts to 4,073,099
thaler, or 610,964/. The reigning house is also in possession of a
vast amount of private property, comprising castles, forests, and
great landed estates in various parts of the kingdom, known as
* Fideikomiss-und-SchatuIlgliter,' the revenue from which mainly
serves to defray the expenditure of the court and the members of
the royal family.
GERMANY- - PPvU-^SIA. 1 1 3
Dating from Elector Friedrich III. of Brandenburg, avIio, on
January 18, 1701, placed the royal crown upon his head, calling
himself King Friedrich I. of Prussia, there have been the following
SOVEREIGXS OF THE HoUSE OF HoHENZOLLERX.
ri-iedrlchi 1701
Friedrich Wilhelm 1 1713
Friedrich II.. called ' the Great ' 1740
Friedrich Wilhclm II 1786
Friedrich Wilhelm III 1797
Friedrich Wilhelm IV 1840
AVilhelml 1861
The average reign of the seven kings of the House of Hohen-
Eollern, including the present monarch, amounted to 23 years.
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution of Prussia was drawn nj) by the trovern-
ment of King Friedrich "Wilhelm IV., with the co-operation of a
Constituent Assembly, sitting August-December 1849, and was
proclaimed January 31, 1850; but subsequently modified by royal
decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 ; May 7 and 24,
1853 ; June 10, 1854 ; May 30, 1855 ; April 14 and 30, 1856 ;
May 18, 1857; May 17, 1867; January 1, 1872; and April 5,
1873. These fundamental laws vest the executive and part of the
legislative authority in a king, who attains his majority upon
accomplishing his eighteenth year. The cro-\\Ti is hereditary in
tlie male line, according to priraogenitiu-e. In the exercise of the
government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap-
pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares
with a representative assembl}', composed of two Chambers,
the first called the ' Ilerrenhaus,' or House of Lords, and the
second the ' Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies. The
assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite for all laws,
Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted to the
second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected en bloc by
the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in the
government and in each of the Chambers. The first Chamber,
according to the original draft of constitution, was to consist of
princes of the royal family of age, and of the heads of Prussian
houses deriving directly from the fonner empire, as well as of
the heads of those families who, by royal ordinance, would be
appointed to seats and votes in the Chamber, according to the
rights of primogeniture and lineal descent. Besides these here-
ditary members, there were to be ninety deputies directly elected
by electoral districts, consisting of a number of electors who
pay the highest taxes to the State ; and, in addition, other thirty
members elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
I
114 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
towns. This original composition of the ' House of Lords ' was
greatly modified by the royal decree of October 12, 1854, which
brought into life the Upper Chamber in its present form. It is
composed of, first, the princes of the royal family who are of age,
including the scions of the formerly sovereign families of Hohen-
zollern-Hechingen and Plohenzollern-Sigmaringen; secondly, the
chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress
of Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads
of the territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some
fifty members ; fourthly, a number of life peers, chosen by the king
among the class of rich landoAvners, great manufactui'ers, and 'national
celebrities ; ' fifthly, eight titled noblemen elected in the eight pro-
vinces of Prussia by the resident landowners of all degrees ; sixthly,
the representatives of the universities, the heads of ' chapters,' and
the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand inhabitants ;
and, seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by the
king for life, or for a more or less restricted pei'iod.
The second Chamber consists of 433 members — 352 for the old
kingdom, and the rest added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed
provinces. Every Prussian who has attained his twenty-fifth year,
and is qualified to vote for the mimicipal elections of his place of
domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect elector. Persons who are
entitled to vote for municipal elections in several parishes, can only
exercise the right of indirect elector, or ' Urwlihler,' in one. One
direct elector, or 'Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete niimber
of 250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes,
according to the respective amount of direct taxes paid by each ;
arranged in such manner, that each category pays one-third of the
whole amount of direct taxes levied on the whole. The first category
consist of all electors who pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-
third of the whole. The second, of those who pay the next highest
amount down to the limits of the second third. The third of all the
lowest taxed, who, together, complete the last class. Each class may
be divided into several electoral circles, none of which must, however,
exceed 500 ' Urwahler.' Direct electors may be nominated in each
division of the circle fi-om the number of persons entitled to vote
indirectly, without regard to special divisions. The representatives
are chosen by the direct electors. The legislative period of the second
Chamber is limited to three years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a
member of the second Chamber who has accomplished his thirtieth
year, who has not forfeited the enjoyment of full civic rights through
a judicial sentence, and who has paid taxes during three years to the
state. The Chamber must be re-elected within six months of the
expiration of their legislative period, nr after being dissolved. In
either case former members are re-elio-ible. The Chambers are to
GERMANY PRUSSIA. II5
be regularly convoked by the king during the month of November ;
and in extraordinary sessioa, as often as circumstances may require.
The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by the
king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers
are to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously.
Each Chamber has to prove the qualification of its members, and
to decide thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of
business and discipline, and elect their own presidents, vice-pre-
sidents, and secretaries. Functionaries do not require leave of
absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member accepts paid func-
tions, or a higher office connected with increased salaiy, he vacates
his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the same by a
new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The sit-
tings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the j:)ropo-
sition of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret
deliberation. Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the
legal majority of its members is not present. Each Chamber has a
right to present addresses to the king. No one can deliver a peti-
tion or address to the Chambers, or to either of them in person.
Each Chamber can refer documents addressed to it to the ministers,
and demand explanations relative to complaints contained therein.
Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions of investigation
of facts for their o^vn information. The members of both Chambers
are held to be representatives of the whole population. They vote
according to their fi"ee conviction, and are not boimd by prescrip-
tions or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for
their votes, or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No
member of the Chambers can, Avithout its assent, be submitted to
examination or arrest for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless
seized in the act, or within twenty-foiir hours of the same. All crimi-
nal proceedings against members of the Chambers, and all examination
or civil aiTCst, must be suspended during the session, should the
Chamber whom it may concern so demand. Memb'n-s of the second
Chamber receive travelling expenses and diet money from the State,
according to a scale fixed by law amomiting to 20 mark, or one
pound vSterling, per day. Refusal of the same is not allowed.
The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium,
or Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the
King, and hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsministerium is
divided into ten departments, as follows : —
1 . President of the Coimcil of Ministers. — Prince Otto von Bismarck-
ScJwnhausen, born April 1, 1815; studied jurisprudence at Berlin
and Gcittingen ; elected member of the Prussian Diet, 1848 : Minister
Plenipotentiary at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ; Ambassador to
the Coiu-t of St. Petersburg, 1859-62; Ambassador to the Emperor
I 2
Il6 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of the French, May-July 18G2.- Appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and President of the Coiuicil of Ministers of Prussia, Sep-
tembei" 23, 1862 ; Chancellor of the German Empire, Jan. 19,
1871 ; resigned the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, December
20, 1872; re-appointed President of the Council, Nov. 9, 1873.
2. Vice-President of the Council of Ministeis. — Otto Coimt von
Stolherg- Wer nig erode, born October 30, 1837 ; Oberprilsident of the
pi'ovince of Hanover, 1867-7(5 ; ambassador to Austria-Hungary,
1876-78. Appointed Vice-President of the Council, June 1, 1878.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Karl Hermann Bitter, born Feb. 27,
1813 ; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and Bonn, 1830-32 ; entered
the State service in 1833 ; Councillor of Government, 1846; Presi-
dent of the financial department at Posen, 1869 ; Prefect at Nancy
in the war against France, 1870—71 ; President of the government
at Schleswig, 1872, and at Dusseldorf, 1876. Appointed Minister of
Finance, July 7, 1879.
4. The Ministry of War. — General Arnold Karl Georg Von Kcnneke,
born June 14, 1817 ; entered the army as Lieutenant in the engineers,
1834; captain and staff officer, 1850; military envoy at Vienna,
1856-57; major general and head of the staff of the 2nd corps
d'armee, 1865 ; lieutenant-generalandchief of the corps of engineers,
1868; commander of the 14th division of the first corps d'armee in
the Avar against France, July-December 1870; director of the
engineer operations in the siege of Paris, Dec. 1870-71. Appointed
Minister of War, November 15, 1873.
5. The INIinistry of the Interior. — Baron von Buttt'clier, born
1825 ; studied jurisprudence, and entered the State service in
1848 ; Oberprasident of the province of Schleswig-IIolstein, 1871-
80. Appointed Minister of the Interior, September 15, 1880.
6. The ]\Iinistry of Justice. — Dr. Friedberg, born 1813 ; studied
jurisprudence, and admitted to the bar 1835; entered the Ministry
of Justice, 1854; nominated life member of the Prussian House of
Lords, 1872. Appointed Minister of Justice, October 30, 1879.
7. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Jvobert Victor von Puttkamer, born Mayo, 1828; studied juris-
piudence at Heidellierg and Berlin ; entered the State service in
1850 ; Landrath at Demmin, 1860 ; in the war against Austria,
Civil Governor of Mahren at Briinn, 1866 ; Privy Councillor in the
Chancery of the North German Confederation, 1867 ; President of
the government of Lorraine at Metz, 1874-77 ; member of the
Reichstag since the year 1873. Appointed Minister of Public In-
struction and Ecclesiastical Affairs, July 14, 1879.
8. The I\Iinistry of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. — Dr.
lioheit Lucius, born Dec. 20, 1835; studied medicine at Heidel-
berc: and Breslau : took part as physician in the Prussian Embassy
GERMANY — rKrSSIA. Il7
to China and Japan, 1860-G2 ; officer of cavalry in the campaigns
of 1864-, 1866, and 1870-71 against Denmark, Austria, and France;
member of the Reichstag since 1870 ; elected Second Vice-President
of the Reichstag, 1870. Appointed Minister of A gricidture, &c.,
July 14, 1879.
9. The IMinistry of Public Works.— Dr. August MafuacJi, born
November 22, 1822 ; studied jurisprudence, and entered the State
service in 1845 ; Director-general of the Railways of Hanover,
1866-71, and of the German State Railways, 1871-78. Appointed
Minister of Commerce and Public Works, Jlarch 30, 1878.
10. The Ministry of Commerce and Industry. — Karl Hofmann,
born Nov. 4, 1827; studied jurisprudence at Giessen and Heidel-
berg; entered the State service of He-sse, 1857; Ambassador of
Hesse at Berlin, 1866; President of the Council of Ministers of
Hesse, Sept. 1872-76 ; President of the Imperial Chancery, and
Minister of Prussia Avithout portfolio, 1876-79. Appointed Minister
of Commerce and Industry, July 14. 1879.
Each of the provinces of the kingdom is placed under the
superintendence of an ' Oberprasident,' or governor, who has a
salary of 21,000 mark, or 1,050/. Each province has also a military
commandant, a superior court of justice, a director of taxes, and a
consistory, all appointed by the king. The provinces are sub-
divided into Regierungsbezirke, or counties, and these again into
' Kreise,' or circles,and the latter into ' Gemeinden,' or parishes. Each
county has a president and an administrative board or council; and
the further subdivisions have also their local authorities. The nnini-
cipal organisation of the towns is more complicated than that of the
communes. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the
elections must be confirmed by the king or the authorities.
Churcli and Education.
Absolute religious liberty is guaranteed by the constitution.
Nearly two-thirds of the population are Protestants, and one-third
Roman Cathohcs. At the last census, taken December 1, 1875, the
Protestants numbered 16,636,990, being 64-65 per cent, of the total
population of the kingdom, and the Roman Catholics 8,625,»40, or
33-51 per cent. The number of Je%vs was 339.790, or 1*82 per cent,
of the population, at the date of the census. In the provinces of
Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, the great majority
are Protestants ; while in Posen, Silesia, AVestphalia, and Rhenish
Prussia, the Roman Catholics predominate. In the new provinces,
annexed to the kingdom in 1866, the Protestants form the mass of
the population. There are a few members of the Greek Church,
mostly immigrants from Russia. Jews are to be found in all the
Il8 THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
provinces, but principally in Posen. At the census of Dec. 3,
1864, there were in the kingdom, as then constituted, 11,736,734
Protestants, being 60'23 per cent, of the total population, and
7,201,911 Roman Catholics, equal to 36-81 per cent, besides 262,001
Jews, and about 52,000 adherents of other creeds. The annexation
of the new provinces, after the war of 1866, altered the proportion
in favour of the Protestant ascendency, the former kingdom of
Hanover adding 1,682,777 Protestants, and only 226,009 Roman
Catholics ; Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg 990,085 Protes-
tants and 1,953 Roman Catholics; and Electoral Hesse, Nassau,
Homburg, and Frankfort, 905,605 Protestants and 336,075 Roman
Catholics. Protestantism is otherwise gi-adually spreading among
the population, and Roman Catholicism decreasing.
The Protestant Church is governed by ' consistories,' or boards
appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, but no general synod has yet
been held. The constitution of the Catholic Church diifers in the
various provinces. In the Rhenish provinces it is fixed by the con-
cordat entered into between the Government and Pope Pius VH.
But in every other part of the monarchy, the Crown has reserved to
itself a control over the election of bishops and priests. There Avere,
at the census of December 3, 1867 — the last in which religious
statistics were ascertained in the fullest manner — 9,317 Protestant
ministers, and 7,690 Roman Catholic priests, including chaplains.
The Protestants at tlie same date had 11,365 churches, and 1,594
other religious meeting-places, while the Roman Catholics had 6,164
churches, and 2,833 chapels, besides 259 convents and monasteries.
The higher Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the archbishop of
Breslau receiving 1,700/. a year, and the other bishops about 1,135Z.
The incomes of the parochial clergy mostly arise from endowments.
Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every town, or
comniTinity in town or country, must maintain a school supported
by tlie taxes, and administered by the local aiithorities, who are
elected by the citizens, and called Aldermen or ToAvn Councillors.
All parents are compelled to send their children to one of these ele-
mentary schools, whether they can pay the school fees or not. The
fees are one groschen, or rather more than a penny a week in
villages, and ten groschen, or a shilling per month in towns. The
money thus raised goes towards maintaining the schools, and any
deficiency is made up from the local taxes. No compulsion exists
in reference to a higher educational institution than elementary
schools, but parents who send more than one child to any school sup-
ported by the community have a reduction made in the charge, and a
limited number of pupils whose parents cannot afford to pay the full
rate enjoy either this redxiction or are admitted entirely free, at the
GERMANY PRUSSIA. 1 1 9
discretion of the authorities. Thus the Iiigher schools, as the com-
mercial or colleges, are not established merely for the rich, but are
lilcewise open to the poorest, the fee being 6 thaler, or 18-''., a
quarter, while reductions are made to large families or poor persons.
The Prussian schools are divided into eleven classes, namely,
first, elementary, embracing village or town schools; second, ' Biir-
gerschulen,' or citizen schools ; third, ' Eeal Schulen,' or schools in
which languages, arts, and sciences are taught ; fourth, seminaries,
or schools for training elementary schoolmasters ; fifth, colleges ;
sixth, industrial schools; seventh, schools of architecture; eighth,
schools of mines ; ninth, schools of agricultui'e ; tenth, veterinary
schools ; and eleventh, the Universities.
The difference between the elementary schools of the villages and
those of to^vns consists in the greater variety of studied subjects.
In the former, reading and writing are taught, Avith geography and
history of Germany, and the foiu* first rules of arithmetic ; in the
latter, general geography, history of the world, fractions, rule of
three, and the chain-rule, are added. The citizen schools, adapted
for the Avants of tradespeople, teach likewise mathematics, Latin,
and French to a certain extent. The ' Real Schule ' is divided, like
the colleges, into six or seven classes.
Prussia has ten Universities, namely, Berlin, Bonn, Breslau,
Gottingen, Greifswald, Halle, Kiel, Kiinigsberg. Marburg, and
Miinster. The studies at the University last from three to four
years, at an expense of 151. a year for the lectures. The Uni-
versities are maintained and administered by the Government,
while all the other scholastic institutions are supported by the com-
munity, under control of the Government. (For number of professors,^
teachers, and students at each of the ten Universities of Prussia in
the summer of 1879, see Germany, p. 97.)
The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia are under
the control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, but there is a local supervision for every province. The
administration of each of these is vested in a President, who is
the head both of the Civil Government — Regierung — and of the
Consistorium, which has to manage the ecclesiastical and educa-
tional affairs of the province. Each Consistorium is subdivided
again into two sections, one for purely ecclesiastical, the other for
educational affairs. The latter section, which bears the name of
Provincial Schul-Collegium, forms the highest court of appeal in
all matters referring to schools. As a general rule, the adminis-
tration of school fmids provided by the State is under the control
of the Civil Government, Avhich likewise takes upon itself nearly
the whole management of the lower and elementary schools, Avhile
the Schul-Collegium is responsible for the higher schools, for the
120
THE STATESMAN'S yEAR-BOOK, 1881.
general system of instruction and discipline, the proper selection of
school books, the examination and appointment of masters, and the
examination of those who leave school for the Universities.
According to the constitution of 1850, all persons are at liberty to
teach, or to form establishments for instruction, provided they can
prove to the authorities their moral, scientific, and technical qualifi-
cations. But private as Avell as public establishments for education
are placed under the superintendence of the Minister of Public
instruction, while all public teachers are considered State servants.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The estimates of public revenue and expenditure submitted by
the Government to the Chambers are always prepared to shoAv an
even balance, without surplus or deficit; but in recent years the
former has been constant, as a rule, and the latter an exception.
The surplus of the five years from 1870 to 1874 varied from
1,425,000/. in 1870, to 4,158,008/. in 1872, reaching its maximum
in the latter j'car. But there were deficits in 1875, in 187G, and
in 1877.
Up to the end of 1876, the finance estimates were for the calendar
year, but it was then decided that henceforth they should be, as in
Great Britain, for financial years ending March 31. The first
financial year under the new arrangement commenced April 1, 1877,
so tliat the preceding accounts were for a period of 15 months, com-
mencing Jan. 1, 187G, and ending March 31, 1877.
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure of Prussia were
as follows during each of the eight years from 1872 to 1880 : —
The revenue in the financial estimates of Prussia, is divided under
seven heads, representing the various ministerial departments. Direct
taxes form the chief source of revenue, and, next to it, the receipts
from state railways. In recent years, the income irom railways
and other state undertakings, such as mines, has been largely
increasing, showing a tendency to become a far more fruitful source
of revenue than all taxation, direct or indirect.
GERMA^*y PRrSSIA.
121
In the budget estimates for the year ending March 1880, the
sources of revenue were o:iven as follows: —
Sources of Revenue.
1. Ministry of Agi'iciilture, Domains and Forests: —
Income from crown lands ....
State Domains and Forests ....
Total ....
2. Ministry of Finance : —
Direct taxes : —
Land tax (Grimdsteuer)
House tax
Income tax .
Class tax (Klassensteuer)
Trade tax (Gewerbesteuer)
Eailway dues
Miscellaneous
Total
Indirect taxes : —
Share of Imperial ciistoms and taxes
Succession tax (Erbschafsteuer)
Stamps ......
Bills of exchange ....
Bridge, harbour, river, or canal dues
Miscellaneous ....
Total
State lottery
Naval commercial institution (Seehandlung)
The Mint
Miscellaneous
Total receipts of Ministry of Finance
3. Ministry of Commerce and Industry : —
Porcelain manufactory in Berlin ....
Mines, produce of ......
Fiirnaces, iron mills, forges, produce of .
Salines, produce of ......
Miscellaneous .......
State railways .......
Private railways .......
High roads and canals ......
Total receipts of Ministry of Commerce and
Industry ......
4. Ministry of Justice .......
5. Ministr}' of the Interior ......
6. Ministry of Public Works
Mark
22,131,40-1
•55,869,400
78,000,804
40,191,00t>
20,977,000
31,349,000
41,485,000
18,748,000
3,014,000
4,920,000
156,256,000
16,323,520
5,000,000
20,000,000
79,900
2,286,000
1,961,580
45,651,000
4,054,100
3,000,000
350,100
92,114,183
301,425,393
522,550
55,975,785
20,927,170'
4,729,150
6,977,235
177,272,396-
4,111,501
1,134,092
270,844,904
49,104,900
3,701,895
4,213,150
122
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Mark
1,871,807
528,430
1,000,000
Eevenue — continued.
7. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical
Affairs .........
8. Ministry of State . . ..... ••.s.c-.:
9. Ministry of Foreign AiFairs
10. Ministry of AVar
Total estimated revenue .... 711,500,758
£35,575,037
The expenditure in the financial estimates of Prussia is divided
into ordinary (fortdauernde) and extraordinary (einmalige und
ausserordentliche) disbursements. The ordinary is subdivided into
current expenditure (Betriebs-Ausgaben), administrative expendi-
ture (Staatsverwaltungs-Ausgaben), and charges on the consolidated
ftind (Dotationen). In the estimates for the financial year ending
March 31, 1880, the branches of expenditm-e were as follows : —
Branches of Expendituhe.
A. Current Ex])cnditure : —
1. Ministry of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests
la. „ „ Finance ......
2. ., „ Public Instruction ....
2a. „ „ Public AVorks
3. „ „ State
Total current expenditure
. Administrative Expenditttre : —
1. Ministry of Finance
2.
2a.
3.
4.
6.
6.
7.
Public Works .
Commerce and Industry
Justice
The Interior
Agriculture, Domains, and Forests
Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs
State
Foreign Affairs
War
Total administrative expenditure
C. Charges on Consolidated Fund : —
Addition to ' Krondotation ' of the King
Interest of public debt, inclusive railway debt
Sinking fund of debt .....
Annuities and Management ....
Chamber of Lords .....
Chamber of Deputies .....
Total charges on Consolidated Fund
Total ordinary expenditure . .
Extraordinary expenditui-e . . . , .,.
Total expenditure . ^ •
Mark
35,475,330
31,617,970
588,000
196,422,537
331,6()0
2^4^598^37
119
16
1
69
39
10
47
,362,443
,294,072
,437.605
,723,425
,170,216
,483,302
,979,381
2,286,000
410,400
13,055
307,159,899
4,500,000
54,779,809
18,402,524
1,817,667
164,610
1,364,130
80,864,130
652,622,066
58,878,692
711,500,758
£35,575,037
GERMANY PRUSSIA. 1 2 3
The expenditure for the army and navy is not entered into the
budget of Prussia, but forms part of the budget of the Empire.
(See p. 99.)
The public debt of the kingdom, inclusive of the provmces
annexed in 18G6, was, according to an official report laid before the
House of Deputies as follows on March 31, 1879 : —
1. National debt bearing interest:— Mark
Consolidated debt of May 2, 1842 (Staatsscliuldsclieiue)
(3i per cent.) 128,291,400
Consolidated debt of June 11, 1873, to Feb. 9, 1878
(4 per cent.) 310,000,000
Debt of provinces annexed in 1866 .... 91,044,494
Non-consolidatedloansof 1850, 1852, 1853, 1862 & 1868 104,979,900
AVar debtof the Kurmark and Neumark . . . 2,428,387
Preference loan of 1855 24,690,000
Consolidated loan of 1870 (4^ per cent.) . . . 510,096,350
State railway debt 44,820,921
Total national debt bearing interest . 1,216,351,452
£60,817,572
2. National debt not bearing interest : — Mark
Floating debt, called ' Schatz-Anweisungen ' . . 30,000,000
Total national debt .... 1,246,351,452
£62,317,573
The charges for interest and management of the debt amounted
to 55,219,498 mark, or 2,760,974/., in the financial year 1879-80_.
Exclusive of the railway loans, the national debt of Prussia
amounted March 31, 1879, to 503,197,874 mark, or 25,159,893/.,
equal to 19 mark, 6 pfennig, or very nearly 1/. per head of
the population of the kingdom.
Army.
The military organisation of the kingdom, dating from the year
1814, is based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing
arms, shall receive military instruction and enter the army for a
certain nimiber of years. There are, practically, some excep-
tions from military service, though no sub.stitution whatever is
allowed. Every Prussian subject is enrolled as a soldier as soon as
he has completed his twentieth year. He has to be in service during
seven years, of which three years — from 20 to 23 — must be spent in
the regular army, and the remaining four years — from 23 to 27 — in
the army of reserve. At the end of this term, the soldier enters the
* Landwehr,' or militia, for five years, with liability to be called upon
twice for military practice, and to be incorporated in the regular army
124 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
in time of war. Leaving the 'Landwelir,' the soldier is finally enrolled,
till the age of fifty, in the ' Landsturm,' which body is only called
upon for service, Avithin the frontiers of the country, in case of
invasion. There are various exemptions from this law of military
.service, in favour of the regular clergy, and some other classes of
the popidation. A certain amount of education and fortune consti-
tutes also a partial exemption, inasmuch as young men of twenty,
who pay for their own equipment and can pass a light examination,
have to serve only one year in the regular army, instead of three.
But in this case, the liability to service in the ai'my of reserve — the
' Landwehr ' and the * Landsturm ' — remains the same. Altogether,
setting aside a few exceptions, the whole male population of Prussia
may be said to be trained for arms — ready for offensive warfare,
either in the army or the ' Landwehr,' from the age of 20 to that of
32 ; and for defensive warfare, within the country, till the age
of 50 years completed.
The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, bat-
talions, regiments, and corps d'armee. The strength of an ordinary
Prussian battalion in peace is 544 men, raised in war to 1,002 by
calling in part of the resei-ves : it is divided into four companies, each
of which in war consists of 250 men. Excepted from this general
rule .are the battalions of the guards, and the regiments in garrison
in the Eeichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, the strength of Avhich on the
peace footing is G86 men. During peace each regiment of infantry
consists of three battalions ; each brigade of two regiments ; each
infantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of
the divisional general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of
artillery, each of six guns, and either a battalion of riflemen, or a
battalion of pioneers are attached. The corps d'armee is con-
sidered a unit which is independent in itself, and includes not onhr
troops of all three arms, but a portion of all the stores and appli-
ances which are required by a whole army. Each corps d'armee
consists of two divisions of infantry, a cavalry division of four regi-
ments, with two horse-artillery batteries attached, besides the two
cavalry regiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve
of artillery of six field batteries and one mounted battery. There
is, moreover, attached to each corps d'armee one battalion of pioneers
and one of train.
The corps d'armee are locally distribiited through the Prussian
monarchy, with the exception of the first corps, that of the guards.
The Prussian army being incorporated in the army of the Empire,
forming an indissoluble part of it, the corps are enumerated through
the German army. There are seventeen corps d'armee, the first
eleven of which are named after Prussian provinces, and the remain-
ing six after States of the Empire. They are: — 1, Prussia; 2.
GERMANY PBUSSIA.
125
Pomerania ; 3, Brandenburg ; 4, Saxony ; 5, Posen ; 6, Silesia ;
7, Westphalia ; 8, Rhinelands ; 9, Sclileswig-Holstein ; 10, Hano-
ver ; 11, Hesse-Nassaii ; 12, Saxony; 13, Wurttemberg ; J 4,
Baden; 15, Alsace-Lorraine; 16 and 17, Bavaria.
The strength of the Prussian army was as follows, according to
official returns, at the end of July 1880 : —
Infantry of the Line ....
Officers
Eank and File
Horses
7,020
203,760
3,255
Kiflemen, or 'Jiiger'
352
8,125
112
Infantry of the ' Landwebr '
600
4,678
3
Cavalry . . . . ■ .
1,898
51,396
55,810
Artillery (field and fortress)
1,930
34,760
10,037
Engineers ......
300
7,490
91
Military Train .....
220
4,900
1,599
Administrative and other troops
Total .
1,484
4,715
2,400
13,804
319,824
73,307
The strength here emunerated is that oi' the peace footing. On
the war footing the numbers can be raised to 900,000 men, exclusive
of field reserve troops and Landsturm. The war strength, effected
by the calling in for service, or the 'mobilisation ' of the reserve
troops, may be consiimmated in about ten days' time. "When
entering upon the campaign of 18GC, it required less than fourteen
days to bring the whole regular army, together with the first le\y of the
' Landwehr,' into the field ; and at the declai-ation of war by France,
July 1870, the mass of the troops was brought to the Rhine in twelve
days. In peace, the army lies distributed over 309 garrison toAvns, and
29 fortresses, of which latter eleven are fortified places of the first
rank, namely, INIayence, Koblenz, Cologne, Konigsberg, Danzig,
Thorn, Neisse, KUstrin, IMagdeburg, Spandau. ;nid Posen. — (Official
Communication. )
Area and Population.
The area of Prussia extends over G,311 German, or 137, OGG
English square miles. At the last census of Gei-many, taken
December 1, 1875, the kingdom had 25,742,404 inhabitants.
Prussia is administratively divided into twelve provinces, which
a"-ain are subdivided into thirty-five government districts (Regie-
rungsbezirke), with the principality of Hohenzollern, cradle of the
royal family.
The following table gives the area and populaticin, according to the
census of December 1, 1875 : —
126
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The census returns of December 1, 1875, showed that at that date
there Avere in Prussia 12,692,370 males and 13,050,034 females,
being aii excess of only 357, GG4 females, or less than in most other
European states.
The total population of the kingdom in 1819 was 10,981,934.
In December 1858 the population had augmented to 17,739,913,
shoAving an increase Gl'34 per cent, for 39 years, or of 1*57 per
cent, per annum. At the next census, taken December 3, 1861, the
population was found to have risen to 18,497,458, being an increase
of 4"27 per cent, in three years. In 1866 the limits of the kingdom
were enlarged from 107,757 to 137,066 English square miles,
and at the next following census, taken December 3, 1867, the
population amounted to 24,106,847. At the census of December 1,
1871, the population had risen to 24,605,842, showing an increase
at the rate of but 0*69 per annum, the decline being accounted for
by the losses of the Franco-German Avar of 1870-71. During the
four years from December 1, 1871 to December 1, 1875 the ratio
of increase amounted, as shoAvn in a preceding table (page 108), to
1*13 per cent, per annum.
The census of 1875 gives the average density of the population
at 188 per English square mile. The A'ariation, however, is con-
siderable, the density being highest in the manufactm-ing districts
of Dusseldorf, in the Rhine province, Avhere it is nearly four times
the average, and smallest in the district of Kiislin, Pomerania, Avhere
it amounts but to three-fifths of the average. There are a gi-eat num-
ber of towns — 1,289 officially enrolled as ' Stiidte' — most of them of
very limited popidation, spread all over the kingdom. The folloAV-
GERMANY — PRUSSIA.
127
ing table gives the population of the ten largest towns at the enume-
rations of December 1871, and of December 1, 1875, in the order of
their rank at the last census : —
Population
Dec. 1,1871
Population
Dec. 1, 1875
Berlin .
Breslau
Cologne (Koln)
Magdeburg .
Konigsberg .
Hanover
Frankfort-on-Maine
Danzig
Barmen . ,
Stettin .
826
207
129
114
112
104
91
90
74
76
341
,997
233
509
,092
243
040
141
449
280
966,872
239,050
135,371
122,789
122,636
106,677
103,136
97,931
86,504
80,972
As in nearly all other states of Europe, so in Prussia there is a
strong movement towards concentration of the . population in the
towns. At the census of Dec. 1, 1871, the total population of the
1,289 towns of the kingdom Avas 7,968,545, and that of the rural
communes — Landgemeinden — 37,987 in number, 16,637,652. Com-
pared with the preceding census of Dec. 3, 1867, the increase in
the towns amounted to 466,909, or 6'22 per cent., and that in the
rural communes to but 167,951, or 1'02 per cent. Thus while the
town population increased at the rate of rather more than one
and a half per cent, per annum, the rural population grew but at
the rate of one-quarter per cent, per annum.
About one-half, or twelve millions of the population of the king-
dom, are engaged in agriculture, as sole or chief occupation, while
nearly five millions possess landed property. Large estates, as a rule,
are only to be found in the eastern and least populated provinces of
the monarchy, while in the central and western portions land is
often extremely subdivided. A cadastral survey taken in 1858,
showed the existence of 1,099,000 landowners possessing each less
than five morgen, or 3:^ acres.
Trade and Industry.
The direct trade of Prussia with foreign countries is carried on
mainly through the ports on the Baltic, and the amoimt of exports
and imports shipped through harboiu-s on the North Sea, is com-
paratively unimportant. A very large portion of exports from
and imports into the kingdom pass in transit through Hamburg
and Bremen. The commercial intercourse of Prussia with the
United Kingdom is included in that of Germany. (See pp. 182-84.)
128
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The mineral riches of Prussia are very considerable. The follow-
ing table shows the number of mines in operation, the quantities and
value of their produce in the year 1878, and the average number
of persons employed therein during the same year : —
Principal Mines
Number of
Mines in
operation
Quantities Value
of produce ^^^^^^^^
Number of
persons
employed
Coal ....
Lignite (Braunkohle) .
Iron ore
Zinc ore
Lead ore .
Copper ore .
Total of principal and 1
other mines . J
496
522
630
68
137
22
Centner
710,003,348
176,827,323
55,049,725.
11,502,942
2,691,639
6.738.942
Mark
178,045,608
27,991,096
17,322,911
11,086,455
21,683,036
7,431,842
145,915
18,741
20,019
12,342
18,594
7,227
1,875
933,022,122
278,670,886
225,491
The following table shows the number of smelting works and
Ibundries in Prussia, the quantities and value of their pi'oduce in
1878, and the average number of persons employed in the year : —
Principal Smelting works
and foundries
Number
of works
operation
Quantities
of produce
1
Value
of
produce
Number of
persons
employed
Centner
Mark
Iron, wrouaht
102
28,433,341
87,703,748
13,801
,, cast
564
5,661,425
52,818,938
20,322
Steel .
289
17,321,264
131,788,963
36,386
Flusseisen .
42
7,912,195
71,928,719
17,319
Lead .
17
1,617,745
32,269,141
2,870
Silver .
2
2,231
17,997,099
271
Arsenic
3
2.209
31,844
11
Vitriol .
—
72,096
713,511
102
Zinc .
33
1,894,882
33,717,704
6,443
Copper
9
173,216
12,873,989
1,628
Nickel .
4
1,514
545,300
158
Sulphuric Acid
16
1,340,411
4,753,212
1,634
Other -n-orks
Total
2
2,123
883,972
23
1,083
64,434,652
448,026,140
100,968
Not included in the tabular statement are salines to the number
of 47, which produced 6,045,845 centner of salt, of the value of
12,163,042 mark, or 608,152/., and employed 2,746 persons in 1878.
The production of coal in Prussia, after vastly increasing for about
thirty years, from 1840 to 1871, reached its limit at the latter date,
when there came to be an apparent exhaustion of the fields. But the
years 1875 and 1876 again shoAved a large increase in production. The
GERMANY PRUSSIA.
129
follo-\ving statement gives, cafter official returns, the quantities of coai
raised in the kingdom during the period from 1838 to 187G : —
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
1838-41,
annual average 2,901,713
1864
. 21,197,266
1842-46
3,817,190
1869
. 29,775,781
1847-51
5,027,690
1871
. 32,843,288
1852-56
8,571,070
1873
. 32,347,909
1857-61
13.037,015
1874
. 31,938,683
1862 .
. 16,903,520
1875
. 41,759.558
1863 .
. 18,330,779
1876
. 43,364,968
The coal pits in the Euhr-Diisseldorf district, which extend over
more than ten miles in length, and are calculated to be able to
continue their present supply for 5,000 years, contribute nearly
one half of the total produce, while the coal pits of the river
Saar, situated in the south-western angle of the Rhenish Pro-
vinces, and which extend their strata into Bavarian and French
territory, furnish about the sixth part of the coal produce of Prussia.
The coal raised in Prussia amounts to 93 per cent, of the total coal
production of Germany. — (See Comparative Tables: 'Coal Pro-
duction of the Principal States of the World.')
Prussia has a very large and complete system of railways.
At the end of the year 1878, the length of the system was as
follows : —
Railways Length in kilometers
A. Lines open for traffic : — •
1, Owned by the State 4,939
2. Owned by private companies : —
Under State administration ....
Under private administration ....
B. Lines in progress of construction : —
1. Owned by the State ......
2. Owned by private companies : —
Under State administration . . . . . 313
Under private administration 1,432
3.449
9,431
228
Total
English' miles
19,792
12,291
The total capital expended in the construction of the railways
opened for traffic at the end of 1878 amounted to 4, 709, 384,71 0
mark, or 235,469,236^ This made the average cost of construction
264,270 mark per kilometer, or 21,143/. per English mile.
All the lines of the former territories of Hanover, Hesse, and
Nassau are owned by the State, and at a period not far removed
the whole of the railways of Prussia will be national props.? ty.
130 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1S81.
II. BAVARIA.
(KONIGREICH BaYERN.)
Reigning King.
Ludwig 11., l^orn August 2.5, 1845, the son of King jMaximilian II.;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, March 10, 1864.
Brother of the King.
Prince Otto^ heir-apparent, Lieutenant-general in the Imperial
German army, born April 27, 1848.
Mother of the King.
Queen Marie, born October 15, 1825, daughter of the late Prince
Wilhelm of Prussia ; married to Prince INIaximilian, heir-apparent
of Bavaria, subsequently King Maximilian II., Oct. 12, 1842 ; -wido-w,
March 10, 1864.
Uncle of the King.
Prince Luitpohl, l)orn INIarch 12, 1821, General in the Bavarian
aii-my ; married April 15, 1844, to Archduchess Augusta of Austria,
who died April 26, 1864. Offspring of the union are four children : —
I. Prince Ludwig, born Jan. 7, 1845 ; married Feb. 20, 1868,
to Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este, of the branch of
Modena, born July 5, 1849, of which marriage there are issue seven
children: — 1. Prince Kuprecht, born May 18, 1869. 2. Princess
Adelgunda, born October 17, 1870. 3. Princess Marie, born July
6, 1872. 4. Prince Karl, born April 1, 1874. 5. Prince Franz,
born October 10, 1875. 6. Princess Augusta, born Aug. 18, 1877.
7. Prince Wolfgang, born July 2, 1879.
II. Leopold, born February 9, 1846 : married April 20, 1873, to
Archduchess Gisela of Austria-Hungary, eldest daughter of the
Emperor-King Franz Joseph I. ; offspring of the imion are two
daughters : — 1. Princess Elizabeth, born January 8, 1874. 2.
Princess Augiista, born April 28, 1875.
III. Theresa, born November 12, 1850.
IV. Arnulph, born July 6, 1852, colonel in the infantry of the
Imperial German army.
GERMANY BAVAKIA. I3I
Uuited with tlie Eoyal Family of Bavaria is the branch line
of the Dukes in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Zweibrlicken-
Birkenfeld. The head of this house is —
Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, born December 4, 1808, General
of Cavahy in the Bavarian service ; married September 9, 1828, to
Princess Ludovica of Bavaria. Issue of the marriage are three sons
and five daughters, namely, 1, Prince Ludivig, born June 21, 1831 ;
married, in ' morganatic' union, May 28, 1857, to Henrietta Mendel,
elevated Countess von Wallersee, born July 31, 1833. 2. Princess
Helena, born April 4, 1834, married August 24, 18.58, to Prince
MaximiKan of Thurn-und-Taxis ; widow, June 26, 1867. 3.
Princess Elisabeth, born December 24, 1837, married April 24,
1854, to Franz Joseph I., Emperor of Austria. 4. Prince Karl
Theodor, born August 9, 1839; married Feb. 11, 1865, to Princess
Sophie of Saxony, who died March 9, 1867; married in second
nuptials, April 29, 1874, to Princess Maria Josepha of Braganza,
born March 19, 1857, of which imion there are offspring two
daughters, namely, Sophie, born Feb. 22, 1875, and Elisabeth, born
July 25, 1876. 5. Princess Marie, born October 4, 1841, man-ied
Februaiy 3, 1859, to the heir-apparent of the Two Sicilies, Fran-
cisco of Bourbon, subsequently King Francisco II. of Naples,
in exile since 1862. 6. Princess Matliilde, born September 30,
1843, man-ied June 5, 1861, to Louis of Bourbon, Count di Trani.
7. Princess Sojyhie, born February 22, 1847; married September 28,
1868, to Prince Ferdinand of Orleans, second son of the Due de
Nemours. 8. Prince Maximilian, born December 7, 1849 ; married
September 20, 1875, to Princess Amalia, born October 23, 3 848,
daughter of Prince Aiigustus, uncle of the reigning duke of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and brother of King Ferdinand of Portugal; offspring
of the xuiion is a son, Siegfried, born July 10, 1876.
The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants, in
the female line, of the ancient Counts of Wittelsbach, who flourished
in the twelfth century. Duke Maximilian I. of Bavaria was elevated
to the rank of Elector of the Holy lioman Empire, in the Thirty-
Years' War, in recompense for his opposition to Protestantism ; and
Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised to the rank of king b}''
Napoleon I. in 1805. The latter title was acknowledged by all the
European Powers in 1815, at the Congress of Vienna.
The large income of the sovereigns of Bavaria, from private domains,
and other sources, has been extensively curtailed of late, under the
constitutional government. The civil list of the king, and allowances
to other members of the royal family, are fixed at present at
5,346,870 mark, or 267,343/., but the royal family is deriving
besides a large revenue fi-om domains.
e2
132 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Government.
T]ie present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 25, 1818 ;
but various modifications Avere introduced in 1848-9. The Crown
is hereditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole
executive power ; but his ministers are responsible for all his acts.
The legislative functions are exercised jointly by the king and Par-
liament, the latter consisting of an Upper and a Lower House. The
Upper House — Chamber of ' Eeichsriithe,' or councillors of the realm
— is formed of the princes of the royal family, the cro'wn dignitaries,
the archbishops, and the heads of certain old noble families, all these
being hereditary members ; to Avhich are added a Roman Catholic
bishop and a Protestant clergyman nominated by the king, and an
unlimited number of other members appointed by the Crown. The
Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies of
towns and universities, and various religious corporations, chosen
indirectly, the people returning ' "Wahlmiinner,' or electors, who
nominate the depxities. To be a deputy, it is necessary to be past
thirty, and to be in possession of an assured income, from ftmds, a
trade, or profession ; to be on the electoral lists, it is required to be
twenty-five years of age, and to be rated at a mininnnn of 20 mark,
or 1^. per annum. The representation of the country is calcu-
lated at the rate of one deputy to 7,000 families, or about 35,000
souls, of the whole population. Li the session of 1875 there Avere
154 representatives.
The executive is earned on, in the name of the king, by a
' Staatsrath,' or Council of State, consisting of seven members, besides
three princes of the blood-royal ; and by the Ministry of State, divided
into five departments, namel}^, of the Royal House and of Foreign
Affairs, of Justice, of the Interior, of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, and of Finance.
Church and Education.
Rather more than seven-tenths of the population of Bavaria are
Roman Catholics. The population varied very little, as regards the
proportion between Roman Catholics and Protestants, during the
last quarter of a century ; but during the whole of this period the
number of Jews diminished gradually, and there was also a slight
decrease in other sects, namely, members of the Greek Church. At
the census of December, 1875, the total number of Roman Catholics
in the kingdom v.-as .3,573,142, and of Protestants 1,392,120, the
proportion being 712 Kom.an Catholics to 275 Protestants in every
1,000 of the population. At the preceding census of December,
GERMANY — BAVARIA.
133
1867, there Avere 3,441,029 Eoman Catholics, and _ 1,328,713
Protestants, the proportion being 711 Roman Catholics to 275
Protestants in every 1,000 of the population.
The religious division of the population in each of the eight pro-
vinces of the kingdom was as follows at the last census taken
December 1, 1875 : —
Provinces
Roman
Catholics
Protestants
Other Sects-
Jews
Upper Bavaria
856,656
33,163
692
3,649
Lower Bavaria
617,512
4,518
164
163
Palatinate (Kheinpfalz)
277,895
348,441
2,824
12,004
Upper Palatinate .
461,074
41,139
192
1,356
Upper Franconia .
235,216
315,580
117
4,022
Middle Franconia
132,576
462,617
689
11,202
Lower Franconia .
478,829
103,634
498
14,563
Suabia ....
Total .
513,984
83,028
617
4,281
3,573,742
1,392,120
5,793
51,335
Included iinder the head ' Other Sects ' in the above table were
3,642 ' Mennonites,' also called ' Tautgesinnte ; ' 303 Irvingians ;
149 Greek Catholics; 217 Old Catholics; 72 Anabaptists; 63
members of the Anglican Church; and 623 adherents of 'Free
Religion.' It is stated that since the census of 1871, the Old
Catholics have largely increased in numbers.
As regards ecclesiastical administration, the kingdom is divided into
2 Roman Catholic archbishoprics, those of Munich and Bamberg ;
<i bishoprics; 171 deaneries; and 2,756 parishes. The Protestant
Church is under a General Consistory — ' Ober-Consistorium ' — and
four provincial consistories. Of the three universities of the kingdom ,
two, at Mimich and Wurzburg, are Roman Catholic, and one, at
Erlangen, Protestant. Among the Roman Catholics there is one
clergyman to 464 souls ; among the Protestants, one to 1,013.
Bavaria has three universities, at Munich, "VVurzburg, and Erlan-
■fren. (For number of professors and students in 1878, see Germany,
page 97.) Elementary schools — 'Volksschiden' — exist in all parishes,
and school attendance is compulsory for all children from six till
the aoje of fourteen.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The gross public revenue of Bavaria for the financial year
ending June 30, 1879, was estimated at 221,633,348 mark, or
11,081,667/., with an expenditure of the same amount. The sources
134
THE STATESMAN S TEAr.-BOOK, 1S81.
of revenue and branches of expenditure ■were reported as follows
for the financial year 1880-81 : —
Sources of Revenue
Mark
Direct taxes ......
Indirect „ . .....
State Eailways, post telegraphs, mines, &c.
State forests
Domains ......
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Total gross revenue .
35,725,510
52.882,580
. I 100,706,574
2-1.586,580
9,059,110
1,911.838
224,872,192
£11,243,609
Branches of Expenditure
[ Mark
Public debt
1 46,692,817
Civil list and appanages .
5,348,188
Council of state
46.800
Diet ....
635.710
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
568,284
„ Justice
12,782,320
„ Interior
17,757,238
„ Pinance
! 3,438,607
Worship and education .
1 19,634,144
Pensions and allowances
1 7,549,987
Reserve and guarantee fund
3,926,074 i
Contribution to Imperial expenditure
16,329,370 1
Total ....
>
i 134,709,545
Charges of collection of revenue .....
Total expenditure .
90,162,647 1
224,872,192
£11,243,609 j
Bavaria has a considerable debt, created in part by the deficits of
former years, and in part by the construction of public works, espe-
cially railways.
The subjoined table gives the total amount of the debt of the
kingdom, distinguishing the Ordinary and the Eailway Debt, the
accounts of Avhich are kept separate, from 1855 to 1878, on the 1st
of January of eaclr year : —
GEEMANY — BAYARIA.
135
Years
Ordinary Debt
Eailway Debt
Total
Florins
Florins
Florins
&
1855
134,045,964
72,369,700
206,415,664
17,201,305
1859
123.280,680
90,913,134
214,193,814
17,849,484
1862
136,293,375
104,735,559
241,028,934
20,085,744
1867
209,874,601
146,156,600
356,031,201
29,669,267
1870
261,926,754
163,428,800
425,355,554
35,446,296
1872
181,377,265
212,609,300
393,986,565
32,832,214
Mark
Mark
Mark
1874
232,399,043
398,345,143
630,744,186
31,537,209
1876
360,162,999
728,426,229
1,088,589,228
54,429,461
1878
351,252,225
816,091,537
1,167,343,762
58,367,188
The greater number of tlie railways in Bavaria, constructed at a
cost of 650 millions of mark, or 32,500,000/^. are the property of
the State. The debt incurred for the State railways is so large that
it requires an annual charge of 30,517,999 mark, and as the esti-
mated receipts from these railways amounted only to 30,782,210
mark in 1879, a sum of 5,735,789 mark had to be raised from other
sources to meet this deficit during the next finance period. The
State is also the owner of two canals — the Frankenthal and the
Danube Main — which do not pay the cost of their repairs and
management.
Area and Population,
The kingdom embraces an area of 1,377^ geographical, or
29,292 English square miles, -with a population of 5,024,832 —
comprising 2,453,353 males, and 2,571,479 females — at the census
of December 1, 1875. Bavaria is divided, for administrative pur-
poses, into eight Eegierungsbezirke, or government districts. The
folloAving table gives the area, in English square miles, and the
population of each of the eight districts, according to the two
census returns of December 1, 1871, and of December 1, 1875 : —
Eegierungsbezirke
Area:
Bug. sq. mUes
1
Population
Dec. 1871
541,063
497,861
603,789
841,707
582,773
583,666
586.132
615,035
11,424
Dec. 1875
555,043
503,422
622,377
892,382
602,950
607,593
597,056
641,567
5,022^39ir
Upper Franconia (Oberfranken)
Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz)
Lower Bavaria (Niederbayern) .
Upper Bavaria (Oberbayern)
Suabia (Schwaben) ....
JVIiddle Franconia (Mittelfranken)
Lower Franconia (Unterfranken)
Palatinate (EheinPfalz) .
Bavarian troops in France
Total ....
2,702
3,732
4,157
6,582
3,243
2,918
3,243
2,293
28,870
4,863,450
n6
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881,
It will be seen that there was an increase of population in all the
districts, the increase being greatest in Upper Bavaria and least in
tlie Palatinate, from which there is a large emigration.
The increase of population in the kingdom has been comparatively
small within the last half-century, as shown in the subjoined
table: —
Yeer of Census
Population
Increase or Decrease
1834
4,246,779
1837
4,315,468
Increase 68,689
1840
4,370,974
55,506
1843
4,440,327
69,353
1846
4,504,874
64,547
1849
4,520,751
15,877
1852
4,559,452
38,701 1
1855
4,541,556
Decrease 17,896 |
1858
4,615,748
Increase 74,192
1861
4,689,837
74,089
1864
4,807,440
117,603
1867
4,824,421
16,981
1871
4,863.450
39,029
1875
6,022,390
158,940
Tlie great fluctuations in the rate of increase, extremely low on
the Avhole, are referred to emigration.
The soil of the kingdom is divided among 947,010 proprietors.
The division is greatest in the Rhenish Palatinate, namely, 228,97 (!,
and smallest in Upper Bavaria, viz. 109,195.
The population of the three principal towns of the kingdom was
as follows at the census of Dec. 1, 1871, and of Dec. 1, 1875 : —
Munich (Miinchen) .....
Nih-nbcrg .......
Augsbarg .......
Dec. 1, 1871
Dec. 1, 1875 1
169,693
83,214
51,220
193,024
91,017 ;
57,210
Besides the three principal towns here referred to, there were two
others with a population of over 30,000 at the census of 1875,
namely, Wlirzburg, with 44,975, and Regensburg (Ratisbon), with
31,504 inhabitants.
There is a large emigration from Bavaria, but the number of
emigrants is not distinguished at present from the total of the Ger-
man Empire (see pp. 17G and 179).
GERMANY WURTTEilBERG. 1 3/
III. WURTTEMBERG.
(KONIGREICH WuilTTEMBERG.)
Reigning King.
Karl I., King of Wurttemberg, born March 6, 1823 ; ascended
tlie throne at the death of his father, King Wilhelm I., June 25,
18G4. Married, July 13, 1846, to Queen Olga, bom Sept. 11,
1822, daughter of the late Emperor Nicholas I. of Russia.
Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Maria, born October 30, 1816 ; rr.arried March 19,
1840, to Alfred Count von Neipperg ; widow November 16, 1865.
II. Princess Catharine, born Aug. 24, 1821 ; married Nov. 20,
1845, to her cousin. Prince Friedrich of Wurttemberg; widow. May
9, 1870. Offspring of the union is a son, Prince Wilhelm, born
Feb. 25, 1848 ; married Feb. 15, 1877, to Princess Marie of Waldeck.
III. Frincess Augusta, born Oct. 4, 1826; married June 17, 1851,
to Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar, lieut. -general in the service of
Wurttemberg.
Cousins of the King.
I. Prince August, born Jan. 24, 1813, the son of Duke Paul of
Wurttemberg; general of cavalry in the service of Prussia.
II. Prince Alexander, born Sept. 9, 1804, the son of Duke Lud-
wig of Wurttemberg, uncle of the king; married May 2, 1835, to
Claudine, daughter of Count Eheday of Transylvania, created
Countess von Hohenstein ; widower, Oct. 1, 1841. Issue of the
union are three children: — 1. Franz, Prince von Teck, born Aug.
27, 1837; married to Princess Mary of Cambridge, June 12, 1866
(see page 190). 2. Claudine, born Feb. 11, 1836. 3. Amelia, born
Nov. 12, 1838 ; mamed Oct. 24, 1863, to Baron von Hugel, captain
in the Austrian cavalry.
III. Princess Marie, born March 25, 1818, daughter of the late
Duke Eugene of Wurttemberg ; married Oct. 9, 1845, to Landgrave
Karl of Hesse-Philippsthal ; widow, Feb. 12, 1868.
IV. Prince Wilhelm, brother of the preceding, born July 20,
1828; general of infantry in the service of Austria.
138 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
v. Princess Alexandrine, sister of the preceding, born Dec. 16,
1829.
VI. Prince Nicolaus, brother of the preceding, born March 1,
183.3 ; married May 8, 1868, to his cousin. Princess Wilhehnine of
Wlirttemberg, born July 11, 1844, daughter of the late Prince
Eugene.
VII. Princess ioMz'se, sister of the preceding, born Oct. 13, 1835 ;
married Feb. 6, 1858, to Prince Heinrich XIV. of Reuss-Schleiz.
VIII. Prince Wilhebn Alexander, born Dec. 20, 1804, the son of
Duke Alexander of Wurttemberg, formerly general in the service of
Russia; married October 17, 1837, to Princess Marie of Orleans,
daughter of Louis Philippe, King of the French ; widower, Jan.
2, 1839. Offspring of the union is a son. Prince Philipp, born July
30, 1838 ; married January 18, 1865, to Archduchess Marie Theresa
of Austria, born July 15, 1845, the daughter of Archduke Albrecht
of Austria, of which union there are offspring five children: — 1.
Prince Albert, born Dec. 23, 1865. 2. Princess Marie, born Dec.
24, 1865. 3. Princess Josephine, born Aug. 31, 1871. 4. Prince
Robert, born Jan. 14, 1873. 5. Prince Ulrich, born June 16, 1877.
The former duchy of Wlirttemberg was erected into a kingdom by
the Emperor Napoleon, by decree of Jan. 1, 1806, having been
enlarged previously by the annexation of the territories of a number
of small princes and ecclesiastical dignitaries. The congress of
Vienna acknowledged the change, in consideration of the timely
transference of the troops of King Friedrich I. to the army of the
Allies. Wilhelm I., the second king, soon after his accession gained
the goodwill of his subjects by the grant of a constitution, as well as
the satisfactory settlement of the question of right in the royal
domains, or property of the crown. The civil list of the king amounts
to 1,851,184 mark, or 92,559/., Avith an additional grant of 331,900
mark, or 16,595?., for the other members of the royal family.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of "Wlirttemberg bears date Sept. 25, 1819. It
vests the legislative power in a Diet, or Landtag, consisting of
two Houses, called together every three years, or oftener if neces-
sary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is composed
of the members of the royal family, the heads of the principal noble
families of the country, the representatives of certain territories and
estates possessing formerly a vote in the extinct German Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king for life, which munber,
however, must not exceed one- third of that of the whole House. The
second Chamber, or House of Deputies — Abgeordneten — consists of
13 members of the nobility, elected by the Ritterschaft, or landowners
GERMANY WURTTEMBERG. 1 39
of the kingdom ; 6 deputies of the Protestant clergy ; the deputies
of the Eoman Catholic clergy, comprising the bishop of the diocese
of Wurttemberg, and two other representatives of Eoman Catholic
bodies; the chancellor of the university of Tubingen; and 71 deputies
of towns and rural districts. All the members of the second Chamber
are chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; pro-
perty qiialification is not necessary. To be a member of the first
Chamber it is sufficient to be of age. The president of both Houses
is appointed by the king ; for the Upper House without restriction
of person, and for the lower, from among three members elected by
the deputies. The debates of the second Chamber are public,
and have to be printed and distributed among the various consti-
tuencies. Whenever Parliament is not sitting, it is represented by a
committee of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both
Chambers, two members of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House.
A special court of justice, called the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed
guardian of the constitution and of the rights and privileges of the
Houses of Parliament. It is composed of a president and twelve
members, six of which, together Avith the president, are nominated
by the king, while the other six are elected by the combined
Chambers.
The executive of the kingdom is in a Privy Council, composed
of six ministerial departments, and presided over by the king, or a
member of the royal family nominated by his majesty. The heads
of the six departments are the Ministers of Justice ; of the Interior;
of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affiiirs ; of War ; of Foreign
Affairs ; and of Finance. There are besides the members of the
Ministry a number of special Privy Cotmcillors, whom the sovereign
has the right to consult on all occasions.
Cliiirch and Education.
The last census of Wurttemberg, taken Dec. 1, 1875, stated the reli-
gious creed of the inhabitants as follows : — Evangelical Protestants,
1,296,650; Roman Catholics, 567,578; Dissenters of various denomi-
nations, 4,167; and Jews, 12,881. According to the census of 1875,
the Protestants form 69 per cent, of the population, and the Eoman
Catholics 30 per cent. The ' Evangelical Protestant ' Church
of Wurttemberg was formed in 1823, by a xuiion of the Lutherans
and the Calvinists, or Eeformers. The administration of the
Protestant Church is in the hands of six general superinten-
dents, at Ulm, Ludwigsburg, Eeutlingen, Hall, Heilbronn, and
Tubingen. In the king is vested, according to the constitution, the
supreme direction as well as the guardianship — obersthoheitliche
Schutz und Aufsichtsrecht — of the Evangelical Protestant Church,
140
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
which is considered, though not formally declared, the religion of the
State. The Eoman Catholics, most numerous in the eastern part of
the kingdom, comprising the circle of the Danube, are under a
bishop, dependent of the Ai-chbishop of Freiburg, in Baden, who
has his seat at Eottenburg, but who, in all important matters, has to
act in conjunction with a Catholic church-coimcil — Kirchenrath —
appointed by the government. The Jews likeAvise are under a
special board, nominated by the minister of ecclesiastical affairs.
Education is compulsory in Wiirttemberg ; every child between
the age of 6 and 14 must attend school ; and there must be a public
school in every community of 30 families. It was ascertained,
according to recent official returns, that there is not an individual
in the kingdom, above the age of ten, unable to read and Avrite.
There are about 2,500 elementary schools, attended by 350,000
pupils ; besides niimerous seminaries for imparting a classical edu-
cation ; four Protestant and two Roman Catholic training establish-
ments for ministers, and seven colleges, providing a classical educa-
tion, at Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm, Ellwangen, Ludwigsburg, Hall,
and Rottweil. The whole educational system is centred in the uni-
versity of Tubingen, founded in 1477. (See Germany, p. 97.)
Revenue and Expenditure.
Nearly one-half of the public revenue of the kingdom is divided
from domains, including vast forests, and other State property, such
as railways, telegraphs, and mines.
The financial year, which formerly ended with the month of June,
was changed in 1878 to finish with March. The estimated sources
of revenue and branches of expenditure for the twelve months ending
June 30, 1878, and for the nine months ending March 31, 1879,
were as follows : —
, „ Year ending
Sources of Revenue june 30, 1878
1
Nine months ending
March 31, 1879
Domains and other state property .
Direct taxes ......
Indirect taxes .....
! Miscellaneous receipts ....
Total
1
Mark
21,285,293
12,213,715
10,399,551
4,440,229
Mark
18,081,078
9.160,286
7,799.663
2,564,109
48.338,788
£2,416,939
37,605,136
£1,880,256
The expenditure for the same financial period was as follows
GERMANY — WiJRTTEMBERG.
141
Branches of Expenditure
Tear endiiie
June 30, 1S7S
Isine months endi,.g
ilarch 31, 1879
Maik
Mark
Civil list of the king ....
1,851,184
1,388,388
Allowances to other members of the royal
family ......
331,900
2.50,510
Public debt
17,482,-597
14,543,825
Salaries and pensions ....
2,346,810
1,754,199
Department of Foreign Affairs
166,474
125,021
„ of Justice ....
3,443,138
2,590,447
„ of the Interior .
4,695,185
3,506,208
„ of Education and Ecclesias-
tical Affairs .
7,897,713
5,987,346
,, of Finance
2,978,524
2,596,170
Parliamentary representation .
370,281
281,191
Miscellaneous disbursements.
105,000
78,750
Contribution to Imperial expenditure .
Total .
6,669,984
4,503,081
48,338,790
37,605,136
£2,416,939
£1,880,256
The public debt of Wurttemberg more than doubled within the
last twenty years, owing to the establishment of the railway lines
of the kingdom, the whole of which are State property. The
capital of the public debt was as follows at the end of June 1878 : ■
Description of Debt
Capital
Debt of 6 per cent. .....
Debt „ 5 „
Debt „ 4i ,
Debt of 4 per cent
Debt „ 3i „
Paper money ......
Total public debt .
Mark
1,029
44,193,720
236,884,608
50,450,912
27,569,978
16,380,958
375,481,205
£18,774,060
The debt of the kingdom, here enumerated, is divided into two
portions, namely, the general debt, and the raihvay debt. The
latter, forming by far the largest portion of the total, amoinited to
171,000,000 mark, or 8,550,0O0Z. at the end of June 1878.
The net income of the railways, all expenses deducted, and
making allowance for wear and tear, amounts to between .six
142
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
and seven per cent., and the surplus is devoted to the payment
of the interest on the public debt.
Area and Population.
Wurttemberg has an area of 354 geographical, or 7,675 English
square miles, with 1,881,505 inhabitants — 907,314 males, and
974,191 females — at the enumeration of December 1, 1875. The
kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, the area of which, in
English square miles, and number of inhabitants, were as follows at
the two enumerations of December 1, 1871, and December 1, 1875 : —
Kreise
Area :
Eng. sq. mUes
Population 1
Dec. 1871
Dec. 1875
Jaxt (Jagst) ....
Neckar .....
Black Forest (Scliwarzwald)
Danube (Donau)
Total . , .
1,810
1,286
1,973
2,606
384,714
548,750
448,160
436,945
390,703
587,834
454,937
448,031
7,675
1,818,569
1,881,505
The increase of population between the two census periods,
amounting on the whole to only 0*85 per cent, per annum, varied
greatly m the four circles of the kingdom. It was, as will be seen,
proportionately largest in the Neckar circle, and least in the Jaxt.
The total increase in the kingdom during the 35 years from 1841
to 1875 was very slight, and at one period, from 1849 to 1855,
there was a decline of popidation.
The kingdom has but four to-ivns with more than sixteen thousand
inhabitants, namely Stuttgart, the capital, which had 107,273 ;
Ulm, fortress and principal military establishment, which had 30,222 ;
Heilbronn, which had 20,208; and Esslingen, which had 19,602
inhabitants at the census of December 1, 1875. The population,
following generally agricultural pursuits, including extensive cul-
tivation of the vine, is dispersed over a great many villages and
small boroughs. Emigration, chiefly directed to the United States of
America, was formerly drawing off large numbers of the people. In
the five years from 1873 to 1877, the total number of emigrants was
10,039. But the emigration here, as in other parts of Germany,
greatly declined during the period, falling from 4,651 in 1873, to
1,032 in 1877.
GErvMAXY SAXONY. 1 43
IV. SAXONY.
(KONIGEEICH SaCHSEX.)
Reigning King.
Albert I., bom April 23, 1828, eldest son of King Joliann I. and
of Queen Amalie, daughter of King IVIaximilian I. of Bavaria.
Educated for the military career, and entered the army of Saxony,
1846, and of Prussia, 1867. Commander of a German corps
d'armee in the war against France, 1870-71. Nominated Field-
Marshal in the German army, 1871. Succeeded to the throne, at
the death of his father, October 29, 1873. Married June 18, 1853,
to Queen Caroline, born Aug. 5, 1833, daughter of Prince Gustav
of Vasa.
Sister and Brother of the King.
I. Princess Elisabeth, born Feb. 4, 1830 ; married, in 1850, to
Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia; Avidow, Feb. 10, 1855 ; married, in
second nuptials, Oct. 10, 1856, to the Marchese Rapallo, of Florence.
II. Prince (?eor(/,Dukeof Saxony, born August 8, 1832 ; married
INIay 11, 1859, to Infanta Maria, born July 21, 1843, daughter of
King Ferdinand of Portugal. Offspring of the imion are six
children: — 1. Princess Mathilda, born March 19, 1863. 2. Prince
Friedrich August, born May 25, 1865. 3. Princess Marie, born May
31, 1867. 4. Prince Johann Georg, born July 11, 1869. 5.
Prince Maximilian, born November 17, 1870. 6. Prince Albert,
born February 25, 1875.
The royal house of Saxony counts among the oldest reigning
families in Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early as
the beginning of the tenth century; bnt the house subsequently
spread into numerous branches, the elder of which, called the
Ernestine line, is represented at this moment by the diical families
of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meinmgen, and Saxe-
Weimar, while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers
of the kingdom of Saxony.
King Albert I. has a civil list of 2,940,000 mark, or 147,0_00Z.
per annum. Exclusive of this sum are the appanages, or dotations
of the princes and princesses, amounting to 511,818 mark, or 25,590Z.
a year. The formerly royal domains, consisting chiefly in exten-
sive forests, became, in 1830, the property of the State.
144 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Saxony dates fi-om Sept. 4, 1831 ; but
has undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of March 31 ,
1849 ; May 5, 1851 ; November 27, 1860 ; and October 19, 1861.
According to the terms of the Constitution, the crown is hereditary
in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in the
female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth
year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes
the regency. In the hands of the king is the sole executive power,
which he exercises through responsible ministers. The legislature
is jointly in the king and Parliament, the latter consisting of two
chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the blood
royal ; the proprietors of eight baronial domains ; twelve deputies
elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates; ten noble proprietors
nominated by the king for life; the biu'gomasters of eight towns;
and the superintendents and deputies of five collegiate institutions,
of the imiversity of Leipzig, and of the Eoman Catholic chapter of
St. Peter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of twenty
deputies of landed proprietors; twenty-five of to^vns and city cor-
porations ; twenty-five of peasants and commimes ; and ten repre-
sentatives of commerce and manufacturing industry. The qualifica-
tion for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election to
the same, is the possession of a landed estate worth at least 3,000
mark a year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the
ex officio deputies of chapters and universities. To be a member of
the Lower House, no fixed income is required ; and electors are all
men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes, or contribute in
any way to the public burdens. A salary is attached to the per-
formance of the legislative functions ; the members of the Upper
House being allowed 20 mark, or one pound a day, during the
sittings of Parliament, and the deputies to the Second Chamber
10 mark, or 10s. Both Houses have the right to make proposi-
tions for new laws, the bills for which, however, must come from
the ministry. No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the
sanction of both Chambers.
The executive is in the king and a Council of Ministers, con-
sisting of five members, namely, the President of the Council, the
^Ministers of the Interior, of Justice, of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, and of Finance.
Church and Education.
Although the royal family profess the Roman Catholic religion,
the vast maioritv of the inhabitants are Protestants. At tho census
GERMANY — SAXONY. 1 4 5
of December 1, 1875, the population of Saxony was composed
of 2,664,341 Lutherans; 73,349 Roman CathoUcs ; 1,876 ' German '
Catholics; 15,660 members of other Christian sects; and 5,360
Jews. The clergy are chiefly paid out of local rates and from
endowments, the budget contribution of the State to the depart-
ment of ecclesiastical aiFairs amounting to but 85,593 thalers, or
about 12,830/., chiefly spent in administrative salaries. The govern-
ment of the Protestant Church is entrusted to the Landes-Consis-
torium, or National Consistory, presided over by the Minister of
Ecclesiastical Affairs ; while the Roman Catholic congregations are
under the supervision of a Papal delegate. Public education has
reached the highest point in Saxony, every child, Avithout exception,
partaking of its benefits. By a law of June 6, 1835, attendance at
school, or under properly qualified teachers, was made compulsory.
The kingdom has the second largest university in Germany, that
of Leipzig, founded in 1409, and attended, on the average of recent
years, by nearly three thousand students. (See Germany, p. 97.)
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial period extends over a term of two years. In the
financial accounts, both the revenue and expenditure are divided
into ' ordinary ' and * extraordinary,' the latter representing income
from State domains and disbursements for public works. The ordi-
nary revenue for each of the two years 1878 and 1879 was returned
at 61,431,417 mark, or 3,071,571/., and was balanced by the ex-
penditiure. The extraordinary revenue for each of the two years 1878
and 1879, likewise balanced by the expenditure, was returned at
24,068,469 mark, or 1,203,423/. More than one-half of the total
revenue of the years 1878 and 1879 was derived from domains and
state railways. The chief branch of expenditure is that of interest
and sinking fund of the public debt, amounting to 27,502,851
mark, or 1,375,142/., for the years 1878 and 1879.
The public debt amounted, at the end of 1878, to 593,312,626
mark, or 29,665,631/., the liabilities being made up as follows : —
3% • Obligations,' created in 1830 .
4% ' Kassen-Seheiue ' of 1847-
4% ditto of 18.52-68
3% ditto of 1855
4% Shares of the Saxon-Silesian Railway
5% 'Obligations,' created in 1867 .
4% 'Kassenseheine,' created in 1869
Railway loans of 1 870-78
'Kassenseheine,' not bearing interest
ToUil
Mark
. 6,778,275
. 16,500,000
135,931,800
. 12,112,200
. 7,606,200
. 35,640,000
. 57,300.000
. 53.544,150
267,900,000
593,312,626
£29,665,631
146
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The debt was incurred almost entirely for the establishment
and purchase of a network of railways and telegraphs, and the
promotion of other works of public utility.
Area and Population.
Saxony has an area of 272 geographical, or 6,777 English square
miles, with a population of 2,760,342 — comprising 1,365,962 males,
and 1,394,380 females— at the census of December 1, 1875. The
kingdom is divided into four government districts, called Kreis-
Ilauptmanuschaften, the area of which, in English square miles, and
population, was as follows at each of the two enumerations of
December 1, 1871, and December 1, 1875 : —
Kreis-Hanptmaunschaften
Area: Engl,
square miles
Population
Dec. 1871 1 Dec. 1875
Dresden ....
Leipzig ....
Bautzen ....
Zwickau ....
2,229
1,230
1,232
2,086
677,671
589,377
330,133
959,063
749,503
639,731
339,203
1,031,905
Total population
6,777
2,556,244
2,760,342
At the census of December 3, 1867, the population numbered
2,426,300. The increase in the four years 1867-71 was 129,944,
being at the rate of 1*30 per cent, per annum. The increase of
population during the three years 1871-75 was at the rate of 1-92
per cent, per annum. The increase from 1871 to 1875 was nearly
thrice as large in the towns as in the rural districts of the kingdom.
Saxony has a comparatively large town population. There were,
at the census of December 1, 1875, eight towns with a population of
more than 20,000, namely : —
Dresden
Leipzig
Chemnitz
Zwickau
197.295
127,387
78,209
31,491
Plauen
Freiberg
Glauchau
Meerane
28.756
23,559
21,743
21,277
The population of Leipzig is vastly increased during the period of
the great annual Hiirs, at New Year, Easter, and Michaelmas, notably
that of Easter, which bring together merchants from all parts of
the civilised world. Leipzig is also the centre of the German,
and to some extent European, trade in productions of the printing
press.
GERMANY BADEN. 1 47
V. BADEN.
(Grossheezogthum Baden.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich I., bom September 9, 1826, second son of Grand-duke
Leopold I., and of Princess Sophie of Sweden. Ascended the throne
of Baden at the death of his father, April 24, 1852. Married, Sep-
tember 20, 1856, to Grand-duchess Louise^ bom December 3, 1838,
the daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Prussia.
Children of the Gi-and-duhe.
I. Friedrich Wilhelm, born July 9, 1857.
II. Victoria, born August 7, 1862.
III. Liidwig, born June 12, 1865.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke.
I. Princess Alexandrine, born December 6, 1820 ; married. May
3, 1842, to Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
II. Prince Wilhelm, born December 18, 1829; married, February
11, 1863, to Princess Maria Romanovska, born October 16, 1841,
daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg. Offspring
of the union are two children : — 1. Princess Marie, born July 26,
1865. 2. Prince Maximilian, born July 10, 1867.
III. Prince Karl, born March 9, 1832 ; married, May 17, 1871, to
Eosalie von Beust, elevated Countess von Rhena, born June 10, 1845.
IV. Princess Marie, born November 20, 1834; married, Sept.
11, 1858, to Prince Ernst of Leiningen.
V. Princess Cecilia, born Sept. 20, 1839 ; married, Aug. 28,
1857, to Grand-duke Michael of Russia (see page 364).
The title of Grand-duke was given by Napoleon I. to Margrave
Karl Friedrich of Baden in 1806, on the occasion of the alliance
of the heir-apparent of Baden with Stephanie Beauhamais.
The very extensive landed property formerly belonging to the
reigning family, and valued at about 50 million florins, or 4, 166,666/.,
has been made over to the State, and the Grand-duke is in the
receipt of a civil list of 1,498,635 mark, or 74,931/., which includes
the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
L 2
148 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Revenue.
The Constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the
Grand-duke, and the legislative authority in a House of Parliament
composed of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning line who are of age ; the heads of ten noble
families ; the proprietors of hereditary landed estates worth 500,000
mark, or 25,000/. ; the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Freiburg ;
the superintendent of the Protestant Church ; two deputies of
Universities ; and eight members nominated by the Grand-duke,
without regard to rank or birth. The Second Chamber is composed
of 63 representatives of the people, 22 of which are elected by
burgesses of towns, and 41 by the inhabitants of rural districts.
Every citizen not convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has
a vote in the elections. To be a deputy, it is necessary to possess
tax-paying property to the amount of 16,000 mark, or 800L ; or
to hold a public office with a salary of not less than 2,500 mark, or
12ol. The elections are indirect ; the citizens nominating the Wahl-
miinner, or deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives. The
members of the Second Chamber are elected for eight years. The
Chambers have to be called together at least once every two years.
The executive is composed of five departments, headed by the
* Private Cabinet of the Grand-duke,' which office is filled by the
chief of the cabinet. The ministers are individually and collectively
responsible for their actions.
The budget estimates of revenue for the year 1879 amounted to
34,198,435 mark, or 1,709,921/., while the expenditure was calcu-
lated at 34,775,685 mark, or 1,738,784/., leaving a deficit of
517,250 mark, or 25,863/. The greater part of the revenue is
derived from direct tax^s, including a land tax — Grundsteuer — and
an income tax. About one-fourth of the receipts come from the pro-
duce of crown lands, forests, and mines, and one-sixth from cus-
toms and miscellaneous sources.
Nearly all the railways of Baden are the property of the State,
giving a dividend, on the capital expended, of above 6 per cent. The
accounts of the income and expenditure of the State railways, as
well as of the Post-office and steam navigation on the Lake of
Constance, are not entered in the general budget, but form a special
fund. The receipts of the state railways in the year 1877 amounted
to 62,022,162 mark, or 3,101,108/., and the disbursements to
49,383,404 mark, or 2,469,170/., leaving a surplus of 12,638,758
mark, or 631,938/.
The public debt is divided into two parts, the first called the
General debt, and the second the Railway debt. The General debt
amounted, at the commencement of 1879, to 50,881,661 mark
or ^ 2,544,083/., and the Railway debt, at the same date, to
GERMANY BADEN.
149
277,253,122 mark, or 13,862,656^. There waa added to the Rail-
way debt, by a law passed Feb. 9, 1878, a loan of 12,000,000 mark,
or 600,000/., at 4 per cent., for the construction of new lines. About
one-fovirth of the total debt bears no interest.
Area and Population.
Baden has an area of 277 geographical, or 5,851 English square
miles, with a population of 1,506,531 at the census of December 1,
1875. The Grand-duchy is divided into four districts, the popula-
tion of which was as follows at the enumerations of December 1,
1871, and December 1, 1875 :—
Districts
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
Population
Dec. 1871
Dec. 1875
Seekreis (Constance)
Upper Rhine ....
Middle Rhine ....
Lower Rhine ....
Total ....
1,679
1.830
993
1,349
276,263
434,962
365,745
384,652
276,375
441,369
387,314
401,473
6,851
1,461,622
1,506,531
At the census of December 3, 1867, the population of Baden
numbered 1,434,970. The increase of population in the four years
from 1867 to 1871 was 26,592, or 1-85 per cent., being at the
rate of 0'46 per cent, per annum. In the four years from 1871
to 1875 the population increased at the rate of 0*76 per cent,
per annum. The population decreased from the year 1846
till 1855. From 1846 till 1849, the decrease amounted to 4,712;
from 1849 to 1852, to 8,282 ; and from 1852 to 1855, to the large
number of 42,105, or 14,035 per annum. The decline of population
was chiefly due to emigration.
Two-thirds of the population of Baden are Roman Catholics, and
one-third Protestants. At the census of Dec. 1, 1875, there were
958,907 Roman Catholics, and 517,851 Protestants, together with
26,492 Jews. A great number of small towns are dispersed over
the Grand-duchy. There were five with a population of over 20,000
at the census of December I, 1875, namely, Mannheim with 46,453;
Karlsruhe, the capital, with 42,895 ; Freiburg, with 30,595 ;
Pforzheim, with 23,692; and Heidelberg, with 22,334 inhabitants.
150 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
VI. MECKLEMBURG-SCHWERIN.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklemburg-Schwerin.)
Reigning Grand- duke.
Friedrich Franz II., bom Febi-Tiaiy 28, 1823, the son of Grand-
duke Paul Friedrich and Princess Alexandrine of Prussia ; succeeded
to the throne at the death of his father, March 7, 1842 ; married,
November 3, 1849, to Princess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz, who died
March 3, 1862 ; mamed, in second nuptials. May 12, 1864, to
Princess Anna of Hesse-Darmstadt, who died April 15, 1865 ;
man-ied, in third nuptials, July 4, 1868, to Princess Marie, bom
January 29, 1850, datxghter of Prince Adolph of Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt.
Children of the Grand-duke.
I. Friedrich Franz, heu--apparent, born March 19, 1851 ; married
January 24, 1879, to Grand-duchess Anastasia, born July 28, 1860,
daughter of Grand-duke Michael of Russia. (See page 364.)
II. Fcml Friedrich, born September 19, 1852.
III. llarie, born May 14, 1854; married, August 28, 1874, to
Grand-duke Vladimir, second son of Alexander II., Emperor of
Russia. (See page 363.)
rV. Johann, born December 8, 1857.
V. Anna, born April 7, 1865.
VI. Mathilda, born August 10, 1869.
VII. Friedrich Wilhelm, born April 5, 1871.
VIII. Adolf, born October 10, 1873.
IX. Heinrich, born April 19, 1876.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklemburg is the only reigning
family in Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest
sovereign house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-
dukes style themselves Princes of the Vandals; and they trace their
descent to Genseric, King of the Vandals, Avho conquered Spain in
the fifth centui-y, and, going over to Afiica, took Carthage in 439.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the ' Union ' of
1523, the 'Reversals' of 1572 and 1622, and the charters of 1755
and Nov. 28, 1817. The Avhole legislative power and part of the
executive is in the hands of the proprietors of Rittergiiter, or knights'
estates, numbering 622. Seldom more than one-fourth of these, how-
ever, exert their privileges and take their seats in the Diet. To these
GERMANY — MECKLElVrBURG-SCHWEKIN. I 5 I
representatives of their own property are joined forty mem-
bers, nearly all burgomasters, delegated by the municipalities and
corporate bodies of a like niunber of towns. The great bulk of the
population is without political rights. The Diet is permanent, being
represented, if not in actual session, by a committee of twelve mem-
bers, presided over by three marshals of the nobility, Avhose office
is hereditary in their families. It forms every two years a joint as-
sembly witli the Diet of Mecklemburg-Strelitz.
The executive is represented in a ministry divided into four
departments, appointed by, and responsible alone to the Grand-
duie. There exists no general budget for the Grand- duchy.
At the commencement of 1877 the public debt was estimated at
42,000,000 mark, or 2,100,000/., more than one-half of which sum
had been raised in loans for the construction of railways.
The popu.lation of the Grand-duchy amounted to 553,734-^
comprising 270,450 males, and 283,284 females — at the census
of Dec. 1, 1875, living on an area of 4,834 English square miles.
There is no other administrative division than that springing
from the ownership of the soil, in which respect the comitry is
divided into Grand-ducal Domains, embracing about one-fifth of
the total area of Mecklemburg-Schwerin ; Knight's Estates — 'Ritter-
guter ' — comprising two-fifths ; Convent Estates — ' Klostergliter ' —
embracing one-fifth ; and Town Estates, comprising the remaining
fifth of the land. The Domains contain rather more than one-third
of the total population of the Grand-duchy, and the Town Estates
another third.
There has been a gradual decrease of population in recent years,
although the average density is only 114 inhabitants per English
square mile, and the soil moreover very fertile. At the census of
December 3, 1867, the population of the Grand-duchy numbered
560,628, and at the next enumeration, of December 1, 1871, the
number had fallen to 557,707, being a decrease of 2,921, or one-
half per cent, of the population in the four years 1867-71. At
the census of December 1, 1875, the population was found to
have further declined to 553,785, being a loss of 3,922, or of 0'18
per cent, per annum. During the five years fi-om 1873 to 1877,
the large number of 10,097 emigrants left the little State. But
there was a gradual decline in emigration during the period, the
number of emigrants falling from 6,492 in 1873, to 365 in 1877.
Nearly all the inhabitants are Protestants. There were two towns
with a. population of over 20,000, namely, Rostock, with 34,172,
and Schwerin, the capital, with 27,989 inhabitants, at the census
of December 1. 1875.
152 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
VII. HESSE.
(Grossherzogthum Hessen.)
Reigning Grand- duke.
Ludwig IV., born September 12, 1837, the son of Prince Karl,
eldest brother of Grand-duke Ludwig III; and of Princess Elizabeth
of Prussia. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his uncle,
Grand-duke Ludwig III., Jime 13, 1877. Married, July 1, 1862,
to Princess Alice, second daughter of Queen Victoria, of Great
Britain and Ireland ; widower, December 14, 1878.
Children of the Grand-duke.
I. Victoria, born April 5, 1863.
II. Elizabeth, born November 1, 1864.
III. Irene, born July 11, 1866.
IV. Ludwig, born November 25, 1868.
V. Alice, born June 6, 1872.
Brothers of the Grand-duke.
I. Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838; married, Feb. 28, 1878,
to Caroline Willich, elevated Freifrau zu Niddau ; widower, Jan.
6, 1879.
II. Prince Wilhelm, bom November 16, 1845.
Uncle and Aunt of the Grand-duke.
I. Viince Alexa7ider, horn July 15, 1823; field -marshal lieutenant
in the service of Austria; married, Oct. 28, 1851, to Princess Julia
von Buttenberg, born Nov. 12, 1825. Offspring of the imion are five
children:—!. Marie, born July 15, 1852; married April 29, 1871,
to Count Gustaf von Erbach-Schonberg. 2. Ludwig, born May 24,
1854, lieutenant in the British navy. 3. Alexander, born April 5,
1857 ; elected Prince of Bulgaria, April 29, 1879. 4. Heinrich,
born October 5, 1858. 5. Franz Josef, born September 24, 1861.
II. Princess Maria, born August 8, 1824; married, April 28,
1841, to Grand-duke Alexander of Russia, present Emperor Alex-
ander II. (See page 363.)
The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke
given them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable
increase of territory. At the congress of Vienna this grant was
contirmed, after some negotiations. The reigning family are not
possessed of much private property, and dependent almost entirely
GERMANY — HESSE.
153
xipon the grant of the civil list, amounting to 1,314,857 mark, or
65.742Z., the sum including allowances to the princes.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution bears date Dec. 17, 1820 ; but was modified in
1856. The legislative power is vested in two Chambers, the first
•composed of the princes of the reigning family, the heads of a
number of noble houses, the Eoman Catholic bishop, the chief
Protestant superintendent, and a number of life- members, nomi-
nated by the Grand-duke ; while the second consists of 6 deputies of
noble landowners, 10 deputies of towns, and 34 representatives of
villages and rural districts.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four de-
partments, namely, of the Grand-ducal House and Foreign Affairs ;
of the Interior ; of Justice ; and of Finance.
The budget is granted for the term of three years by the Chambers,
and the estimates seldom differ much from the actual revenue and
expenditure. The revenue for the financial period 1879-82 was
estimated at 20,235,247 mark, or 1,011,762/., per annum, and the
expenditure at 17,142,497 mark, or 857,124Z., per annum. The
pubhc debt, incurred mainly in recent years for the construction of
a network of State railways, amounted to 25,382,000 mark, or
1,269,100/., at the end of 1879.
The area of Hesse embraces 2,866 English square miles, on
which Hved at the last census 882,349 inhabitants. The Grand-
duchy is administratively divided into three provinces, the area and
population of Avhich were as follows at the two enumerations of
December 1, 1871, and December 1, 1875 : —
Area
Population |
1 Engl. sq. miles
Dec. 1871
Dec. 1875
Upper Hesse (Oberhessen)
Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen)
Starkenburg ....
Total population .
1,270
530
1,066
253,042
249,951
349,901
255,632
259,164
369,422
2,866
852,894
884,218
At the census of December 3, 1867, the population numbered
831,939. The increase of population in the four years from 1871
to 1875 was at the rate of 0'85 per cent, per annum.
The two largest towns of the Grand-duchy are Mayence, or
Mainz, with 57,847, and Darmstadt, the capital, with 43,937
inhabitants at the census of December 1, 1875.
154 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
VIII. OLDENBURG.
(Grossherzogthum Oldenburg.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, bom July 8, 1827, the son
of Grand-duke August, and of Princess Ida of Anlialt-Bernburg ;
su.cceeded to the throne at the death of his father, Feb. 27, 1853 ;
married. Fob. 10, 1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826,
daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg.
Children of the Grand-duhe.
I. Prince August, heir-apparent, born Nov. 16, 1852; married,
February 18, 1878, to Princess Elizabeth, born Feb. 8, 1857, second
daughter of Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia. (See page 111.)
II. Prince Georg, born June 27, 1855.
Cousin of the Grand-duke.
Prince Peter, born August 26, 1812, the son of Prince Georg,
brother of the late Grand-duke August of Oldenburg, and of Princess
Catharine, daughter of the late Emperor Paul of Russia ; general of
infantry in the service of Russia, and President of the department
of Ecclesiastical Affairs in the Imperial Senate ; married, April 23,
1837, to Princess Therese of Nassau; widower, Dec. 8, 1871.
Issue of the union are five children : — 1. Vrince^^ Alexandra, born
June 2, 1838; married, Feb. 6, 1856, to Grand-duke Nicholas,
brother of Czar Alexander II. of Russia. 2. Prince Nicolaus, born
May 9, 1840, married May 29, 1863, to Marie Bulazel, Countess
von Osternburg, born July 8, 1845; offspring of the union are a son
and a daughter called Count and Countess von Osternburg. 3. Prince
Alexander, born June 2, 1844; general in the service of Russia ;
married, Jan. 19, 1868, to Princess Eugenie, born April 1, 1845,
daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg ; offspring
of the union is a son, Peter, born Nov. 17, 1868. 4. Prince Con-
stantine, born May 9, 1850; captain in the army of Russia. 5.
Princess Therese, born March 30, 1852.
The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to
Denmark, Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended fi'om*
Wittekind, the celebrated leader of the heathen Saxons against
Charlemagne. In the fifteenth century, a scion of the House of Olden-
burg, Coimt Christian VIII., was elected King of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway. The main line became extinguished with Count Giinther,
in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to the King of
Denmark, who made it over to Grand-dulce Pau.1 of Russia, in exchange
GERMANY— OLDENBURG. 155
for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-duke
then gave Oldenbiu'g to his cousin, Prince Friedi-ich August of
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December
1810, when Napoleon incorporated it with the kingdom of West-
phaha. But the Congress of Vienna not only gave the country
back to its former sovereign, but, at the urgent demand of Czar
Alexander I., added to it a territory of nearly 400 square miles,
with 50,000 inliabitants, bestowing at the same time upon the prmce
the title of Grand-duke. Part of the new territory consisted of the
principality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine, close to
the French frontier, and some three himdred miles distant from
Oldenburg. The Grand-didce has a civil hst of 125,000 mark,
or 6,250/., besides an allowance of 125,000 mark from the public
domains, making his total income 12,500/. He draws also a revenue
of 6,000/. from private estates of the family in Holstein.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy Feb. 18, 1849,
which, revised by a decree of Nov. 22, 1852, grants liberty of the
press, trial by jury, and equality of all citizens in political and social
matters. The legislative power is exercised by a Landtag, or Diet,
elected for three years, by the vote of all citizens paying taxes, and not
condemned for felony by a coui-t of justice. The mode of election is
indfrect. The first electors choose a delegate, and the delegates of
several districts appoint one deputy, the Avhole number being 33, or
one for every 10,000 inhabitants. The executive is vested, under
the Grand-duke, in a responsible ministry of three departments.
The budget estimates for the year 1880 were calculated upon a
total public revenue of 6,912,200 mark, or 345,610/., and an ex-
penditure of 7,233,700 mark, or 361,685/. In the budget for the
year 1881, the receipts were set do^vn ac 6,955,800 mark, or
347,790/., and the expenses at 7,386,500 mark, or 369,325/. The
chief item of revenue is from the produce of State property ; while
in expenditure the civil Hst and the interest of the public debt
take the largest sums. The debt amounted, at the beginning of
1879, to 37,158,340 mark, or 1,857,917/.
The area of Oldenburg embraces 2,417 Engl, square miles, with
a population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of 319,314
inhabitants. At the census of Dec. 1, 1871, the population num-
bered 314,591, the increase of population amounting to 0-35 per
annum in the years 1871-75, while in the four preceding years,
1867 to 1871, the increase was only 0*05 per annum.
156 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
IX. BRUNSWICK.
(Herzogthum Braunschweig.)
Reigning Buke.
Wilhelm I., born April 25, 1806, the second son of Duke Fried-
rich Wilhelm and of Princess Marie of Baden. Undertook pro-
visionally the government of Brunswick in consequence of the insui*-
rection of September 7, 1830, and subsequent flight of his brother,
the reigning Duke Karl, October 12, 1830 ; ascended the throne,
April 25, 1831.
The ducal house of Brunswick, now on the point of becoming
extinct, the reigning sovereign, only representative of the family,
being unmarried, was long one of the most ancient and illustrious
of the Germanic Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion,
possessed, in the twelfth century, the imited duchies of Bavaria and
Saxony, with other territories in the north of Germany ; but
having refused to aid the Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa in his
wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived of
the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial
domains, the principalities of Brmiswick and Llineburg. Their pos-
sessions were, on the death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between
the two sons of the latter, who became the founders of the lines of
Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel and Brunswick-Llineburg, the former of
which is represented at present in the ducal house of Brunswick,
Avhile the latter is merged in the royal family of Great Britain.
A law of succession to the throne of Brunswick, sanctioned by
the Diet, was promulgated in I\!arch 1873. It provides, under
guarantee of the German Emperor, that at the demise of the reign-
ing Duke, the Grand-duke of Oldenburg shall assume the regency.
If, previous to the throne becoming vacant, the regent refuses the
regency, or if the regency becomes inoperative irom other causes,
the present Duke shall, jointly with the Diet of Brunswick, nominate
another regent from among the number of reigning German
Sovereigns. A new regent will be proposed to the Diet by the
Cabinet in the place of the Grand-duke of Oldenburg in case the
regency appointed after the vacation of the throne should from any
cause whatever become inoperative.
The present Duke of Brunswick is one of the wealthiest of German
sovereigns, being in possession of vast private estates, including the
principality of Oels, in Silesia, and large domains in the district of
Glatz, in Prussia. It is reported that the Duke has bequeathed the
GERMANY — BRUNSWICK. 157
whole of these estates to the Emperor of Austria. The Duke's
civil list, amounting on the average to 1,000,000 mark, or 50,000/.,
per annum in recent years, is not set do\vn in the budget, but is
paid out of a special fund, the ' Kammercasse,' the revenues of which
are derived from the State domains, and from the interest of an in-
vested capital of 3,000,000 mark, or 150,000/.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12,1832, but
was modified by the fimdaraental law of November 28, 1851. The
legislative power is vested, according to the law of 1851, in one
Chamber, consisting of forty-six members. Of these, twenty-one
are elected by the highest-taxed landed proprietors; three by the
Protestant clergy ; ten b}^ the inhabitants of towns, and twelve by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years,
and the deputies hold theii- mandate for two sessions. The executive
is represented by a responsible Ministry, consisting of four depart-
ments, namely, of State, of Finance, of Justice, and of the Interior.
The budget is voted by the Chamber for the period of three years,
but each year separate. For the year 1879 the estimates of revenue
were 7,506,000 mark, or 375,300/., with an expenditiu-e of the
same amount. Not included in the budget estimates, as already
stated, is the civil list of the Grand- duke. The public debt of the
duchy, at the commencement of 1879, was 91,874,442 mark, or
4,593,722/., four-fifths of which sum was contracted for the estab-
lishment of railways.
The duchy has an area of 1,526 English square miles, with a
population of 327,493 inhabitants, according to the census of De-
cember 1, 1875. There were 312,170 inhabitants at the census of
December 1, 1871, the increase in the four years 1871—75 being at
the high rate of 1'26 per cent, per annum. At the census of
December 3, 1867, the population numbered 302,801, the increase
in the fovir years 1867-71 being at the rate of 0'73 per cent, per
annum. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants of the duchy are
members of the Lutheran Church.
The capital of the duchy, the town of Brunswick, or Braunschweig,,
had 65,938 inhabitants at the census of Dec. 1, 1875.
158 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
X. SAXE- WEIMAR.
(Grossherzogthum Sachsen- Weimar.)
Reigning Grand-dnke.
Karl Alexander, born June 24, 1818, the son of Grand-duke
Karl Friedrich and of Grand-duchess Marie, daughter of the late
Czar Paul I. of Russia. Succeeded his father, July 8, 1853 ; married
October 8, 1842, to Sophie, bom April 8, 1824, daughter of the
late King Willem II. of the Netherlands.
Children of the Grand-duhe.
I. Prince Karl August, heir-apparent, born July 31, 1844 ; married
August 26, 1873, to Princess Pauline, born July 25, 1852, eldest
daughter of Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar, of which union there
are offspring two sons, namely, Wilhelm, born June 10, 1876, and
Bernhard, born April 13, 1878.
II. Princess Marie, bom January 20, 1849 ; married Feb. 6, 1876,
to Prince Heinrich of Reuss-Schleiz-Kostritz, German ambassador at
Constantinople ; offspring a son, Heinrich, born March 3, 1878.
HI. Princess Elisabeth, born February 28, 1854.
Sister of the Grand-duke.
Princess Augusta, bom September 30, 1811 ; married, June 11,
1829, to Prince Wilhelm, now Emperor Wilhelm I. of Germany.
Cousins of the Grand-duke.
I. Prince Eduard, born October 11, 1823, the son of the late
Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar; major-general in the British army;
married, Nov. 27, 1851, to Lady Augusta Catherine, born Jan.
14, 1827, daughter of the fifth Duke of Richmond.
II. Prince Hermann, bom August 4, 1825, brother of the pre-
ceding; married, June 17, 1851, to Princess Augusta, born October
4, 1826, youngest daughter of King Wilhehn I. of Wurttemberg, of
which imion there are offspring six children.
III. Prince Gustav, born June 28, 1827, brother of the preceding ;
major-general in the Austrian army ; married, February 14, 1870,
to Pierina Marcochia, Countess von Neupurg.
The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine
or elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-
Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, while the
yoimger, or Albertine line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony.
Saxe-Weimar was formed into an independent duchy towards the
end of the sixteenth century, when Elector Johann Wilhelm of
Saxony divided his territory between his two sons, Friedrich Wilhelm
GERxMANT — SAXE-WEIMAR.
159
-and Johann, giving the former Saxe-Altenburg and the latter Saxe-
Weimar. At the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of
territory, together with the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to
Duke Karl August, known as patron of German literatui'e.
The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of Avhich he
obtained in dowry with his consort. Princess Sophie of the Nether
lands. He has also a civil list of 840,000 mark, or 42,000/.,
amounting to nearly one-seventh of the revenues of Saxe-Weimar.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population,
The Constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816 ;
but slightly altered by the law of October 15, 1849. According to
this charter the legislative power is vested in a House of Parliament
represented by one Chamber. It is composed of 31 members, of
whom ten are chosen by the proprietors of nobiliar estates ; ten by
the towns ; ten others by the inhabitants of rural districts, and one
by the Senate of the University of Jena. At the general election,
which takes place every seventh year, not only the representatives
themselves are chosen, but likewise a substitute for every member,
who has to take his place in case of illness, death, or prolonged absence.
The ten members for the nobility ai-e elected directly by all proj^rietors
of Rittergliter, or noble estates, even ladies being allowed to vote.
In the representation of to\vns and rm-al districts the mode of election
is indirect. The whole body of voters choose a certain number of
delegates, in the proportion of one to every fifty houses, and these
deputies elect the member for the place. The Chamber meets
every three years.
The executive, acting under the orders of the Grand-duke, but
responsible to the representatives of the country, is divided into three
departments. The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period
of three years. That from 1878 to 1880 comprised an annual in-
come of 6,766,805 mark, or 338,340/., and an annual expenditure
of 6,737,687 mark, or 336,884/., leaving a surplus of 29,118 mark,
or 1,455/., for each year. The public debt amounted to 10,636,000
mark, or 531,800/., on January 1, 1879.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,421 English square miles
with a population of 292,933 at the census of December 1, 1875.
During the four years from 1871 to 1875 the increase of population
was at the rate of 0'58 per cent, per annum, while in the preceding
four years, from 1867 to 1871, the increase was at the rate of 0'29
per cent, per annum. The great majority of the inhabitants are
Protestants.
The town of Weimar, capital and largest town of the Grand-
duchy, had 17,522 inhabitants at the census of Dec. 1, 1875.
l60 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
XI. MECKLEMBURG-STRELITZ.
(Grossherzogthum Mecklemburg-Strelitz.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich Wilhelm I., born Oct. 17, 1819, the son of Grand-
duke Georg and of Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the
throne at the death of his father, Sept. 6, 1860; married, June 24,
1843, to Augusta, born July 19, 1822, the daughter of the late
Duke Adolphus of Cambridge.
Son of the Grand-duke.
Prince Adolf Friedrich, born July 22, 1848; married April 17,
1877, to Princess Elizabeth of Anhalt, born Sept. 7, 1857, of which
union there is offspring a daughter, Augusta, born May 8, 1878.
The reigning house of Mecklemburg-Strelitz was founded, in
1701, by Duke Adolf Friedrich, youngest son of Duke Adolf
Friedrich II. of Mecklemburg-Schwerin. There being no law
of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was unable to prevent the
division of the country, which was protested against by subsequent
Dukes of Mecklemburg-Schwerin. The Congress of Vienna per-
mitted Duke Karl Friedrich of Mecklemburg-Strelitz to adopt
the title of Grand-duke, notwithstanding the exceedingly limited
extent of his territory. He is, however, one of the wealthiest of
German sovereigns, more than one-half of the country being his own
private property.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of
which, Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners, while the
second, Ratzeburg, has no representative institutions whatever. The
Stargard Diet periodically joins the legislative assembly of Meck-
lemburg-Schwerin. Only the possession of a Rittergut, or knight's
estate, gives right to a seat in the Diet, to which the ' privileged '
towns may add, if called upon, seven deputies. There are sixty-two
Rittergut proprietors in the province of Stargard, only a small
number of whom, however, choose to take their seats.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is
exercised by him through one ' Minister of State,' which appointment,
however, has at times been vacant for several years. Accounts ol
public income and expenditure are never made known, and the
whole state revenue forms the civil list of the Grand-duke.
The population, which, according to the census of December 1,
GEKMANY SAXE-MEINING EN. J 6 1
1875, numbered 95,673, is decreasing steadily, through emigration,
although there is a lesser density than in any other State of the
German Empire, only 95 inhabitants living on the square mile.
Between the last census period, 1861-75, the decrease of population
was at the rate of 0'35 per cent, per annum, while during the
previous period, 1867-71, the decrease Avas at the rate of 0*46 per
annum. The area of the country is 997 English square miles, the
ownership of which territoiy is divided between the sovereign, the
feudal proprietors, and the corporations of certain towns, in the
following manner: — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke; 353
to the titled and untitled nobles, and 117 to the town corporations.
XII. SAXE-MEININGEN.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Meiningen.)
Reigning Duke.
Georg II., born April 2, 1826, the son of Duke Bernhard I.
Succeeded, on the abdication of his father, September 20, 1866.
Married, May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who died
March 30, 1855; married, in second nuptials, October 23, 1858,
to Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, born July 7, 1839,
who died February 10, 1872 ; married, in third nuptials, March 18,
1863, to Ellen Franz, Countess von Heldburg.
Children of the Duke.
I. Prince Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ; married Feb. 18, 1878,
to Princess Charlotte, eldest daughter of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm,
Prince Imperial of Germany and Crown Prince of Prussia; oiFspring
of the union is a daughter, Feodora, born May 12, 1879.
II. Princess MaiHe Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853.
III. Prince Ernst, bom September 27, 1859.
IV. Prince Friedrich, born October 12, 1861.
The line of Saxe-Meiningen was founded by Duke Bernhard, third
son of Emst I. of Saxony, surnaraed the Pious, the friend and com-
panion in arms of Bang Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. The duchy was
only one-third its present size up to the year 1826, when, by the
extinction of the ancient family of Saxe-Gotha, the territories of
Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the present duke. He has a
civil list of 380,000 mark, or 19,00U/., paid out of the produce of
the State domains
1 62 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The charter of the duchy bears date August 23, 1829. It provide*
for a legislative organisation, consisting of one Chamber of twenty-
four representatives. Eight of these are elected by the proprietors
of nobiliar estates; eight by the inhabitants of towns, and eight by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every thi-ee years, and
new elections take place every six. A small property qualification
is requisite to become a member.
The budget estimates for each of the two financial years 1879-80
stated the revenue at 4,223,fi40 mark, or 211,182/., and the expendi-
ture at 3,793,640 mark, or 189,682/. Nearly one- half of the revenue
is drawn from State domains, formerly belonging to the ducal family.
The chief items of expenditure are the interest of the public
debt, and the civil list of the duke ; which latter, however, is not
entered in the budget estimates, but paid out of the revenue of the
domains as a first chaj-ge thereon. The debt, at the end of 1878,
amounted to 10,528,320 mark, or 526,416/., exclusive of a state
guarantee on 8,000,000 mark, or 400,000/., employed in the
construction of a line of railway through the duchy.
The area of the duchy extends over 933 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of
194,494 inhabitants. During the four years 1871-75 the population
increased at the rate of 0'80 per cent, per annum, while during the
preceding four years, 1867-71, the increase was at the rate of 0*88
per cent, per annum. The vast majority of the inhabitants of the
duchy are Protestants.
XIII. ANHALT.
(Herzogthum Anhalt.)
Reigning Duke.
Friedrich, born April 29, 1831, the son of Duke Leopold of
Anhalt and of Princess Friederike of Prussia, "succeeded to the
throne at the death of his father. May 22, 1H71 ; married, April
22, 1854, to Princess Antoinette of Saxe-A.ltenburg, born April
17, 1838.
Children of the Duke.
I. Prince Leopold, born July 18, 1855.
II. Prince Friedrich, born August 19. 185Pe
GERMANY — ANHALT. I ^^
III. Princess Elisabeth, born September 7, 1857.
rV. Prince Eduard, born April 18, 1861.
V. Prince Aribert, bom June 18, 1864.
VI. Princess Alexandra, born April 4, 1868.
The Dukes of Antalt trace their origin to Bernhard, son of the
celebrated Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg, -who died in
1211. The family, in the course of time, split into numerous
branches, now reduced to the present line. At the establishment of
the Germanic Confederation, in 1815, there were three reigning Dukes
of Anhalt, namely of Anhalt-Cothen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-
Dessau. The first of these lines became extinct in 1847, and the
second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former house of Anhalt-
Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806, the Princes
of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt has a civil list of 580,000 mark,
or 29,000Z., including the allowances to the younger members of
the house. The family has, besides, very large private estates
in Saxony, Eastern Prussia, and the Crimea, embracing an area
of more than 200 square miles.
Constitution, Revenne, and Population.
The duchy has a Constitution, proclaimed Sept. 17, 1859, and
modified by a decree of Sept. 17, 1863, which gives legislative power
to a Diet composed of 36 members, of whom 12 are representatives
of the nobility and great landowners, 12 of the towns, and 12 of the
rural districts. The executive power is entirely in the hands of the
duke, who governs through a Minister of State.
The budget estimates for the financial year 1879-80 stated the
public income at 9,023,000 mark, or 451,150/., and the expenditure
at 8,990,000 mark, or 449,500/. More than a third of the revenue is
derived fi-om State property, and the rest chiefly fi-om indirect taxes.
The largest item in the expenditure is the civil list of the ducal
house. The public debt amounted, on Jan. 1, 1879, to 7 445 417
mark, or 372,270/. '
The duchy comprises an area of 869 English square miles, with a
population of 213,565, according to the census of December 1, 1875.
In the four years, 1871-75, the increase of population was at the
rate of 1*23 per cent, per annum, while during the preceding four
years, 1867-71, the increase was at the rate of 0-80 per cent, per
annum. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants belong to the reformed
Protestant Church.
M 2
164 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
XIV. SAXE-COBUEG-GOTHA.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha.)
Reigning Duke.
Ernst II., born June 21, 1818, the son of Duke Ernst I. of Saxe-
Saalfeld-Coburg and of Pi-incess Louise of Saxe-Altenburg. Studied
pliilosophy and political economy at the University of Bonn, 1834-
36 ; entered into the military service of Saxony, 1836 ; travelled in
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Northern Afi-ica, 1838-40. Succeeded
to the throne, at the death of his father, Jan. 29, 1844. Man-ied,
May 3, 1842, to Princess Alexandrine^ born Dec. 6, 1820, the
daughter of the late Grand-duke Leopold of Baden.
The Duke being childless, heir-apparent is his nephew, Prince
Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, born Aug. 6, 1844, the son of Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and of Victoria I., Queen of Great
Britain. (See page 189.)
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, formerly called Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, and previously Saxe-
Coburg, was Prince Albrecht, second son of Duke Ernst, surnamed
the Pious, who died in 1699. A dispute about his heritage lasted
through three generations, and was only settled, towards the end of
the eighteenth century, by a re-distribution of the territories of the
Saxon princes. A new division took place in 1826, on the extinction of
the line of Saxe-Gotlia, and it was then that the house of Saxe-Saalfeld-
Coburg exchanged its name for that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The
family is in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly
by Duke Ernst I. of Saxe-Saalfelrl-Coburg, whom tlie Congi-ess of
Vienna made a present of the principality of Lichtenberg, in return for
his services as commander of the fifth corps d'armee in the year 1813.
This principahty he sold, Sept. 22, 1834, to the King of Prussia, for
a sum of two million thaler, and other advantages. Besides a
vast private income, Duke Ernst IL has a comparatively large civil
list. It is paid out of the revenue of the domains, and amounts to
100,000 thaler, or 15,000Z., at a minimum, and more in case these
estates produce above 134,079 thaler, or 20,112/. a year. The
proprietorship of these domains, which, according to the decision
of the highest legal authorities in Germany, belong to the State
and not to the reigning family, gave rise for a time to ani-
mated disputes between the Government and the legislature of
Saxe-Coburg-Goth'a. A compromise was finally arrived at, by the
terms of which the reigning Duke has a civil list of 100,000 thaler
GEKMANY — SAXE-COBUEG-GOTHA. l6$
out of the income of the domains, and the surphis of 34,079 thaler
is paid into the public exchequer, while the rest is divided between
the Duke and the State.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law of the duchy, pro-
claimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in two separate
assemblies, one for the province of Coburg and the other for the
province of Gotha. The Coburg Chamber consists of eleven, and
that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as many electoral
divisions, by the indirect vote of all the inhabitants. Every man above
the age of twenty-five, who pays taxes, has a vote, and any citizen
above thirty may be elected a deputy. New elections take place
every four years. The two assemblies meet separately every year,
and every second year they Tinite into one Chamber, to which the
Coburg Diet deputes seven, and that of Gotha fourteen members.
The ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the town of
Coburg and at Gotha.
The budget is voted for the term of four years, and in the financial
accounts a distinction is made between Crown-revenue, derived from
the domains, and State-revenue. In recent years the Crown-revenue
produced an annual surplus of from 25,000/. to 26,000/., divided in
the proportion above mentioned between the Duke and the public
exchequer. In the budget estimates for 1877-81, the Crown-revenue
for Coburg was set down at 383,486 mark, or 19,174/., and that
for Gotha at 2,102,221 mark, or 105,110/., per annum. The annual
State-revenue and expenditure for the period 1877-81 was fixed
for Coburg at 937,780 mark, or 46,889/., and for Gotha at 2,433,200
mark, or 121,660/. The public debt, in 1878, amounted to 3,749,900
mark, or 187,495/., for Coburg, and to 6,968,200 mark, or 848,410/.,
for Gotha, being a total of 535,905/.
Tlie area of the dixchy is 816 English square miles, of which
230 belong to the province of Cobui-g, and 586 to Gotha. At
the census of December 1, 1875, the total population numbered
182,599, the increase during the four years 1871-75 amounting to
1*17 per cent, per annum. In the preceding four years, 1867-71,
the increase was at the rate of 0*80 per cent, per annum. Nearly
the whole of the population are Protestants.
The town of Gotha had 22,928, and Coburg 14,567 inhabitants
at the census of December 1, 1875. There are no other towns in
the duchv.
1 66 THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
XV. SAXE-ALTENBUEG.
(Herzogthum Sachsen-Altenbueg.)
Reigning Duke.
Ernst, born September 16, 1826, the son of Duke Georgof Saxe-
Altenburg and Princess Marie of Mecklemburg-Scliwerin. Succeeded
to the throne, at the death of his father, August 3, 1853; married,
April 28, 1853, to Princess Agnes, of Anhalt-Dessau, born June
24, 1824.
Daughter of the Duke.
Princess Marie, born August 2, 1854 ; married, April 19, 1873,
to Prince Albrecht of Prussia. (See page 111.)
Brother of the Duhe.
Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829 ; married, October 15,
1862, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has issue
four daughters and a son, Ernst, born Aug. 31, 1871.
The reigning family of Saxe-Altenburg, formerly called Saxe-
Hildburghausen, dates its origin from the year 1482, when the
separation took place between the Ernestine and Albertine lines of
Saxony. Up to the year 1826, Saxe-Altenburg formed part of
Saxe-Gotha, and was then, by a general exchange of territories
among the Saxon princes, made over to the Hildbm-ghausen family.
The Duke has a civil list of 143,000 thaler, or 21,450/., amounting
to above one-sixth of the revenue of the whole country. On
December 20, 1862, the Chamber raised the ducal income to this
sum — from 128,000 thaler, or 19,200/., which it had been previously
— on condition that the whole of the domains, formerly belonging to
the reigning family, .should be made over definitely to the State.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831, but was altered at
subsequent periods. It vests the legislative authority in a Chamber
composed of twenty-four representatives, of which eight are chosen
by the Eitterschaft, or land-holding nobility, eight by the inhabit-
ants of towns, and eight by those of rural districts. The Chamber
meets every three years, and the deputies are elected for two sessions.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely, of the
Ducal House ; the Interior ; of Justice ; and of Finance. The
budget is voted for three years, the estimates of the last period,
1878-80, exhibiting an annual revenue of 2,274,437 mark, or
113,722/., and an expenditure of the same amoimt. Two-thirds of
the revenue are derived from the State domains, and the remainder
from indirect taxes. The public debt at the commencement of
GERMANY WALDECK. 1 6/
1877 amounted to 4,986,628 mark, or 249,331^., a moiety of which
consisted in notes, not bearing interest.
Saxe-Altenbm-g has an area of 509 English square miles, with a
population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of 145,844
inhabitants. The increase of population was at the rate of 0*65 per
cent, per annum in the four years 1871-75, and at the rate of 0-12 per
cent, per annum in the fou/years 1867-71. Many of the inhabitants
of the duchy are of Slavonic origin, and the customs and dress of
the nationality are still prevaiHng in the rural districts, although
the Slavonic dialect has disappeared since the middle of the
sixteenth century. The peasants are reputed to be more wealthy
than in any other part of Germany, and the rule prevails among
them of the youngest son becoming the heir to the landed property
of the father. Estates are kept for generations in the same family,
and seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has been
declining in numbers for the last thirty years.
XVI. WALDECK.
(FiJRSTENTHUM WaLDECK.)
Reigning Prince.
Georg Victor, born Jan. 14, 1831, the son of Prince Georg
Friedrich and Princess Emma of Anhalt-Bernburg ; succeeded to
the throne at the death of his father, imder the guardianship of his
mother, May 14, 1845; married, September 26, 1853, to Princess
Helena, born Aug. 12, 1831, daughter of the late Duke Willielm
of Nassau.
Children of the Prince.
I. Princess Pauline, born October 19, 1855.
II. Princess Marie, born May 23, 1857 ; married Feb. 15, 1877,
to Prince Wilhelm of Wurttemberg. (See page 187.)
III. Princess Emma, born Aug. 2, 1858 ; married Jan. 7, 1879,
to King Willem III. of the Netherlands.
IV. Princess Helena, born February 17, 1861.
V. Prince Friedrich, bom January 20, 1865.
VI. Princess Elizabeth, born September 6, 1873.
After the war between Austria and Prussia, at the end of 1866,
Prince Georg Victor made an oflFer to abdicate the throne in
favour of the King of Prussia, but the proposal was not accepted
by the latter. Consequent upon further negotiations, a 'Treaty
of Accession ' (Accessionsvertrag) was signed by the Prince on
July 10, 1867, by which he surrendered his chief sovereign
rights to King Wilhelm I., retaining merely nominal power.
1 68 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Constitution and Population.
The charter of the principality was granted Aug. 17, 1852. It
provides for a legislative assembly of forty-one members, of which
number eighteen are chosen by the nobility, thirteen by the in-
habitants of towns, and ten by the people of the riu'al districts.
On October 22, 1867, the assembly approved the * Treaty of
Accession ' concluded between the reigning Prince and King
Wilhelm I., which made the administration of the country over
to Prussia, restricting the authority of the representatives to
purely local affairs.
The principality embraces an area of 466 'English square miles,
with a popidation, according to the census of December 1, 1875, of
54,743. At the preceding census, of Dec. 1, 1871, the inhabitants
numbered 56,224, so that there was a decrease of 1,551, being at the
rate of 0"70 per cent, per annum. In the four years, 1867-71, the
dcicrease was at the rate of 0*56 per annum.
XVII. LIPPE.
(FiJRSTENTHUM LiPPE.)
Reigning Prince.
Waldemar, bora April 18, 1824, the second son of Prince Leo-
pold and of Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen ; suc-
ceeded to the throne at the death of his brother, Dec. 10, 1875;
married, Nov. 9, 1858, to Princess Sophie, born August 7, 1834,
daughter of the late Margrave Wilhelm of Baden. Heir-apparent is
the Prince's brother, Prince Heimann^hovn Jan. 16, 1831, formerly
captain in the Hanoverian army.
The house of Lippe is a younger branch of the ancient family
of Lippe, formed in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The
Prince has a civil list amounting to about 10,000/., which is stated
to be insufficient for the expenses of the court. Owing to finan-
cial distress, the late Prince, on May 17, 1850, sold a part of his
territorj'-, the Lippstadt, to Prussia, for a life-annuity of 9,000
tlialer, or 1,350/.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
A charter of rights was granted to Lippe by decree of July 6,
1836. It includes a representative organisation ; but nearly the whole
legislative as weU as executive power remains in the hands of the
GEKMAN Y — SCHW ARZBURG-KUDOLSTADT. 1 69
Prince. The Chamber of Deputies consists of twenty-one members,
seven of Avhich are elected by the territorial nobility, and the other
fourteen by the inhabitants of towns and riu-al districts. The discus-
sions are kept secret. To the Chamber belongs the right of voting, in
part, the supplies ; otherwise its functions are consultative. The
Prince governs through one irresponsible minister.
The estimates of revenue for the year 1879 amounted to 920,474
mark, or 46,023/., and of expenditure to 948,552 mark, or 47,427Z.,
leaving a deficit of 28,078 mark, or 1,404Z. The public debt, on
January 1, 1879, was 1,400,000 mark, or 70,000Z.
The population, at the census of December 1, 1875, numbered
112,452 souls, living on an area of 445 English square miles. At
the preceding census of Dec. 1, 1871, the inhabitants numbered
111,135, showing an increase at the rate of only 0*20 per cent,
per annum.
XVIII. SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.
(FiJRSTENTHUM SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.)
Reigning Prince.
Georg, born Nov. 23, 1838; succeeded his father, Prince Albert,
November 26, 1869. Heir-apparent of the Prince is his cousin,
Prince Gunther, born June 3, 1860.
The Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt line is a younger branch of the
house of Schwarzburg, being descended from Johann Gunther, who
died in the middle of the seventeenth century. The present
sovereign has a civil list of 240,000 mark, or 12,000/., exclusive of
the revenue of the State domains, property of the reigning family.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The fundamental law of the principality is the constitution of
March 21, 1854, modified November 16, 1870. For all legislative
measures the Prince has to obtain the consent of a Chamber of Re-
presentatives of sixteen members, four of whom are elected by the
highest-assessed inhabitants, and the rest returned by the general
population. The deputies meet evei-y three years, and their mandate
expires at the end of two sessions.
There are triennial budgets. For the period 1879-81, the annual
public income was settled at 1,772,270 mark, or 88,613/., and the
expenditure at the same amount. Former financial periods showed
I/O THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 18S1.
small deficits. There is a public debt of 1,848,000 florins, or
154,000/.
The population numbered 76,676 at the census of December 1,
1875, living on an area of 340 English square miles. From 1871
to 1875 the increase of population was at the rate of 0'38, and from
1867 to 1871 at the rate of 0-14 per cent, per annum.
XIX. SCHWAEZBTJRG-SONDERSHAUSEN.
(FdRSTENTHUM ScmVARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN.)
Reigning Prince.
Karl II., born August 17, 1830 ; succeeded his father, Prince
Gunther II., July 17, 1880; married, June 12, 1869, to Princess
Marie of Saxe-Altenburg, born June 28, 1845.
Father of the Prince.
Gunther II., born Sept. 24, 1801 ; succeeded his father, Prince
Gunther I., Aug. 19, 1835 ; married, in first miptials, in 1827, to
Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, who died in 1833 ; and,
secondly, in 1835, to Princess Mathilda of Hohenlohe-Oehringen,
from whom he was divorced in 1852. Abdicated July 17, 1880.
Brother and Sisters of the Prince.
I. Princess Elisabeth, born March 22, 1829.
II. Prince Leopold, born Jidy 2, 1832.
III. Princess Marie, born June 14, 1837.
The princes of the House of Schwarzbiu-g belong to a very ancient
and wealthy family, which gave an emperor to Germany in the four-
teenth centviry. It was partly on account of this lineage that the
small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the Congress of
Vienna, instead of being ' mediatised,' like that of a number of other
formerly sovereign princes. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarz-
burg-Sondershausen amounts to 22,000/., being nearly one-fourth
of the revenue of the country. The Prince is, moreover, in pos-
session of a very large income from private estates in Bohemia and
Mecklembm-g, purchased mostly by a former sovereign, Gunther L,
who carried on a monopoly as brewer in his dominions.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The principality has a constitution, granted July 5, 1857, under
which restricted legislative rights are given to a Diet composed of
GERMANY KEUSS-SCHLEIZ. I/I
15 members, 5 of whom are appointed by the Prince, 5 nominated
by certain highly-taxed landowners and others, and 5 elected by the
inhabitants in general. The sole executive and part of the legisla-
tive power is in the hands of the Prince, who exercises his authority
through a government divided into three departments.
The budget accounts are settled for the term of three years. In
the period 1876-79, the annual revenue amounted to 2,164,742
mark, or 108,237Z., and the annual expenditure to 2,151,346 mark,
orl07,567Z. There is a public debt of 3,604,336 mark, or 180,2 16Z.
The area of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen embraces 318 English
square miles, containing a population, according to the census of
Dec. 1, 1875, of 67,480 souls. The census of 1871 gave the number
of inhabitants at 67,191, showing an increase at the rate of O'll per
cent, per annum. The whole population is Protestant,
XX. REUSS-SCHLEIZ.
(FiJRSTENTHUM ReUSS-ScHLEIZ.)
Reigning Prince.
Heinricll XIV., born May 28, 1832, the son of Prince Heinrich
LXVII. and of Princess Adelaide ; succeeded his father, July 10,
1867 ; married, Feb, 6, 1858, to Princess Louise of Wurttemberg.
Children of the Prince.
I. Prince Heinrich^ born November 10, 1858.
II. Princess Elisabeth, born October 27, 1859.
The reigning house of Eeiiss-Schleiz forms a younger branch of
the Reuss family. As in Reuss-Greiz (see p. 173), the greater part
of the territory of the principality is the private property of the
reigning family.
All the princes are called Heinrich, and, to distinguish them,
they have numbers attached to their names, beginning and ending
in each century. Number one is given to the first prince of the
branch born in the century, and the numbers follow in the order of
birth until the century is finished, when they begin again with
number one. Thus the late prince, who was born in 1789 and died
in 1867, was Heinrich LXVII., and his son, the reigning prince,
born in 1832, is Heinrich XIV., being respectively the 67th and
14th prince of Reuss- Schleiz, born in the 18th and 19th centuries.
172 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The principality has a constitution, proclaimed Nov. 30, 1849,
and modified April 14, 1852, and June 20, 1856. Under it re-
stricted legislative rights are granted to a Diet of nineteen mem-
bers, of whom four are elected by the chief landowners, and the
remainder by the inhabitants in general. The Prince has the sole
executive and part of the legislative power. In the administration
of the State a cabinet of three members acts under his direction.
The pubhc income was 729, GOO mark, or 36,480/., in the year
1878, with an expenditure of the same amount. There is a public
debt of 2,000,550 mark, or 100,027/.
The census of December 1, 1875, gave a population of 92,375,
on an area of 297 English square miles. On December 1, 1871,
the population numbered 89,032, showing an increase at the rate of
0-92 per cent, per annum. All the inhabitants are Protestants.
XXI. SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.
(FiJESTENTHUM SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE.)
Reigning Prince.
Adolf, born Aug. 1, 1817, the son of Prince Georg ; succeeded
his father, Nov. 21, 1860; married, Oct. 25, 1844, to Princess
Hermina, bom Sept. 29, 1827, daughter of the late Prince Georg of
Waldeck.
Children of the Prince.
I. Princess Hermina, born October 5, 1845.
II. Prince Georg, born October 10, 1846.
III. Prince Hermann, born May 1 9, 1848.
IV. Princess Ida, born July 28, 1852.
V. Prince Otto, born September 13, 1854.
VI. Prince Adolf, born July 20, 1859.
The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a count of the
same name, who lived in the sixteenth century. The civil list of the
reigning Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe amoimts to 25,000/., or about
three-fourths of the revenue of the whole principality.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The principality has a constitution, dated November 17, 1868,
under which there is a legislative Diet of 15 members, two of whom
are appointed by the Prince, one nominated by the nobility, one by
the clergy, one by certain functionaries, and the rest elected by the
people. To the Prince belongs part of the legislative and all the
executive authoritv.
GERMANY REUSS-GREIZ. 1 73
In the budget estimates for the financial accounts for the financial
year 1879-80, the revenue was stated at 504,730 mark, or 25,236/.,
and the expenditure at the same amovmt. There was in 1879 a
public debt of 1,400,000 mark, or 70,000/., consisting almost entirely
of paper money.
The last census, of Dec. 1, 1875, gave a population of 33,133
souls, on an area of 212 English square miles. From 1871 to 1875
the inhabitants increased at the rate of 0*75 per cent, per annum.
XXII. REUSS-GREIZ.
(FtJRSTENTHUM EeUSS-GrEIZ.)
Reigning Prince.
Heinricli XXII., born March 28, 1846, the son of Prince Hein-
rich XXI. and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-Homburg ; succeeded
his father, November 8, 1859 ; married, October 8, 1872, to Prin-
cess Ida of Schaumburg-Lippe, born July 28, 1852, OfEsprino- of
the union is a son, Heinrich, born March 20, 1878.
The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the Emperor
Heinrich I. of Germany, surnamed 'The Fowler,' who died in 936. All
the heads of the house, ever since the commencement of the eleventh
century, have been called Heinrich. At first the succeeding genera-
tions were distinguished by descriptive appellations, such as ' The
Rich,' ' The Stout,' ' The Valiant,' and so forth ; but subsequently
they adopted numbers. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family
coimcil, that the figures should not run higher than a hundred,
beginning afterwards again at one. The present sovereign of
Reuss-Greiz has no civil list. He is very w'ealthy, the greater part
of the territory over which he reigns being his private property.
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The constitution, bearing date March 28, 1867, provides for
a legislative body of 12 members, 3 nominated by the sovereim,
2 by the nobility, 3 elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts.
The public revenue, balanced by the expenditure, amounted
to 543,594 mark, or 27,179/., in 1878. There is a public debt of
1,309,500 mark, or 65,475/.
The population of the principality amounted, at the census of
Dec. 1, 1875, to 46,985 souls, living on an area of 148 English
square miles. At the census of 1871 the population numbered
45,094, showing an increase at the rate 1 -03 per cent, per annum.
1/4 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
XXIII. HAMBURG.
(Freie Stadt Hamburg.)
Constitution and Revenue.
The present constitution of the state and free city of Hamburg
was published on the 28th September 1860, and came in force on
the 1st of January 1861. According to the terms of this funda-
mental law, the government — Staatsgewalt — is intrusted, in common,
to two Chambers of Representatives, the Senate and the Biirgerschaft,
or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises chiefly, but
not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen members,
one-half of which number must have studied jurisprudence, whUe
seven out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants.
The members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of
Biu-gesses; but a senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years.
A first and second burgomaster, chosen annually in secret baUot,
preside over the meetings of the Senate. No burgomaster can be
in office longer than two years ; and no member of the Senate is
allowed to hold any public office whatever. The House of
Burgesses consists of 192 members, 84 of whom are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax-paying citizens. Of the remaining 108
members, 48 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house pro-
perty in the city valued at 3,000 marks, or ] 50/., over and above the
amotmt for which they are taxed ; while the other 60 members are
deputed by various guilds, corporations, and courts of justice. Al]
the members of the House of Burgesses are chosen for six years, in
such a manner that every three years new elections take place for
one-half the number. The House of Burgesses is represented, in
permanence, by a Burger- Ausschuss, or Committee of the House, con-
sisting of twenty deputies, of whom no more than five are allowed to
be members of the legal profession. It is the special duty of the
committee to watch the proceedings of the Senate, and the general
execution of the articles of the constitution, including the laws voted
by the House of Burgesses. In all matters of legislation, except
taxation, the Senate has a veto ; and, in case of a constitutional
conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen in
equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses.
The revenue of the State is mainly derived from direct taxes,
chief among them an income-tax, the amount of which upon each
contributor is left to self-assessment. Disbursements for public
works, including' the maintenance of free and unobstructed naviga-
tion on the river Elbe — the jurisdiction over which belongs entirely
GERMANY HAMBURG.
175
to Hamburg, although the river flows from the port to its mouth
through the territories of Prussia — form the principal part of the
expenditure. The following table gives, according to official accounts,
the estimated soiu-ces of revenue and branches of expenditure of
the State during the year 1879 : —
Sources of Bevenue.
Mark
£
Domains ftud State lottery ....
7,729,4-15
386,472
Stamps and taxes .....
16,741,060
837,053
Official fees (Gebiihren) . . . ,
3,091,470
154,573
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Total revenue ....
!
Branches of Expenditure.
130,640
6,532
27,692,615
1,384.630
Senate and Burgesses .....
541,380
27,069
Interest on State debt .
6,710,000
335,500
Administration of Finance .
2,577,140
128,857
Trade and Industry ....
800,500
40,025
Board of Works ....
5,018,479
250,923
Education and Public Charities . "
5.021,582
251,079
1 Justice and Police
5,010,373
250,518
1 Foreign Consulates
38,000
1.900
Contribution to Imperial expenditure
3,500,000
175,000
Miscellaneous disbursements
939,747
46.987
Total expenditure
• •
30,157,201
1,507,860
It will be seen that the revenue being 1,384,630/., and the ex-
penditiu-e 1,507,860/., there was an estimated deficitof 123,230/.in the
year 1879. The deficit was covered by the surplus of former years.
For the privilege of remaining a ' Free Port,' and exempt from
the customs of the Zollverein, Hamburg has to pay an annual sum,
assessed for the year 1879 at 2,046,000 mark, or 102,300/., eqiialto
a charge of 7s. 6f/. per head of population.
The public debt of Hamburg on the 1st of January, 1879,
amoimted to 125,678,520 mark, or 6,283,926/. The debt was in-
curred chiefly for the construction of public works, a considerable
part of it being devoted, after the great fire in 1842, to the rebuild-
ing of the destroyed city on a new plan.
Population and Commerce.
The state embraces a ten-itory of 148 English square mUes,
with a population, according to the census of December 1, 1876,
of 388,618 inhabitants. Included in the census returns were two
battalions of Prussian soldiers, forming the garrison of Hamburg.
The state consists of three divisions, viz. the city proper with its
suburbs, the district of Geest, and the townships of Bergedorf and
1/6 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Ritzeblittel, the population of each of which districts was as follows
on December 1, 1875 : — inhabitants
City of Hamburg, with suburbs .... 345,801
Kural districts and Bergedorf .... 35,888
Cuxhaven and Ritzebiittel ..... 6,929
Total 388,618
The increase of population has been very considerable since
the census of 1867. In the four years from 1867 to 1871 the
population of the State increased at the high rate of 2*59 per cent.
per annum, and in the subsequent four years, from 1871 to 1875,
at the still higher rate of 3"41 per cent, per annum. A large stream
of the German emigration to America ^ — which, however, has been
rapidly declining in recent years — flows through Hamburg. The
number of emigrants was 47,294 in 1869 ; 32,556 in 1870 ; 42,224
in 1871 ; 74,406 in 1872 ; 69,176 in 1873 ; 43,443 in 1874; 31,810
in 1875; 12,729 in 1876, 10,570 in 1877; 11,827 in 1878;
and 13,165 in 1879. In the years 1875 to 1879 the immigrants
into Hamburg from Transatlantic countries came up to nearly one-
third of the number of emigrants.
The commercial intercourse of the United Kingdom with Ham-
biu-g is very important, embracing more than one-half of the total
commerce with Germany.
The total number of vessels wliich entered the port of Hamburg in
the year 1878 was 5,473, with an aggregate tonnage of 2,233,929.
The vessels entering with cargoes under the British flag numbered
2,324, with a tonnage of 1,244,768, and cargoes valued at 4,600,000Z.;
and the vessels which cleared, with cargoes, under the British flag,
numbered 1,394, with a tonnage of 767,544, and cargoes valued at
10,000,000?.
The total niamber of sea-going vessels (SeeschifFe) which belonged
to the port of Hamburg, was as follows on Jan. 1, 1879 : —
Steamers ..,.,.
Sailing vessels
Total ....
Number
Tonnage
102
366
84,135
139,775
468
223,910
At the commencement of 1871, the number of vessels belonging
to Hamburg was 439, with an aggregate tonnage of 184,496, so that
in the seven years there was an increase of 39,414 in tonnage.
The mercantile navy of Hamburg was more than eight times
as large as that of the kingdom of Belgium, and nearly double, in
tonnage, of that of Penmark and Beleium together, in tlie year 1878.
GERMANY — LUBECK. 1/7
XXIV. LUBECK.
(FrEIE StADT LiJBECK.)
Constitution, Revenue, and Population.
The free city and state of Lubeck is governed according to a con-
stitution adopted April 7, 1874. The main features of this charter
are two representative bodies — first, the Senate, exercising the execu-
tive, and, secondly, the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exer-
cising the legislative authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen
members, elected for life, and presided over by two burgomasters,
who hold office for two years each, and retire in rotation. There
are 120 members in the House of Burgesses, chosen by aU citizens
who are members of any of the twelve colleges, or guilds, of the
town. A committee of thirty burgesses, presided over by a chairman
elected for two years, has the duty of representing the legislative
assembly in the intervals of the ordinary sessions, and of carrying on
all active business. The House of Burgesses has the initiative in all
measures relative to the public expenditure, foreign treaties, and
general legislation; while the Senate, entrusted chiefly with the
executive government, has also to give its sanction to the passing of
every new law.
The high court of appeal for the three Free Cities of Germany,
reorganised by treaty of July 2, 1870, after the creation of a chief
tribunal of commerce for the North German Confederation, is estab-
lished at Lubeck. It is composed at present, under a convention
signed July 2, 1872, of a President, nominated by the Senates of
the three Free Cities, and six councillors, three of whom are chosen
by Hamburg, two by Bremen, and one by Lubeck. The supervision
of the Court is in the Senate of the three cities, passing in rotation
from one to the other on the 22nd July of every year.
The estimated revenue for the year 1879 amounted to 2,599,623
mark, or 129,981^., and the expenditiu'e to the same amount.
Nearly one-third of the revenues are derived from public domains,
chiefly forests ; another third from excise duties ; and the rest
mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-half is for
the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting,
at the commencement of 1877, to 25,684,280 mark, or 1,284,214/.
Rather more than one-fifth of the public liabilities were contracted
in 1806, at the time of the French occupation; while the rest con-
sist mainly of a 4% loan of 1850, and a 3^% loan of 1863.
According to the census of December 1, 1875, the state oom
178 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
prisps a territory of 127 square miles, with a population of
56,912, including a Prussian garrison. The city proper had
39 743, and the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of
territory surrounded by Prussia and Mecklenburg, 12,415 inhabit-
ants at the date of the census. In the four years from 1871 to
1875, the population increased at the rate of 2-18 per cent, per
annum, and in the preceding four years, fi-om 1867 to 1871, at the
rate of 1*47 per cent, per annum.
Llibeck possessed, at the commencement of 1879, forty-two
sea-o-oing vessels, of 8,058 tons, including twenty-two steamers,
of 4,409 tons. In the year 1878, there entered the port of Lubeck
2,246 vessels, of 405,400 tons, and there cleared 2,228 vessels, of
401 900 tons. The number of vessels arriving imder the British
flag in 1878 was 8, of an aggregate tonnage of 2,250. The direct
trade of Lubeck is chiefly with Russia, Sweden and Norway, Den-
mark, and Great Britain. Returns of the extent of commerce of
the fi-ee city with Great Britain are included imder Germany.
(See pp. 183-84.)
XXV. BREMEN.
(Fkeie Stadt Bremen.)
Constitution and Revenue.
The free city of Bremen is governed, imder a constitution pro-
claimed March 5, 1849, and revised Feb. 21, 1854, by a Senate of
eighteen members, forming the executive, and the Blirgerconvent, or
Convent of Burgesses, of 150 members, invested with the power of
legislation. The Convent is returned by the votes of all the citizens,
divided into classes. The citizens who have studied at a university
return 16 members; the merchants 48 members; the common traders
and shop-keepers 24 members, and the other tax-paying inhabitants
of the Free City the rest. The Convent elects the eighteen members
of the Senate, ten of whom at least must be lawyers. Two burgo-
masters, the first elected for six years and n half, and the second
for four years, direct the affairs of the Senate, through a Ministry
divided into eight departments — namely. Foreign Afl^airs, Church
and Fducation, Justice, Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary
Administration, Military Affairs, and Commerce and Shipping. All
the ministers are senators.
The estimated revenue for the year 1879 amounted to 10,107,700
mark, or 505,385/., and the expenditure to 11,689,362 mark, or
584.468/., thus leaving a deficit of 1,581,662 mark, or 79,083/.
GERMANY — BREMEN. 1 76
More than one-tliird of the revenue is raised fi-om public property
— Eigenthum und Rechten — and another third from direct taxes.
The chief branch of expenditure is for interest and reduction of the
public debt. The latter amounted, in January, 1879, to 90,385,521
mark, or 4,519,276Z. The whole of the debt, which bears interest
at 3^ and 4^ per cent., was incurred for constructing railways,
harbours, and other public Avorks.
Population and Commerce.
The population of the State amounted, on Dec. 1, 1875, to
142,200, inclusive of a Prussian garrison. The increase of population
fi-om 1871 to 1875 was larger than in any other State of Germany,
amounting to the high rate of 3*82 per cent, per annum. In the
four years from 1867 to 1871, the increase was 2*59 per cent, per
annum. The state embraces an area of 106 English square miles.
Bremen, with Bremerhaven, is, next to Hamburg, the chief outlet
of German emigration. The number of emigrants who left the port
was 61,877 in 1870 ; 60,516 in 1871 ; 80,418 in 1872 ; 63,167 in
1873; 30,633 in 1874 ; 24,503 in 1875; 21,665 in 1876 ; 19,179
in 1877 ; 11,483 in 1878 ; and 15,828 in 1879. The emigrants of
1879 comprised 9.300 natives of Germany, or more than one-half
the total, the remainder being composed of natives of Austria-
Hungary, Russia, Switzerland, and other countries. The vast
majority of the emigrants of 1879 went to the United States. In
the two years 1877 and 1878, upwards of 21,000 persons returned
to Bremen from transatlantic countries.
The number of merchant vessels belonging to the State of Bremen
on Jan. 1, 1879, was 264, of 186,560 tons, the number including
49 steamers, of an aggregate burthen of 56,100 tons. Nearly all
the steamers saiHng under the Bremen and German flag belong to
the Navigation Company called the ' North-German Lloyd,' which
has a fleet of large ships, mainly built on the Clyde, running be-
tween Bremen and variovis ports in North and South America, with
smaller steamers running between Bremerhaven and British ports.
In the year 1878 there aiTived at the port of Bremen 2,762
vessels, of 1,013,238 tons, and there cleared 2,903 vessels, of 993,112
tons. The arrivals included 366 British vessels, of 181,783 tons,
and the departures 343 British vessels, of 118,098 tons. Three-
fourths of the commerce of Bremen are carried on under the German
and British flags. Next to that of Hamburg, the port of Bremeu
is the largest for the international trade of Germany.
s 2
l8o THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Alsace-Lorraine.
(Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen. )
Constitution and Revenue.
The fundamental laAvs, under which the Reichsland, or Imperial
Land, of Alsace-Lorraine is governed, were voted by the Reichstag of
Germany June 3, 1871, June 20, 1872, June 25, 1873, and July 4,
1879. By Art. 1 of the law of June 3, 1871, it is enacted, 'the
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded by France in the Peace pre-
liminaries of February 26, 1871, under limits definitely fixed in the
Treaty of Peace of May 10, 1871, shall be for ever united with the
German Empire.' The Constitution of the German Empire was
introduced in Alsace-Lorraine on the 1st of January, 1874.
The administration of Alsace-Lorraine is under a governor-general,
bearing the title of ' Statthalter.'
Statthaher of Alsace-Lorraine. — Field-Marshal Edwin Hans Karl
von Manteujf'el, born Feb. 24, 1809 ; entered the Prussian cavalry,
1826; captain, 1843; colonel, 1850 ; general, 1858 ; commander-
in-chief of the Prussian army in Hanover and Hesse, 1866 ; com-
mander of the 1st corps d'arniee of Germany in the war against
France, 1870-71; nominated field-marshal, 1872. Appointed Statt-
halter of Alsace-Lorraine, Aug. 4, 1879; assumed office, Oct. 1, 1879.
According to the constitutional law of July 4, 1879, the Emperor
appoints the Statthalter, who exercises power as the representative
of the Imperial Government, having his re'jidence at Strassburg.
A Ministry composed of thiHH lejiartments, with a responsible
Secretary of State at its head, acts under the Statthalter, who also
is assisted by a Council of State, compi-ising the General in com-
mand of the troops in the province, the Secretary of State at the
head of the Ministry, the chief provincial ofl^cials, and seven other
members appointed by the Emperor The Statthalter is President
of the Cf)uncil. For the administration of local affairs there is a
Provincial Committee, consisting of 58 members.
The budget estimates of public revenxie of Alsace-Lorraine in the
year ending March 31, 1879, amounted to 39,735,175 mark, or
1,986,758/. ; and the estimates of expenditure to the same. Nearly
one-half of the total revenue is derived from customs and indirect
taxes, while the largest branch of expenditure — amounting to
6,834,205 mark, or 341,710/., in the estimates for 1877-80— is for
public education and ecclesiastical affairs.
Area and Population.
The Reichsland has an area of 5,580 English square miles, with
a population, in 1875, of 1,531,804, being 227 individuals per
GERMANY ALSACE-LORRAINE.
I8l
English square mile. Alsace-Lorraine is administratively divided
into three Bezirke, or districts, called Ober-Elsass, Unter-Elsass,
and Lothringen, the first of which is subdivided into seven, and the
other two each into eight Kreise, or circles. The following table
gives area, in English square miles, and the population of each of the
districts at the two last enumerations, the census of December 1,
1871, and the census of December 1, 1875 : —
Districts
Area
Population
Eng. sqr. miles
Decern. 1871
Decern. 1875
Ober-Elsass
Unter-Elsass
Lothringen .
Total .
1,353
1,844
2,383
458,873
600,406
490,459
453,374
698,180
480,260
5,580
1,549,738
1,531,804
The decrease of population during the four years from 1871 to
1875 amounted to 0"23 per cent, per annum. During the preceding
five years from December 1866 to December 1871, there was a
decrease of population at the rate of 0*84 per cent, per annum,
ascribed partly to the war and partly to emigration. But there
were only 158 emigrants in the year 1876, and but 108 in 1877.
At the census of December 1, 1871, there were in the Reichsland
1,234,588 Roman Catholics, 271,198 Protestants, 2,863 members of
other Christian sects, and 40,938 Jews. According to an official
estimate, 200,000 of the inhabitants are of French origin (Sprach-
stamme), and 1,350,000 of German origin.
The three principal towns of the Reichsland are Strassburg, capital
of Ober-Elsass, Muhlhausen, capital of Unter-Elsass, and Metz,
capital of Lothringen. At the census of 1875, Strassburg had
94,306, Mulhausen 58,463, and Metz 45,856 inhabitants.
Trade and Commerce of Germany.
The trade and commerce of the Empire are under the adminis-
tration and guidance of special laws and rules, emanating from
the Zollverein, or Customs' League which embraces the whole of
the states of Germany, with the exception of the two cities of
Hamburg and Bremen. The privilege of Hamburg and Bremen to
remain ' free ports,' conceded in 1868, was ratified in the Imperial
Constitution of April 16, 1871, the 34th article of which enacts
that the two Hanse towns shall remain ' outside the common line
•of customs ' — ausserhalb der gemeinschaftlichen ZoUgrenze — * until
l82
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
they themselves demand admittance.' The administration of the
ZoUverein, according to a treaty signed July 8, 1867, and in force
from January 1, 1868, till December 31, 1878, is at Berlin.
There was, previous to the year 1871, a twofold representation of
the Zollverein, that of governments, in the ZoUverein Council, and
that of populations, in the Zollverein Parliament, the members of
which latter body were elected in the same manner as the deputies
to the North German Federal diet, and met in annual session at
the beginning of the year. Under the constitution of April 16,
1871, the fimctions of the Zollverein Parliament merged in the
Eeichstag of the Empire. The Zollverein Council has three com-
mittees sitting permanently, namely, for finance, for taxes and
customs, and for trade. All the receipts of the Zollverein are paid
into a common exchequer, and distributed, j;ro rata of population,
among the states of the Empire. The chief sources of revenue
are customs duties, mainly on imports, and taxes upon spirits , wine,
sixgar manufactured from beet- roots, and tobacco.
The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the amount of the com-
mercial intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom,
giving the total value of the direct exports from all the states of the
Empire, including the Hanse Towns, to Great Britain and Ireland,
and the total value of the direct imports of British home produce into
them, in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Ye r
Exports from Germany
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Germany
1870
&
15,404,218
27,434,520
1871
19,263,319
12,654,814
1872
19,231,873
31,618,749
1873
19,926,451
27,270,342
1874
19,947,195
24,799,846
1875
21,836,401
23,287,883
1876
21,115,189
20,082.262
1877
26,269,993
19,642,128
1878
23,570,836
19,457,190
1879
21,604,890
18,591,545
The annual sums here given di) not represent the total value of the
commercial intercourse between Germany and Great Britain, but
only that of the direct trade. There are no detailed official returns
showng the value of the exports and imports passing in transit,
chiefly by way of the Netherlands, between Germany and the
United Kingdom. (See page 338.)
The staple articles of exports from Germany to the United
Kingdom consist of agricultural produce, chief among them bread-
stuffs, unrefined sugar, live animals, and potatoes. The following
GERMANY.
183
table gives the declared value, in pounds sterling, of these four
principal articles exported direct from Germany to the United
Kingdom, in each of the two years 1878 and 1879 : —
staple Exports from G-ermany to
Great Britain
Corn, wheat, barley, &c.
Sugar, unrefined
Animals, live .
Potatoes .
1878
£
6,075,052
2,560,679
1,870,640
1,268,902
£
3,753,031
2,794,473
1,450,679
1,509,212
The exports of breadstuffs from Germany to Great Britain, con-
sisting mainly of wheat and barley, but embracing, besides, wheat-
meal and flour, pease, rye, and oats, fluctuated greatly in recent
years. The remaining exports embrace a great variety of articles,
nearly all of them the product of agriculture.
The principal articles of imports of British produce into Ger-
many consist of woollen and cotton manufactures, and of iron,
wrought and unwrought.
The following table gives the declared value, in pounds sterlings
of these three staple articles of British produce imported from the
United Kingdom into Germany, in each of the years 1878 and
1879 :—
—
Principal articles of British Produce imported
into Germany
1878
1879
1. Woollen manufactures: —
Manufactured articles .
AVooUen and worsted yarn .
Total woollen
2. Cotton manufactures : —
Manufactured articles .
Cotton Yarn ....
Total cottons
3. Iron, wrought and unwrought . .
£
1,997,601
1,987,661
£
2,038,510
1,823,020
3,985,262
3,861,530
1,762,214
2,224,960
1,746,285
1,840,950
3,987,174
3,587,235
1,488,656
1,024,363
The rest of the imports of British produce into Germany consists
of miscellaneous articles, not one of them of the value of a million
sterling per annum.
The Free Towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck, are the chief
1 84
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
gates of commercial intercourse of Germany with the United
Kingdom. (See pages 174-79.)
The results of an agricultural census taken on the 10th of
January, 1873, showed that at that date there were in the Empire
3,352,231 horses; 13,315 mules and donkeys; 15,776,702 head of
cattle; 24,999,706 sheep ; 7,124,088 swine; 2,320,002 goats; and
2,333,484 beehives. The number of families possessing live stock
— Viehbesitzende Haushaltungen — was found to be 5,028,023, an d
of these there were 2,965,856 devoted, partly or wholly, to agricul-
tural pursuits.
The production of metals and minerals in the German Empire
was as follows in each of the years 1877 and 1878 : —
Metr. Tons 1
1877
1878
Pig Iron
Zinc .
Lead
Copper .
Tin
Antimony
Coal ,
Lignite .
Asphalt .
1,956,579
90,362
80,278
8,362
881
930
30,423,774
10,644,427
29,735
2,124,444
94,954
84,372
9,541
831
1,245
39,429,308
10,971,117
47,329
The mercantile navy of Germany, on the 1st of January 1878,
numbered 4,805 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 1,106,935. Of
this total there were 336 steamers, of 183,379 tons. The following
was the distribution of the shipping belonging to the principal ports
on the 1st of Januarv 1878 : —
GERMANY. 1 85
On the 1st January 1879 the railways of the Emph-e comj^leted
and open for public trafBc had a total length of 31,636 kilometer, or
19,773 English miles. The total of these lines either are already,
or will become soon, the property of the State.
The total number of telegraphic despatches in the year 1878 was
11,682,371, of which 7,694,764 were inland, and 3,697,086 foreign.
The length of telegraph lines in the Empire at the end of 1878 was
49,376 kilometer, and of telegraph wires 178,817 kilometer.
The Imperial post office carried 521,462,490 letters, 92,964,270
post cards, 8,463,070 patterns, 104,100,720 stamped wrappers, and
314,557,790 newspapers, in the year 1878. The total receipts of
the post office (including telegraphic service) in 1878 amounted to
122,312,238 mark, or 6,115,612/., and the total expenditure to
114,359,784 mark, or 5,717,989/. The number of post offices was
6,585, with 61,148 persons employed, and 3,287 telegraphic stations
at the end of 1878, and 2,771 persons employed.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Germany in G-eeat Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Georg von Miinster, accredited Jan. 26, 1873.
Councillor of Embassy. — Baron Ton der Brincken.
Secretary. — Count Guido Lynar.
Military Attache.— M&^ov von Vietinghof.
Director of Chancery. — Willielm Adolph Schmettau.
2. Of Great Britain and Germany.
Ambassador. — Eight Hon. Lord Odo W. L. Russell, G.C.B., born in 1829;
British Envoy to Rome, 1858-70; Assistant Under Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, 1870-71. Appointed Ambassador to Germany, October 16,
1871.
Secretaries. — Sir John Walsham, Bart. ; Henry Nevill Bering ; Hon.
Hugh Gough ; Ralph Milbanke.
Military Attache.— lA&nt.-Qol. the Hon. Paul Methuen.
Naval Attache. — Capt. Ernest Rice, R.N.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures generally in use throughout
the whole of Germany, and their British equivalents, are —
Money.
Old denominations.
The Thaler, of 30 Grosch^n, approximate value = 3s.
„ Gulden, or florin, of 60 Kreuzer „ = Is. %d.
„ Mark Current of Liibeek „ = Is. Zd.
„ Mark Banco of Hamburg ,, = Is. 6d.
„ Reichs Thaler of Bremen „ = 3s. \d.
i86
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
New denomination.
The Mark, of 100 Pfennig, approximate value
Is.
On January 1, 1872, a law for the uniformity of coinage through-
out the Empire, passed by the Reichstag, was published by the
Imperial government. Under this law the standard of value is gold.
The same law ordered the substitution of the mark, as the general
coin, to commence on the 1st of January, 1875. There are gold
5-mark, 10-mark, and 20-mark pieces, the first called Halbe Krone,
or half-crown, the second Krone, or crown, and the third Doppel-
Krone, or double-crown.
Weights and Measuees.
The French metrical system of weights and measures came into
force in Germany on January 1, 1872. The names of the decimal
weights and measures and the British equivalents are : —
The Gramme
,, Kilogramme of 2 Pfund
„ Centner of 60 Kilogramme
„ Quintal of 2 Centner .
„ Tonne of 20 Centner .
„ Liter, Mass
„ Meter, Stab
„ Kilometer .
„ He k tar
15"434 grains troy.
2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.
110 „
220
2200 „ „
r76 Imperial pints.
3-28 feet or 39-37 inches.
1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs
2-47 acres.
Quadrat, or Square Kilometer = 247 acres, or 2|. sq. k. to 1 sq. mile.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Germany.
1. Official Publications.
Deutscher Keichs- und Konig. Preussischer Staats-Anzciger, Berlin, 1 880.
Koniglich Preussischer Staats-Kalender fiir 1880. 8. Berlin, 1880.
Preussische Statistik, herausgegeben vom Koniglich Statistischen Biireau in
Berlin, fol. Berlin, 1880.
Jahrbuch der amtliehen Statistik des Preussischeu Staates. 4 vols. 8.
Berlin, 1865, 1867, 1869, and 1876.
Die Gemeinden und Gutsbezirke des Preussischen Staates und ihre Bevolk-
erung. Nach den Urmaterialien der allgemeinen Volkszahlung v. 1. De-
cember 1871 bearbeitet, u. zusammengestellt vom Koniglichen statistischen
Biireau. 8. Berlin, 1873.
Monatshafte zur Statistik des Deutschen Keichs, fiir das Jahr 1880. Her-
ausgegeben von Kaiserlichen Statistischen Amt. 4. Berlin, 1880.
Zeitschrift des Konigl. Preussischen statistischen Biireaus, redigirt von
Dr. Engel. 4. Berlin, 1880.
GERMANY. 1 8/
Der Yiehstand cler Gemeinden und Gutsbezirke im Preussischen Staate. Nacli
den Urmaterialien der Viehziihlung v. 1 0. Januar 1 873, bearbeitet vom Koniglich
Preussischen statistischen Bureau. 8. Berlin, 1875.
Production der Bergwerke, Salinen and Hiitten im Preussischen Staate in
Jahre 1877. 4. Berlin, 1879.
Statistik des deutschen Eeiches. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen statis-
tischem Amte. 4. Berlin, 1873-80.
Statistik der Deutschen Reichs-Post und Telegraphen Verwaltung fiir das
Kalenderjahr 1878. 4. BerUn, 1880.
Staatshandbuch fiir das Konigreich Sachsen. Dresden, 1880.
Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Konigreichs Bayern. 8. Miinchen, 1880.
Koniglich Wiirttembergisches Hof- und Staats-Handbuch, herausgeg. von
dem Konigl. Statistisch-topographischem Biireau. 8. Stuttgart, 1880.
Statistik des Hamburgischen Staats. 4. Hamburg, 1880.
Eeport by Mr. MacDonell, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Finances
of the German Empire, dated Berlin, Jan. 1, 1876; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Dudley E. Saurin on the Industry and Agriculture of
Wiirttemberg, dated Stuttgart, Decem. 20, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876,
Report by Mr. Henry Nevill Dering on the commerce and industry of Ger-
many, dated Berlin, Decem. 20, 1878; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part L 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Eeport by Mr, Henry Nevill Dering on the finances of Germany and of
Prussia, dated Berlin, March 5, 1879; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Eeport by IVIr. Edmund W. Cope, Secretary of Embassy, on the finances of
Bavaria, da'ted Munich, December 31, 1879 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Reports by Mr. Consul-General Crowe on the Trade of Diisseldorf and the
Rhenish Provinces ; by Mr. Consul Annesley on the Commerce of Hamburg ; by
Mr. Consul Hertslet on the Trade of Konigsberg ; by Mr. Consul Ward, on the
Trade of Bremen ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Meden on the Trade of Cuxhaven ; and
by Mr. Vice-Consul Behncke on the Trade of Liibeck ; dated January-February,
1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls,' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Reports by IVIr. Consul Hellmers on the Agriculture of the Rhenish Pro-
vinces ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Kruse on the Trade of Kiel ; and by Mr. Consul
Blackwell on the Trade of Stettin, dated April, 1879 ; in ' Commercial Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IIL 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Germany -with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
f 2. NoN- Official PitblicA-Tions.
Bohmert (Dr. Victor), Zeitschrift des K. Sachsischen Statistischen Bureaus.
4. Leipzig, 1880.
1 88 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
Co7wM (J.), Etudes sur TEmpire d'Allemagne. 8. Paris, 1879.
Engel (Dr. Ernst) : Die Verluste der Deutschen Armeen im Kriege gegen
Frankreich 1870 und 1871. Fol. Berlin, 1873.
Engcl (Dr. Ernst), Genealogie der Europaischen Eegentenhauser fur 1880.
8. Berlin, 1879.
Fircks (A. Freiherr von), Die Volkskraft Deutschland's und Frankreich's.
Statistische Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1875.
Gothaischer genealogischer Hof-Kalender auf das Jahr 1880. 32. Gotha,1880.
ie^o^i; (Alfred), Forces materielles de I'Empire d'Allemagne. 18. Pans,
1878.
Neefc (Dr. M.), Statistischer Almanach fiir das Deutsche Eeich. 8. Jena,
1880.
Neumann (G.), Das Deutsche Reich in geographischer, statistischer und topo-
graphischer Beziehung. 2 vols. 8. Berlin, 1872-74.
Mcolson (A.), A Sketch of the German Constitution, and of the Events in
Germany from 1815 to 1871. 8. London, 1875.
Waits (Georg), Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. 6 vols. 8. Kiel, 1871-74.
i89
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
(United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.)
Reigning dueen and Empress.
Victoria I., Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of
India, bom at Kensington Palace, London, May 24, 1819, the
daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George
III., and of Princess Victoria of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of
Prince Emich of Leiningen. Ascended the throne at the death of
her uncle. King William IV., June 20, 1837 ; crowned at West-
minster Abbey, Jime 28, 1838. Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; widow, Dec. 14, 1861.
Children of the Queen.
I. Princess Victoria, born Nov. 21, 1840; married, Jan. 25, 1858,
to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, eldest son of WiUielm I., German
Emperor and King of Prussia. (See page 110.)
II. Albert Edivard, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841; married,
March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of King
Christian IX. of Denmark. Offspring of the union are five children :
— 1. Albert Victor, bom Jan. 8, 1864. 2. George, bom Jime 3,
1865. 3. Louise, born Feb. 20, 1867. 4. Alexandra, born July 6,
1868. 5. Maud, born Nov. 26, 1869.
III. Prince Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, bom Aug. 6, 1844 ; entered
the royal navy, Aug. 31, 1858; married Jan. 21, 1874, to Grand-
duchess Marie of Russia, only daughter of Emperor Alexander II.
Offspring of the union are four children : — 1. Alfi-ed, born Oct. 15,
1874. 2. Marie, born October 29, 1875. 3. Victoria, born Novem-
ber 25, 1876. 4. Alexandra, born September 1, 1878.
IV. Princess Helena, born May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5, 1866,
to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augusten-
burg, born Jan. 22, 1831. Offspring of the union are four children :
— 1. Christian, born April 14, 1867. 2. Albert John, bom Feb. 26,
1869. 3. Victoria, born May 3, 1870. 4. Louise, bom Aug. 12, 1872.
V. Princess Louise, born March 18, 1848 ; married, March 21,
1871, to John Douglas Sutherland, Marquis of Lome, born Aug. 6,
1845, eldest son of the Duke of Argyll. (See page 509.)
VI. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born May 1, 1850 ; mar-
ried, March 13, 1879, to Princess Louise of Prussia, bom July 25,
1860. (See page 111.)
VII. Prince Leopold, born April 7, 1853.
VIII. Princess Beatrice, bom April 14, 1857.
IQO THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Cousins of the Queen.
I. Prince Ernest August^ Duke of Cumberland, born Sept. 21,
1845, the grandson of Duke Ernest August of Cumberland, fifth son
of Kin"- George III. ; married December 21, 1878, to Princess Thyra
of Denmark, born September 29, 1853. Offspring of the union are
a daughter, born Oct. 1879, and a son born Oct. 1880.
II. Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26, 1819,
the son of Duke Adolph of Cambridge, sixth son of King George III.;
field-marshal commanding-in-chief the British army.
III. Princess Augusta, sister of the preceding, born July 19, 1822 ;
married, June 28, 1843, to Grand-duke Friedrich Wilhelni of Meck-
lenburg-Strelitz. (See page 160.)
rV. Princess Mary, sister of the preceding, born Nov. 27, 1833;
married, June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von Teck, born Aug. 27,
1837, son of Prince Alexander of Wlirttemberg, and of Claudine
Rheday, Countess von Hohenstein. Offspring of the union are foiir
children : 1. Victoria, born May 26, 1867. 2. Albert, born Aug. 13,
1868. 3. Franz Josef, born Jan. 9, 1870. 4. Alexander, born
April 14, 1874.
Aunt of the Queen.
Princess Augusta, bora July 25, 1797, the daughter of Landgrave
Friedrich of Hesse-Cassel; married, May 7, 1818, to Duke Adolphus
of Cambridge, youngest son of King George III. ; widow, July 8, 1850.
The Queen reigns in her own right, holding the crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled, on the death of King William
and Queen Anne, without issue, on the Princess Sophia of Hanover,
and the ' heirs of her body, being Protestants.' The inheritance
thus limited descended to George I., son and heir of Princess Sophia,
and it has ever since continued in a regular course of descent.
The civil list of the Queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the income of previous sove-
reigns. By the Revolution of 1688, the duty of the king to bear
the expenses of government out of the State income allotted to him
was abolished, and certain portions of the income of the country
were assigned to the king to meet the expenses of the royal house-
hold. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to 1,000,000L
sterling. If it did not reach 800,000^. the deficiency was covered
by Parliament. In 1777, the civil list of the king was fixed at
900,000/., and the income over and above that sum from the here-
ditary possessions of the Crown passed to the Treasury. Under
William IV. the civil list was relieved of many burthens, and
fixed at 510,000/.
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. IQI
It is established by 1-2 Vict. c. 2, that during Queen Victoria's
reign, all the revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Consolidated
Fund, but that a civil list shall be assigned to the Queen. In virtue of
this Act, which received the royal sanction Dec. 23, 1837, the Queen
has granted to her an annual allowance of 385,000^. ' for the support of
Her Majesty's household, and of the honour and dignity of the Crown
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' By the same
statute, the application of this allowance is limited in a prescribed
form. The Lords of the Treasiury are directed to pay yearly 60,000Z.
into Her Majesty's Privy Purse ; to set aside 231,260/. for the
salaries of the royal household ; 44,240/. for retiring allowances and
pensions to servants, and 13,200/. for royal boimty, alms, and spe-
cial services. This leaves an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/.,
which may be applied in aid of the general expenditure of Her
Majesty's Court. It is provided that whenever the civil list
charges in any year exceed the total sum of 400,000/., an account
of the expenditure, with fiill particulars, shall be laid before Parha-
ment within thirty days. The Queen has also paid to her the
revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster, which in the year 1879 amounted
to 76,186/., being 489/. less than in the preceding year. The
salaries, law charges, taxes, charities, and other disbursements in
1879 amounted to 30,900/., and the payment made to Her Majesty
for the year was 41,000/., or 3,000/. less than in the preceding
year. The payment to Her Majesty in 1867 amounted to 29,000/.;
in 1869, 1870, and 1871 to 31,000/.; in 1872 to 40,000/.; in
1873 to 41,000/.; in 1874 to 42,000/.; in 1875 to 41,000/.; in
1876 to 43,000/. ; in 1877 to 45,000/.; and in 1878, to 47,657/.
The annual grant of 385,000/. to Her Majesty is paid out of
the ConsoUdated Fund, on which are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family : — 25,000/. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh ; 25,000/. to the Duke of Connaught ;
8,000/. to Prince Leopold ; 8,000/. to Princess Friedrich Wilhelm
of Prussia; 6,000/. to Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ;
6,000/. to Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lome ; 6,000/. to the
Duchess of Cambridge ; 3,000/. to the Grand-duchess of Mecklen-
burg-Strelitz ; 5,000/. to Princess Teck, formerly Princess Mary of
Cambridge ; and 12,000/. to Duke George of Cambridge.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/. The Prince of Wales has besides
as income the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall. Previous to the
year 1840, these revenues amounted to between 11,000/. and 16,000/.
per annum ; but since that period they have greatly risen. The
income of the Duchy of Cornwall in the year 1879 was 96,781/.,
the salaries and other expenses came to 28,054/., and the sum of
<65,258/. was paid over for the use of the Prince of Wales. In 1867,
192
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the sum paid over amounted to 54,927Z. ; in 1870 to 62,574^. ; in
1871 to 62,484^. ; in 1873 to 62,515Z. ; in 1874 to 65,90U. ; in 1875
to 67,141^.; in 1876 to 70,375Z. ; and in 1877 to 96,860/. The
Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict. cap. 1, the annual
sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case of widowhood.
Both the parliamentary grants of the Prince and Princess of Wales
are paid out of the Consolidated Fund, which bears a total yearly
charge of 156,000/. for annuities to members of the Royal Family.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of
Great Britain, with date of their accession, from the union of the
crowns of England and Scotland : —
House of Stuart.
James I. , . .
Charles I. . . .
. 1603
. 1625
Commonwealth.
Parliamentary Executive
Protectorate .
. 1649
. 1653
House of Stuart.
Charles II. .
James II. . . .
. 1660
. 1685
House of Stuart-Orange.
William and Mary ,
Wmiamlll
Anne
House of Stuart.
House of Hanover.
1689
1694
1702
George 1 1714
George II 1727
George III 1760
George IV 1820
William IV 1830
Victoria .... 1837
The average duration of the reigns of these rulers of Great
Britain — exclusive of the period of the Commonwealth, but including
the actual reign of her present Majesty — amounting in the aggregate
to two and three quarter centuries, has been twenty years.
Constitution and Government.
The supreme legislative power of the British empire is by its
constitution given to Parliament. ' The power and jurisdiction of
Parliament,' says Sir Edward Coke, ' is so transcendent and absolute
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within
any boimds.' And, repeating the words. Sir William Blackstone
adds, that it is ' the place where that absolute despotic power, which
must in all governments reside somewhere, is entrusted by the con-
stitution of these kingdoms.' The sovereign is not only the head,
but also the beginning and the end — caput, principium, et finis — of
Parliament ; he alone can summon Parhament ; and no ParHament,
save on the demise of a sovereign, can assemble of its own accord.
Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of
Chancery, by advice of the privy council, at least thirty-five days
previous to its assembling. On a vacancy occui-ring v/hilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker. By
GKEAT BEITAIN AND IRELAND.
193
4 Edw. III. c. 14, it was enacted, * It is accorded that Parlia-
ment shall be holden every year once or more often if need be.'
Also by 36 Edw. III. c. 10, it Avas directed, * that a Parliament
be holden every year if need be.' By 16 Chas. I. c. 1, it was
enacted, that if the king neglected to call a Parliament for three
years, the chancellor or keejser of the great seal might issue writs
for summoning the j)eers and for the election of the commons ;
that if the chancellor or keeper should neglect to do it, any twelve
of the peers might summon the Parliament ; that if the peers .should
neglect to issue the necessary summons, the sheriffs of the counties
and other magistrates respectively might proceed to the election ;
and should they refuse, then that the freeholders of each county
might elect their members, and that the members so chosen should
be obliged, under severe penalties, to attend. This Act was deemed
such an invasion of the prerogative, that it was repealed on tlie
Restoration by 16 Chas. II. c. 1. But the latter Act contains a
provision that Parliament shall not in future be intermitted for above
three years at the mo.st. By 1 Will, and Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, it was
enacted, ' that Parliaments shall be holden frequently.' As, how-
ever, the Mutiny Act and the Supplies are only granted for a
year, the Crown, since the Revolution, is compelled to summon a
Parliament annually. By ancient right and usage, lying at the
foundation of the constitution, the House of Commons has the
exclusive control over taxation, and at its will may grant or re-
fuse Supplies to the Crown.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in annual
session extending over the first six months of the year. Every
session must end with a prorogation, and by it all bills which have
not been passed during the session fall to the ground. Both Houses
of legislature must be prorogued at the same time. The pro-
rogation takes place either by the sovereign in person, or hj
commission from the Crown, or by proclamation. The Lower
House appears at the bar, and if the sovereign be present, tlie
speaker reports upon the labours of the session ; the royal assent
is then given to bills of the closing session, and a speech from the
sovereign is read ; whereupon the chancellor prorogues the Parlia-
ment to a certain day. Parliament resumes business, hoAvever, as
soon as it is summoned by royal proclamation on a certain day,
which may be at a date earlier than the original date of prorogation
appointed. Should the term of prorogation elapse, and no procla-
mation be issued, Parliament cannot assemble of its own accord.
The royal proclamation Avhich summons Parliament in order to
proceed to business must be issued fourteen days before the time of
meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament ; it may
occur by the will of the sovereign, expressed in person or by com-
0
194 THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
missioners, or, as is most usual during the recess, by proclama-
tion, or, finally, by lapse of time. Formerly, on the demise of the
sovereign, Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof; but
this Avas altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of post-
poning the dissolution till six months after the accession of the new
sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the Parlia-
ment ' in being at any future demise of the CroAvn shall not be
determined by such demise, but shall continue as long as it would
otherwise have continued rinless dissolved by the Crown.' Other
statutes enact that if, at the time of the demise, the Parliament
be adjourned or prorogued, it shall immediately assemble ; and that,,
in the case of the demise of the sovereign between the dissolution
of a Parliament and the day appointed by the writs of summons for
the meeting of a new one, the last preceding Parliament shall
meet again, but for not longer than six months.
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses of
legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the time of
Edward II., and it has been, except during the period of the Com-
monwealth, a fundamental principle of the constitution, that every
Parliament shall consist of an Upper and a Lower House of legislature.
The Upper House consists of peers who hold their seats —
1st. By virtue of hereditary right;
2nd. By creation of the Sovereign ;
3rd. By virtue of office — English bishops ;
4th. By election for life — Irish peers ;
5th. By election for duration of Parliament — Scottish peers.
In early times the summons of peers to attend Parliament de-
pended in a great measure, if not entirely, on the royal will; and
according to Camden, after the battle of Evesliam every baron
was expressly forbidden to appear in Parliament without special
ft-rit. However, it has long since been held that every hereditary
peerage of England confers the right of a seat in the Upper House.
Any person giving proof that his ancestor was called by ' writ of
summons ' may claim to sit as hereditary peer. New peerages are
created by royal patent, the peer being summoned by the writ
issued in pursuance thereof 'ad consiilendum et defendendum
regem ; ' and the peerage rights are acquired whether the individual
summoned takes his seat in the Upper House or not. Should a
question arise as to the legal capacity of a peer to be admitted
to the sittings of the Upper House, the sovereign is prayed for
a writ through a secretary of state ; the attorney-general supports
the petition, and, if willing to allow it, it is ordinarily complied with.
If the matter is doubtful, he recommends it to be referred to the
Upper House, which resolves itself into a committee of privilege.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1 95
Upon a report to the House the latter declares its opinion by way of
address. Hereditary peers may, by a ' standing order ' of the Upper
House, take their seat -without further preHminary ; peers newly
created or summoned have to be ' introduced.' The pi-ivilege of
the members of the Upper House, including the bishops, of voting
by proxy, was suspended by a ' standing Order ' — number XXXH.
— passed on the 31st of March, 1868.
The Crown is um-estricted in its power of creating peers, and the
privilege has been largely used by modern governments to fill the
House of Lords. In consequence of certain terms in the Act
of Union — 5 Anne, c. 8 — hmiting the right of election of the
Scottish representative peers to the then existing peers of Scotland,
it is understood that the sovereign cannot create a new Scottish
peerage ; and such peerages are in fact never created except in the
case of the younger branches of the royal family, though extinct
peerages may be revived or forfeited peerages restored. By the Irish
Act of Union — 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 — the sovereign is restricted
to the creation of one new Irish peerage on the extinction of three
of the existing peerages ; but when the Irish peers are reduced to
100, then on the extinction of one peerage another may be
created.
The House of Lords, in the session of 1880, consisted of 537
members, of whom 5 were peers of the Blood Royal, 2 arch-
bishops, 21 dukes, 20 marquesses, 128 earls, 32 viscounts, 24
bishops, 261 barons, 16 Scottish representative peers, and 28 Irish
representative peers. The list included a number of minors, and
several peers whose names appear in double on the ' Roll of the
House of Lords ' as representatives of official together with hereditary
dignities. The number of names on the ' Roll' was 393 in 1830;
457 in 1840; 448 in 1850; 458 in 1860; and 503 in 1877.
More than two-thirds of these hereditary peerages were created in
the present century. The three oldest existing peerages date from
the latter part of the thirteenth century ; while four go back to the
fourteenth, and seven to the fifteenth century. Of peerages of the
sixteenth century, there exist 12 ; of the seventeenth, 35 ; of the
eighteenth, 95; and of the present nineteenth century, 341. In
the thirty-nine years from the accession of Queen Victoria till the
end of June 1879, there were issued 165 patents of peerage, so
that, with the addition of the spiritual lords, 2 archbishops and 25
bishops, all of whom were appointed during the period, 192 members
of the House of Lords, or more than one-third of the whole
number, owe their seats to nominations under Her Majesty,
The Lower House of legislature, representing, in coniititutional
theory, all the ' Commons of England,' has consisted, sinco 49 Hen.
III., of knights of the shii'e, or representatives of counties; of
o 2
ig6 'J HE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
citizens, or representatives of cities; and of burgesses, or repre-
sentatives of boroughs, all of whom indistinctly vote together.
At the accession of Henry VIIL, the total number of constitu-
encies in England and Wales was 147. In this reign the number
was considerably increased, chiefly by the aJdition of representatives
for Wales; and in all the following reigns, up to the Restoration, large
additions to the borough franchises were made. Previous to this
period, members of Parliament had to be paid by their consti-
tuencies ; but the practice groAving up of members bearing their
own expenses, many ancient boroughs, which had formerly been
exempted from the returns on account of their poverty, became
desirous of resuming their franchises. The additions from Edward
VI. to Charles I. were almost entirely of borough members. In the
fourth Parliament of Charles I., the number of places in England
and Wales for which returns were made, exclusive of counties,
amounted to 210; and in the time of the Stuarts, the total number
of members of the House of Commons was about 500. The number
of members was not materially altered from that time until the vmion
with Scotland, in the reign of Queen Anne, when 45 representatives
of Scotland were added. The next considerable change was at the
union with Ireland, at the commencement of the present century,
when the House of Commons was increased by 100 Irish represen-
tatives. The number of members of the House since that period
has remained nearly the same, fluctuating around the figure 650,
with a slight tendency to gradual increase, through the extension of
the suffrage and the formation of new classes of constituencies, such
as universities. There are at present G58 members.
By the statute of 2 Will. IV. c. 45, commonly called the Reform
Bill of 1832, the English county constituencies were increased from
52 to 82, by dividing several counties into separate electoral divi-
sions, and the number of county members was augmented from 94
to 159. In Scotland and Ireland, the county representation remained
the same as before. By the Reform Act, 56 English boroughs, con-
tainino a population, in 1831, of less than 2,000 each, and return-
ing together 111 members, were totally disfranchised, while 30
other boroughs, containing a population of less than 4,000 each,
were reduced to sending one representative instead of two. On
the other hand, 22 new boroughs, containing each 25,000 inhabit-
ants, received the franchise of returning two members, and 20 other
new boroughs, containing each 12,000 inhabitants and upwards,
that of returning one member. In Scotland, the town members
were increased from fifteen to twenty-three, so that the number of
representatives became eight more than the number assigned to
Scotland at the t^nion.
The next great change in the constituency of the House of Com-
mons, after the Act of 1832, was made by the Reform Bill of
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
197
1867-68. The most important provisions of the new Act as regards
England are clauses 3 and 4, the first establishing household suffrage
in boroughs, and the second occupation franchise in conntie.". Clause
3 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a
voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member or members to serve
in Parliament for a borough, who is qualified as follows : — (1) Is of
full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ; (2) Is on the last day
of July in any year, and has during the whole of the preceding 12
calendar months been, an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling-house within the borough; (3) Plas during the time
of such occupation been rated as an ordinary occupier in respect of
the premises so occupied by him within the borough to all rates made
for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises ; (4) Has
before the 20th day of July in the same year bond fide paid an equal
amount in the pound to that payable by other ordinary occupiers in
respect of all poor-rates that have become payable by him in respect
of the said premises up to the preceding 5 th day of January, and
which have been demanded of him in manner hereinafter mentioned ;
or as a lodger has occupied in the same borough separately, and as
sole tenant for the twelve months preceding the last day of July in
any year the same lodgings, such lodgings being part of one and the
same dwelling-house, and of a clear yearly value, if let unfurnished,
of 10/. or upwards, and has resided in such lodgings during the twelve
months immediately preceding the last day of July, and has claimed
to be registered as a voter at the next ensuing registration of voters :
provided, that no man shall, under this section, be entitled to be
registered as a voter by reason of his being a joint occupier of any
dwelling-house.' Clause 4 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled
to be registered as a voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member
or members to serve in Parliament for a county who is qualified as
follows : — (1) Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ;
and who shall be seised at law or in equity of any lands or tenements
of copyhold or any other tenure whatever, except freehold, for his
own life, or for the life of another, or for any lives whatsoever, or for
any larger estate of the clear yearly value of not less than five pounds
over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of
the same, or who shall be entitled either as lessee or assignee to any
lands or tenements of freehold or of any other tenure whatever, for
the unexpired residue, whatever it may be, of any term originally
created for a period of not less than 60 years of the clear yearly-
value of not less than five pounds over and above all rents and charges
payable out of or in respect of the same ; (2) Is on the last day of
July in any year, and has during the twelve months immediately
preceding been, the occupier, as OAvner or tenant, of lands or tene-
ments within the county of the ratable value of 12/. or upwards ;
(3) Has during the time of such occupation been rated in respect to
198 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the premises so occupied by him to all rates made for the relief of
the poor in respect of the said premises ; and (4) Has before the
20th day of July in the same year paid all poor rates that have be-
come payable by him in respect of the said premises up to the pre-
ceding 5th day of January.'
The Reform Acts for Scotland and Ireland, passed in the session
of 1868, differ in some important respects from that of England. By
the Act for Scotland, the franchise in burghs is conferred upon
every .male person of full age, and subject to no legal incapacity,
who has been for twelve months an occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling, unless at any time during that period he shall have
been exempted from poor-rates on the ground of poverty, or shall
have failed to pay his poor-rates, or shall have been in the receipt
of parochial relief within twelve months. The lodger franchise in
Scotland consists in the permission of any lodger to vote who has
occupied in the same burgh separately, and as sole tenant, for twelve
months, a lodo^ins: of the clear annual value, if let unfurnished, of ten
pounds or upwards, and has claimed to be registered as a voter. In
Scottish counties, the ownership franchise is five pounds, clear of
any deduction in the shape of burdens, with a residential qualifi-
cation of not less than six months. The Reform Act for Ireland
made no alteration in the county franchise, but reduced that of
boroughs to a 4/. rating occupation, qualified as in England.
It appears from the last annual return made by order of the
House of Commons, that in June 1879, the total number of elec-
tors in the United Kingdom was 2,999,229, against 2,748,985 in
January 1874, There v/ere 2,245,108 electors on the registers for
England and Wales in 1874, and 2,459,999 in 1879 ; in Scotland,
280,308 in 1874, and 307,941 in 1879 ; in Ireland, 223,569 in
1874, and 231,289 in 1879. As regards qualification, there were
in the United Kingdom 1,078,180 county electors in 1874, and
1,148,529 in 1879; 1,647,596 borough electors in 1874, and
1,822,708 in 1879 ; 23,209 University electors in 1874, and 27,992
in 1879. The 883,649 county electors on the registers in England
and Wales for 1879 were more by 60,285 than the number in
1874 ; the 92,310 in Scotland, and the 172,570 in Ireland, showed
increases of 9,5o3 and 561 respectively. The 1,563,319 borough
electors in England and Wales in 1879 showed an increase of
153,574 over the number in 1874; and the 204,142 in Seotland,
and the 55,247 in Ireland, showed increases of 16,151 and 5,387
respectively. Several English agricultural counties had a smaller
number of electors in 1879 than they had in 1874. The increase
in numbers, whether in counties or boroughs, was most marked in
and near the metropolis and in the north of England.
Under an Act passed in the session of 1872, and which is to con-
tinue in force till December 31, 1880, all elections for members of
GREAT BBITAIN AND IRELAND. 1 99
Parliament must be by secret vote and ballot. The law enacts that
the ballot-paper must show the names of the candidates for election,
with a number printed on the back, and a counterfoil attached having
the same number ; and that ' at the time of voting the ballot-paper
shall be marked on both sides with an official mark and delivered
to the voter within the polling place, and the number of such voter
on the register of voters shall be marked on the counterfoil, and the
voter having secretly marked his vote on the paper, and folded it
up so as to conceal his vote, shall place it in a closed box in the
presence of the officer presiding at the polling station after having
shown to him the official mark at the back.'
The sole qualification required to be a member of Parliament
is to have attained the age of twenty-one. ' Naturalised ' foreigners
were formerly not eligible, but became so by the provisions of 33
Vict. cap. 14, which enacted that 'an alien to whom a certificate of
naturahsation is granted, shall, in the United Kingdom, be entitled
to all political and other rights, powers, and privileges, and be sub-
ject to all obligations to which a natural British born subject is en-
titled or subject to in the United Kingdom.' But all priests and
deacons of the Church of England, ministers of the Church of Scot-
land, and Roman Catholic clergymen ; all government contractors ;
and all sheriffs and returning officers for the localities for which
they act, are disqualified both from voting and from sitting as mem-
bers. No English or Scottish peer can be elected to the House of
Commons, but Irish peers are eligible.
To preserve the independence of members of the House of Com-
mons, it was enacted, by statute 6 Anne, that, if any member shall
accept any office of profit from the Crown, his election shall be void,
and a new writ issue ; but he is eligible for re-election if the place
accepted be not a new office, created since 1705. This provision
has been made the means of relieving a member fi-om his trust,
which he cannot resign, by his acceptance of the Stewardshij) of the
Chiltern Hundreds, a nominal office in the gift of the Government.
In the session of 1880, the House of Commons numbered 652
members — six being vacant by disfranchisement — returned as fol-
lows by the three divisions of the United Kingdom : —
England and Waies : ■ Members
52 coiiuties and Isle of AVight .... 187
200 cities and boroughs ...... 295
.3 universities ........ 6
Total of England and Wales . . 487
Scotland :
33 counties 32
22 cities and burgh districts ..... 26
4 universities ........ 2
Total of Scotland .... ~~66
200
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
iREliND : Members
32 counties ........ 64
33 cities and boroughs 39
1 university ........ 2
Total of Ireland .... K)5
Total of United Kingdom . . .652
It is stated in a Parliamentary paper issued in the session of 1876,
that whereas the existing distribution of representation prescribes
England and Wales to return 493 members, Scotland 60 members,
and Ireland 105 members, the numbers, if regulated by population,
would be 476 for England and Wales, 70 for Scotland, and 112 for
Ireland: if regulated by contril)utions to revenue, 514 for Engl nd
and Wales, 79 for Scotland, and 65 for Ireland ; and if regulated
by the mean of the two numbers, 494 for England and Wales, 75
for Scotland, and 89 for Ireland.
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom, from the period of the Union : —
Reign Parliameut
Wlieii met |
Wlien dissolved
Existed
Y.
M. D.
George III. . . 1st
27 Sept. 1796
29 Jan. 1802
5
4 3
.,
2nd
31 Aug. 1802
24 Oct. 1806
4
1 25
J,
3rd
15 Dee. 1806
29 Apr. 1807
0
4 15
4tli
22 Juno 1807
24 Sept. 1812
5
3 7
5th
24 Nov. 1812
10 June 1818
5
6 16
6th
4 Aug. 1818
29 Feb. 1820
1
6 25
George IV.
7th
23 Apr. 1820
2 June 1826
6
1 9
,,
8th
14 Nov. 1826
24 July 1830
3
8 10
Willi'am IV.
9t.h
26 Oct. 1830
22 Apr. 1831
0
5 28
10th
14 June 1831
3 Dec. 1832
1
5 20
''
11th
29 Jan. 1833
30 Dec. 1834
1
11 1
12th
19 Fel). 1835
18 July 1837
2
5 0
Victoria
1 13th
14 Nov. 1837
23 June 1841
3
7 9
,,
14 th
11 Aug. 1841
23 July 1847
5
11 12
,,
loth
21 Sept. 1847
1 July 1852
4
8 11
16th
4 Nov. 1852
20 Mar 1857
4
4 11
J,
17th
30 Apr. 1857
23 Apr. 1859
1
11 23
jj
18th
31 Mav 1859
6 July 1865
6
1 6
J,
19th
6 Feb. LSC6
31 July 1868
2
5 25
^,
20th
10 Doc. 1868
26 Jan. 1874
5
I 16
^,
21st
5 Mar. 1874
24 Mar. 1880
6
0 17
'•
22nd
29 Apr. 1880
—
—
The union of Ireland with England was carried into effect January
1, 1800, and the Parliament Avhich sat the same month, and which
included the members from Ireland, is styled the first Imperial
Parliament. The Parliament which assembled January 29, 1833,
is generally styled the first Reformed Parliament.
The powers of Parliament are politically omnipotent within the
United Kingdom and its colonies and dependencies. Parliament
can make new laws, £md enlarge, alter, or repeal those existing.
GKEAT BRITAIN AND lEELAND. 201
The parliamentaiy autliority extends to all ecclesiastical, temporal^
civil, or military matters, as well as to altering or changing the
constitution of the reahn. Parliament is the higiiest Court of law,
over which no other has jurisdiction.
The executive government of Great Britain and Ii-eland is vested
nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of ministers,
commonly called the Cabinet, which has come to absorb the
function of the ancient Privy Council, or 'the King in Council,'
the members of which, bearing the title of Right Honourable, are
sworn ' to advise the King according to the best of their cunning
and discretion,' and ' to help and strengthen the execution of
what shall be resolved.' Though not the offspring of any formal
election, the Cabinet is virtually appointed by Parliament, and
more especially by the House of Commons, its existence being
dependent on the possession of a majority in the latter assembly.
As its acts are liable to be questioned in Parliament, and require
prompt explanation, it is essential that the members of the Cabinet
should have seats in either the Upper or the Lower House, where
they become identified with the general policy and acts of the
Government.
The member of the Cabinet who fills the position of First Lord of
the Treasury, is the chief of the ministry, and therefore of the
Cabinet. It is at his recommendation that his colleagues are
appointed ; and he dispenses, with hardly an exception, the pa-
tronage of the Crown. Every Cabinet includes the following nine
members of the administration : the First Lord of the Treasury, the
Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the Chancellor
of the Exchequer, and the five Secretaries of State. A number
of other ministerial functionaries, varying from two to eight, have
usually seats in the Cabinet, those most frequently admitted being
the Lord Privy Seal, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Pre-
sident of the Board of Trade, the Vice-President of the Committee
of Council on Education, the Postmaster-General, the Chief Secre-
tary for Ireland, and the President of the Local Government Board.
The selection usually falls upon those amongst the last-mentioned
functionaries whose rank, talents, reputation, and political weight,
render them the most useful auxiliaries, or whose services, while in
opposition, may have created the strongest claims to become members
of the Cabinet. It has occasionally happened that a statesman possess-
ing high character and influence accepted a seat in the Cabinet without
undertaking the laboru-s and responsibilities of any particular office.
Although the Cabinet has been regarded during several generations as
an essential part of the institutions of Great Britain, yet it continues
to be imknown to the law. The names of the members who compose
it are never officially announced ; no record is kept of its resolutions or
meetings, nor has its existence been recognised by Act of Parliament
202 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The present Cabinet, appointed April 28, 1880, consists of the
following fourteen members : —
1. Fii'st Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer.
■ — Right Hon. William Ewart Gladstone, born December 29, 1809,
fourth son of Sir John Gladstone, Bart., merchant, of Liverpool ;
educated at Eton, and at Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P. for Newark,
1832-45 ; one of the Junior Lords of the Treasury, 1834-5 ;
Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, January to April, 1835 ;
Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 1841-3; President of the
Board of Trade, 1843-5; Secretary of 'State for the Colonies,
1845-C ; M.P. for the University of Oxford, 1847-65 ; Chancellor
of the Exchequer, 1852-55, and again 1859-66 ; M.P. for South
Lancashire, 1865-8; M.P. for Greenwich, 1868-80; First Lord of
the Treasury, Dec. 9, 1868 to February 21, 1874,
2. Lord High Chancellor. — Lord Selborne, formerly Sir Poundell
Palmer, born November 27, 1812, son of the Rev. William Jocelyn
Palmer, rector of Mixbury, Oxfordshire ; educated at Rugby,
Winchester, and Trinity College, Oxford ; called to the Bar at
Lincoln's Inn, 1837 ; M.P. for Plymouth, 1847-52, and 1853-57 ;
M.P. for Richmond, 1861-72; appointed Solicitor-General and
knighted, 1861 ; Attorney- General, 1863-66 ; Lord High Chancellor,
and raised to the peerage as Baron Selborne, Oct. 15, 1872.
3. Lord President of the Council. — John Poyntz Spencer, Earl
Spencer, born 1835, eldest son of the fourth Earl Spencer ; edu-
cated at Westminster and Christ Church, Oxford ; Groom of the
Stele to the Prince of Wales, 1862-67 ; Lord Lieutenant of
Ireland, 1868-74.
4. Lo7-d Privy Seal. — George John Douglas Campbell, Duke of
Argyll, born 1823, eldest son of the seventh duke ; succeeded to
the title, 1847; Lord Privy Seal, 1852-5: Postmaster-General,
1855-8 ; for the second time Lord Privy Seal, 1859-66 ; Secretary
of State for India, 1868-74.
5. Secretary of State for the Home Department. — Right Hon.
Sir William Harcourt, born 1827, son of the Rev. William Har-
court, oi' Nuueham Park, Oxfordshire ; educated at Rugby and at
Trinity College, Cambridge; called to the Bar of the Inner Temple,
1854, and made Queen's Counsel, 1866 ; Professor of International
Law at the Univer.sity of Cambridge, 1869-73; Solicitor-General,
1873-4 ; M.P. for Oxford, 1868-80; MP. for Derby, 1880.
6. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. — Granville George
Leveson Gower, Earl Granville, born 1815, eldest son of the first
earl ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; returned M.P.
for Morpeth, 1836, and for Lichfield, 1840 ; succeeded to the earl-
dom, 1846; Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 1848-51;
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1851-2 ; Lord President of
the Council, 1852-4; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster,
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 203
1854-5 ; for the second time Lord President of tlie Council, 1859-66 ;
Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1868-70; Secretary of State
for Foreign Affairs, 1870-74.
7. Secretary of State for the Colonies. — Earl Kimberley, born 1826,
grandson of second Baron Wodehouse ; educated at Eton, and at
Christ Church, Oxford ; succeeded to his grandfather's title, 1846 ;
Under- Secretaiy of State for Foreign Affairs, 1852-6 ; Ambassador
to Russia, 1856-8 ; again Under-Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, 1859-61 ; Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, 1864-6 ; created
Earl of Kimberley, 1866 ; Lord Privy Seal, 1868-70 ; Secretary
of State for the Colonies, 1870-74.
8. Secretari/ of State for India. — Right Hon. Marquis of Har-
tington, born 1833, eldest son of the seventh Duke of Devonshire ;
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; one of the junior Lords of
the Admiralty, March to April 1863; Under-Secretary of State for
War, 1863-6 ; Secretary of State for War, February to July 1866 ;
M.P. for North Lancashire, 1857-68 ; M.P. for New Radnor, 1869 ;
Postmaster-General, 18^8-71 ; Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1871-4.
9. Secretary of State for War. — Right Hon. Hugh Culling
Eardley Childers, born 1827, son of the Rev. Eardley Childers, of
Cantley, Yorkshire ; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge ; one
of the junior Lords of the Admiralty, 1864-5; Financial Secretary
to the Treasury, 1865-6; M.P. for Pontefract since 1860; First
Lord of the Admiralty, 1868-74.
10. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Thomas George Baring, Lord
Northbrook, born 1826, eldest son of the first Baron Northbrook;
educated at Cambridge ; one of the Lords of the Admiralty, 1857-59 ;
Under Secretary of State for India, 1859-61 ; Under Secretary of
State for War, 1861-66, and again 1868-72 ; Governor-General of
India, 1872-76.
11; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. — Right Hon. John
Bright, born 1811, son of Jacob Bright, Esq., of Greenbank, Roch-
dale; one of the leading members of the Anti-Corn-Law League 1838-
46; M.P. for Durham, 1843-47; M.P. for Manchester, 1847-51;
M.P. for Birmingham since 1857 ; President of the Board of Trade,
1868-71 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1873-74.
12. President of the Board of Trade. — Right Hon. Joseph Cham-
berlain, born 1835, eldest son of Joseph Chamberlain, Esq., of
Manur Green Hall, Birmingham ; educated at University College,
London; Chairman of the Birmingham School Board, 1870-73;
Mayor of Birmingham, 1874-76 ; M.P. for Birmingham since 1876.
13. President of the Local Governmeyit Board. — Right Hon.
Joseph G. Dodson, born 1825, son of Sir John Dodson ; educated
at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; M.P. for East Sussex, 1857-
73 ; and for Chester since 1874 ; Chairman of Committees of the
House of Commons, 1865-72; Secretary of the Treasury, 1873-74.
204
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
14, Chief Secretary for Ireland. — Right Hon, William Edward
Forster, born 1818, son of the Rev. William Forster ; educated at
private schools, and subsequently a worsted manufacturer at Brad-
ford ; Under Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1 865-6 G ; Vice-
President of the Committee of Council on Education, 1868-74.
The following is a list of the heads of the various administrations
of Great Britain since the accession of the House of Hanover : —
First Lords of the Treasury Dates of Appointment
Eobert Walpole
James Stanhope
Earl of Sunderland
Sir Kobert Walpole
Earl of Wilmington
Henry Pelham
Duke of Newcastle
Earl of Bute .
George Gren\'ille
Marquis of Eockingham
Duke of Grafton
Lord North
Marquis of Rockingham
Earl of Shelburne
Duke of Portland
William Pitt .
Henry Addington
WmiamPitt .
Lord Grenville
Duke of Portland
Spencer Perceval
Earl of Liverpool
George Canning
Viscount Goderich
Duke of Wellington
Earl Grey
Viscount Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Viscount Melbourne
Sir Robert Peel
Lord John Russell
Earl of Derby
Earl of Aberdeen
Viscount Palmerston
Earl of Derby
Viscount Palmersto:
Earl Russell .
Earl of Dei'by .
Benjamin Disraeli
William Ewart Gladstone
Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield)
William Ewart Gladstone
The above list shows the average duration of each Ministry to be of
three years and eight months, or about the same as the average dura-
tion of Parliaments.
October 10,
1714
April 10,
1717
March 16,
1718
April 20,
1720
February 11,
1742
July 26,
1743
April 21,
1754
May 29,
1762
April 16,
1763
July 12,
1765
August 2,
1766
January 28,
1770
March 30,
1782
July 3,
1782
April 0,
1783
December 27,
1783
March 7,
1801
May 12,
1804
January 8,
1806
March 13,
1807
June 23,
1810'
June 8,
1812
April 11.
1827
August 10,
1827
January 11,
1828
November 12,
1830
July 14,
1834
December 10,
1834
April 18,
1835
September 1,
1841
July 3,
1846
February 27,
1852
December 28,
1852
February 8,
1855
February 26,
1858
June 18,
1859
November 6,
1865
July 6,
1866
February 27,
1868
December 9,
1868
February 21,
1874
April 28,
1880
GBEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 20$
Churcli and Education.
The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal. Its
fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-nine
Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised and finally
settled in 1571. But though the Episcopal is the State religion, all
others are fully tolerated, and civil disabilities do not attach to any
class of British subjects.
The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church, possess-
ing the right, regulated by the 4th section of the statute 25 Hen. VIII.
c. 20, to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the
form being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the
royal licence, or conge d'elire, to proceed to the election, accompanied
by the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and after-
Avards the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is
signified under the Great Seal. But this form appUes only to the
sees of old foundation ; the bishoprics of Gloucester and Bristol,
Chester, Peterborough, Oxford, Ripon, and Manchester, are confeiTed
direct by letters patent from the Cro-\\ni. The Queen, and the Fii-st
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries,
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the CroAvn.
There are 2 archbishops and 28 bishops in England. The former
are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have within them the
inspection of the bishops, as well as of the inferior clergy, for which
purpose they undertake visitations, which are now, however, practi-
cally episcopal, not archiepiscopal, and made only as bishops within
their own dioceses. They have, assisted by at least two other
bishops, the confirmation and consecration of the bishops. They
have also each his o\\ti particular diocese, wherein they exercise
episcopal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, jurisdic-
tion. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs, the provinces have
each a council, or convocation, consisting of the bishops, archdeacons,
and deans, in person, and of a certain number of proctors, as the
representatives of the inferior clergy, each chapter, in both provinces,
sending one, and the parochial clergy of each diocese in the province
of Canterbury, and of each archdeaconry in the province of York,
sending two. These councils are summoned by the respective arch-
bishops, in pursuance of the Queen's mandate. Wlien assembled,
they must also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate ;
as well as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they
are binding on the clergy. In the province of Canterbury, the Con-
vocation forms two Houses ; the archbishop and bishops sitting
together in the Upper House, and the inferior clergy in the Lower.
In the province of York, all sit together in one House.
206 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
England is distributed into 200 extra-parochial places, and
about 12,000 parishes. In every parish there is a parish church,
presided over by a rector, who holds the living. Whoever is in full
possession of all the rights of such parish church is called ' parson' —
persona ecclesice — and constitutes a jural person. Diiring his life he
has the freehold of the parsonage, the glebe-lands, the tithes, and
other dues. Occasionally these dues are 'appropriated,' that is,
the benefice is perpetually annexed to some spiritual corporation,
which, either sole or aggregate, is the patron of the living. Such cor-
poration appoints a vicar, to whom the spiritual duty belongs, in the
same manner as, in parsonages not appropriated, to the rector. The
patronage — advocatio, advoicson — is ranked under the head of real
property. Advowsons are either appendant, or in gross ; appendant
when annexed to the possession of a manor, and passing by a grant
of the manor only, without any other authority. But when the
advowson has been once separated from the property of the manor,
it is called advoicson in gross. The o^vner of the advoAvson is
invested with the same privileges as in landed property. When an
alien purchases a right of presentation, the Crown has to present ; if a
Catholic, it is exercised by either university in turn. Since 1835
the right of presentation of corporate towns has been abolished.
Besides the right of presentation pertaining to the Queen, the Lord
Chancellor, the Prince of Wales, the higher clergy, the chapters, and
the universities, there are about 3,850 lords, gentlemen, and ladies
in the enjoyment of private patronage.
No information re<rarding the number of persons belonging to the
Episcopal Church and those adhering to other religious creeds in
Eno-land is o-iven in the last official census. It is estimated that
in °he middle of the year 1878 the population of England and
Wales claiming membership with the Established Church was
about 13,500,000, leaving about 11,000,000 to other creeds.
Amono- the Protestant dissenters the most prominent bodies and
religious organisations are the Wesleyans, or so-called Methodists,
the Independents, or Congi-egationalists, and the Baptists. The
Wesleyan Body, vsubdividid into members of the Old and New
Connexion, Primitive and Free Church Methodists, Bible Christians,
and various other sects, is stated to possess above 9,000 places
of worship ; the Independents 3,500 ; and the Baptists 2,000. Of
more or less importance, among the other Protestant dissenters,
are the Unitarians, the Moravians, and the members of the
Society of Friends. There are altogether 140 religious denomina-
tions in Great Britain, the names of which have been given in to
the Registrar- Geueral of Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
The ° number of Roman Catholics in England is estimated at
one million. There are fourteen dignitaries of the Roman Catholic
GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 20/
Chiirch in England and Wales, namely, one archbishop and thirteen
bishops, presiding over as many dioceses, united in the so-called
' Province of Westminster.' In Scotland, the Eoman Catholic Church
has three ' Apostolic Vicariates,' in three ' districts,' the Eastern, the
Western, and the Northern. In June 1877, there were 1,039
Roman Catholic chapels in England and Wales, and 233 in Scotland.
The number of officiating Roman Catholic clergy at the same date
was 1,810 in England and Wales, and 258 in Scotland.
The Church of Scotland differs in many and important respects
from the Episcopal Church of England. The Scottish Church is a
perfect democracy, all the members being equal, none of them havincf
power or pre-eminence of any kind over another. There is in each
parish a parochial tribunal, called a kii'k session, consisting of the
minister, who acts as president, and of a greater or smaller number
of individuals, of whom, however, there must always be two selected
as elders. The principal duty of the latter is to superintend the
affairs of the poor, and to assist in visiting the sick. The session
interferes in certain cases of scandal, calls parties before it, and
inflicts ecclesiastical penalties. But parties who consider themselves
aggrieved may appeal from the decisions of the ku-k session to the
presbytery in which it is situated, the next highest tribunal in the
church. The General Assembly, which consists partly of clerical
and partly of lay members, chosen by the different pr&sbvteries,
boroughs, and universities, comprises 386 members, and meets
annually in May, sitting for ten days, the matters not decided
diu-ing this period being left to a commission.
The dissenters from the Chiu-ch of Scotland are very numerous,
being estimated as comprising from one-half to two-thirds of the
entire population. The largest body is the Free Church formed from
a secession in 1843. Next is the United Presbyterian Church, re-
cently formed from the amalgamation of several bodies of seceders,
some dating as far back as 1741. There are also bodies of
Baptists, Independents, Methodists, and Unitarians. The Roman
Catholics have increased largely of late years, chiefly from the
influx of Irish population. There is an Episcopal Church which
includes a large portion of the nobility and gentry, and is said to
be growing. Its members were estimated, in 1876, at 65,000.
The number of Jews in Great Britain was estimated, in June
1876, at 51,250, of which number 39,883 resided in London.
The census of Ireland, taken on the 3rd April, 1871, stated that
there were 4,141,933 Roman Catholics, 683,295 persons returning
themselves as belonging to the ' Church of Ireland,' or as ' Pro-
testant Episcopalians,' 558,238 Presbyterians, 41,815 Methodi£ts,
4,485 Independents, 4,643 Baptists, 3,834 Quakers, 258 Jews, and
19,035 individuals of other persuasions.
208 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The Roman Catholic Church is under four arclibisliops, of Armagh,
Casliel, DubHn, and Tuam, and twenty-three bishops. Eight of the
bishops, viz. Ardagli, Clogher, Derry, Down and Connor, Dromore,
Kihnore, Meath, and Raphoe, are suffragan to Armagh. Dublin
lias but three suffragans, viz. Kildare and Leighlin united, Ferns, and
Ossory. Six are suffragan to Cashel, namely Ardfert and Aghadoe
— usually called the Bishop of Kerry, Cloyne, and Ross — Cork,
Killaloe, Limerick, Waterford, and Lismore. Tuam has four suffra-
gans, viz. Achonry, Clonfert, Killala, and Galway. The bishop of the
united dioceses of Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora is alternately suffi-agan
to the archbishops of Tuam and Cashel. The wardenship of Galway,
formerly an exempt jm-isdiction, subject only to the triennial visita-
tion of the archbishop of Tuam, has been lately erected into a
bishopric, under its former archiepiscopal jurisdiction. On the
death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese elect a vicar- capitular,
who exercises spiritual jurisdiction during the vacancy. They
also nominate one of their own body, or sometimes a stranger, as
successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postulate or petition
the Pope. The bishops of the province also present the names of
two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The new bishop is
generally chosen from among this latter number ; but the appoint-
ment virtually rests with the cardinals, who constitute the congregation
dc propaganda fide. Their nomination is submitted to the Pope, by
Avhom it is usually confirmed. In cases of old age or infirmity, the
bishop nominates a coadjutor, to discharge the episcopal duties in his
stead, and his recommendation is almost invariably attended to.
The emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, (ice, and from the
cathedraticum. The last is an annual siim, varying from 21. to
10/ , according to the value of the parish, jmid by the incumbent, in
aid of the maintenance of the episcopal dignity. The parochial
clergy are nominated exclusively by the bishop. The incomes of
all descriptions of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland arise partly
from fees on the celebration of births, marriages, and masses ; and
partly, and principally, from Christmas and Easter dues, and other
voluntary offerings. All places of Avorship are built by subscription.
The established Protestant Church of Ireland, formerly in union
with the Cluu'ch of England, under two archbishops, and ten bishops,
ceased to be a state establishment by Act of Parliament, 32 and 33
Vict., cap. 42, which decreed that 'on and after January 1, 1871,
the Church of Ireland shall cease to be established by law.'
Pubhc education has made vast progress in Great Britain within
the last quarter of a century, though, according to the test of educa-
tion supplied by grown-up persons signing their names or having
to make their mark, a great difference exists in the prevalence of
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 2C9
elementary knowledge in different counties of England. The last
returns, issued in 1879, and referring to 1873-77, show that
in the latter year over 15 per cent, of the males and more than
20 per cent, of the females Avho were married — the number of
marriages in England and Wales being 194,352 (see p. 243) — made
marks instead of signing their names to the marriage register. On
the average of every 100 marriages in 1841 the proportion of men
Avho signed the register with marks was 33, and the proportion of
women was 49 ; but in 1876 the proportion of men was 16*3, and
the proportion of women was 22"1. In some parts of England and
South Wales, however, scarcely more than one- half of the women
Avho were married from 1870 to 1877 could write or sign their names.
In parts of South Wales more than half the women had to make their
' marks'; and in Monmoiithshire, Hertfordshire, and North Wales
the illiterate condition of the people was little better. The counties in
Avhich the highest proportion of women wrote their names were
Westmoreland, Surrey, Sussex, Rutland, IMiddlesex, Hants, Kent,
and Berks — the counties taking rank in the order hei'e given. The
percentages of men who could write their names to the man'iage
register in the year 1877 were highest in Westmoreland, Middlesex,
Rutland, Northumberland, Surrey, the North Riding of Yorkshire
and the East Riding of Yorkshire. In London the percentage was
as high as 92, Avhile among the women the jDercentage was 87. A
full comparison of the lists shows that the uneducated aie found in
greater numbers among mining and manufacturing populations than
in the agricultural portions of the kingdom.
The following table exhibits the proportion per cent, of men and
Avomen who signed the marriage register with marks in the three
divisions of the United Kingdom.
Years
To every 100 man-iages
the proportion who signed the
marriage register with marks
Men Women
England and Wales
• I
1876
1877
16-3
15-3
22-1 t
20-9 1
Scotland
• {
1873
1874
9-6
9-1
18-7
18-0
Ireland
(
1875
1876
30-3 1 36-7
31-9 37-3
An important measure towards the further spread of education in
England was passed by Parliament in the session of 1870. By 33
Victoria, cap. 75, entitled ' An Act to provide for Public Elemen-
tary Education in England and Wales,' it is ordered that * there
shall be provided for every school di.^trict a sufficient amount of
accommodation in public elementary schools available for all the
p
210
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
children resident in such district, for whose elementary education
efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made.' It is enacted
further that all children attending these ' public elementary schools,'
whose parents are unable, from poverty, to pay anything towards
their education, shall be admitted free, and the expenses so inciu-red
be discharged from local rates. The new schools are placed in each
disitrict under ' School boards,' invested with great powers, among
others that of making it compulsory upon parents to give all children
between the ages of five and thirteen the advantages of education.
The following table, compiled from official returns, relating to the
Primary Schools in Great Britain, gives a view of the progress of
education within the years 1871 to 1879 : —
Number of
Number of Chil- .
Average number
Years ended 31st August
Schools
dren who can be
of Cliildren in
inspected
accommodated
attendance
England and Wales (including Isle of Man and
1871 .
Eonian Catholic Schools for Great Britain)
9,521
2.092,984
1,345,802
1872 .
10,751
2.397,745
1,445,326
1873 .
11,911
2,683,467
1,570,741
1874 .
13,084
2,952,479
1,710,806
1875 .
14,067
3,229,112
1,863,176
1876 .
14.875
3,483,789
2,007,732
1877 .
15,187
3,653.418
2,150,683
1878 .
16,293
3,942,337
2,405,197
1879 -
17,166
4,142,224
2,594,995
1871 .
Scotland, exclusive of Roman Catholic Schools
1,944
264,041
201,393
1872
1,962
267,412
206,099
1873
2,043
279,719
212,989
1874
2,587
391,592
274,588
1875
2,890
407,002
312,346
1876
2,912
462,986
332,545
1877
2,931
535,949
360,413
1878
2,998
563,481
377,257
1879
3,003
585,629
38.5,109
1871
Total for Great Britain
11,465
2,357,025
1,547,195
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
12,713
2,665,167
1,651,425
13,954
2,963,186
1,783,730
i l.),671
3,344,071
1,985,394
i 16,957
3,636,114
2,175,522
17,787
3,946,775
2,340,277
1877
1878
18,118
4,189,367
2,511,096
19,291
4,505,818
2,782,454
1879
20,169
4,727,853
2,980,104
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
211
The annual parliamentary grants to primary schools in Great
Britain, which amoimted to 30,000Z. in 18-iO, rose to 180,110/.
in ISoO; to 668,873/. in 1858; and to 774,743/. in 1862.
In 1863, the grant was reduced to 721,386/.; in 1866 to 649,006/.;
in 1867, to 682,201/.; and in 1868 to 680,429/. ; while in 1869 it
was raised again to 840,711/.; in 1870 to 914,721/.; in 1871 to
1,038,624/.; in 1872 to 1,268,350/. ; in 1873 to 1,313,078/.;
in 1874 to 1,424,878/.; in 1875 to 1,566,271/.; in 1876 to
1,881,728/.; in 1877 to 2,127,730/.; in 1878 to 2,463,283/.; in
1879 to 2,733,404/. ; and in 1880 to 2,468,077/.
In the year 1870, the actual expenditure in England and Wales
for elementary education amoimted to 1,527,000/., or an average of
1/. 5s. od. per scholar; in 1874 it was 2,620,000/., the average being
1/. lis. 2^d.; and in 1879 it was 4,775,000/., the average being
1/. 16s. od. The income in 1879 was made up of 136,000/. from
endowments, 754,000/. fi-om voluntary contribution.?, 636,000/. from
the rates, 1,372,000/. in school fee.s, 49,000/. from miscellaneous
sources, and 1,828,000/. from Imperial fimds ; total, 4,775,000/.
In addition, the cost of administration was 987,000/. In 1870 the
average amount of school fees paid by each scholar was 8s. A^d. ;
in 1874, 9s. S\d. ; and in 1879, 10s. 5^f/. In 1879 the total popu-
lation under the school boards numbered 13,000,000. The total
expenditiu-e of the school boards in the same year was 3,700,000/.,
of which 243,000/. was for administration.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The following statement exhibits the soxu-ces of revenue and the
branches of expenditure of the United Kingdom, for the financial
year ending March 31, 1880 : —
! Sources of Revenue. 1879-SO
A. Taxation : —
' Customs ......
■ Excise .......
Land Tax
1 House Duty
1 Property and Income Tax
. Stamps : —
Probate ......
Legacy . . . _.
Various (less stamps in lien of fees 'I
and Duties on Bank Issues) . j
Total Revenue from Taxation
& ; £
— 19,326.000
— ■ 2.5,300.000
1,047,000 1
1,623,000
o CTA c\e\c\
— 9,230,000
2,532,500
3,700,600 j
4.083.003 1
66,842,103
¥ 2
212
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Sovirces of Revenue, 1879-80.
I
i B. Other Eeceipts :
j Posts and Telegraphs, net
Miscellaneous .......
Total other Eeceipts
1
£
3,330,000
184,976
&
3,514,976
—
Total EcA-enue from all Sources
—
70,357,079
Branches of Expenditure, 1879-80
A. Public Debt :
Interest and Management; of Debt .
B. Army (including Army Purchase Commission)
.Vrmy Charges for India
Deduct Army Eeceipts .....
C. Navy
Deduct Contributions from Indian Eevenues, &c.
Votes of Credit for War in South Africa, \n'\
Griqualand West, and Sikiikuui Expedition .J
D. Miscellaneous:
Abyssinian Expedition . ...
Ashantee Expedition :
Miscellaneous Civil Services (including Consoli-'l
dated Fund Charges, but deducting expenses \
of Mint) j
Less Stamps in lieu of Fees, Miscellaneous EeO
ceipts by Civil Departments, and net profit j
on Post Office Savings Banks, and Eepay- J
ments in respect of amounts advanced under f
18 & 19 Vict, c. 99, for Imperial Ottoman |
Loan of 185;j J
15,646,867
1,115,050
16,760,917
1,735,704
10,416,132
190,185
27,488,185!
i
15,025,213 }
10,225,947 j
3,244,920 \
1
I
634'
16.829,502
2,317,626
R. Customs
Less Miscellaneous Eeceipts
V. Inland Eevenue .
Less Miscellaneous Eeceipts
Total Expenditure .
973,841
45,499
1,810,475
37.748
14,511,876
928,342
1,772,727
73,197,844
The revenue for the financial year 1879-80 having amounted
to 70,357,079/., and the expenditure of the year to 73,197,777/., there
was a deficit of 2,840,765/.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
213
The budget estimates for the financial year ending March 11,
1881, laid before the House of Commons in March, 1880, were as
follows : —
Eetende.
Customs .
Excise
Stamps .
Land Tax and House Duty
Income Tax
Post Office
Telegraph Service .
Crown Lands .
Interest on Advances on
Local Works and Suez
Canal Shares
[Miscellaneous .
19,300,000
26,140,000
11,100,000
2,760,000
9,000,000
6,4(10,000
1,420,000
390,000
1,250,000
3,800.000
EXPENDITCEE.
&
Permanent Charge of Debt 28,000,000
Other Consolidated Fund
Charges . . . 2,757,478
Army .... 15,541,300
Home Charges of Forces
in India . . . 1,100.000
Navy .... 10,492,935
Civil Services . . . 15,436,442
Customs &InlandEevenue 2,816.709
Post Office . . . 3,420,404
Telegraph Service . . 1,210,736
Packet Service . . 710,468
Total Revenue . 81,560,000
Total Expenditure .81,486,472
A supplementary budget was submitted to the House of Commons
on June 10, 1880, which, while imposing on the one side additional
taxation, the chief being the addition of a penny to the income tax,
and, on the other side, lowering imposts, left the budget estimates
for the financial year 1880-81 with a surplus of 3S1,000Z.
The following table shows the total amounts of the estimated and
actual gross public revenue for the sixteen financial years from 1865
to 1880, together with the proportion of actual receipts per head of
population of the United Kingdom : —
Revexue
Proportion
Years ended
of receipts
Marcli 31
Estimated
Actual receipts
More ( + )
per liead
in tbe
at the
or less ( — )
of
Budgets
Excliequer
than Budget
population
£
£
£
£ .5. (/.
1865
67,128,000
70,313,436
+ 3,185,436
2 7 0
1866
66,392,000
67,812,292
+ 1,420,292
2 5 1
1867
67,013,000
69,434,568
+ 2.421.568
2 5 8
1868
69,970,000
69,600,218
- 369.782
2 5 6
1869
73,150,000
72,591,991
- 558,009
2 6 8
1860
73,515,000
75,434,252
+ 1,919,252
2 8 4
1871
67,634,000
69,945,220
+ 2,311,220
2 4 5
1872
72,315,000
74,708,314
+ 2,393,314
2 7 3
1873
71,846,000
76,608,770
+ 4,762,770
2 8 2
1874
73,762,000
77,335,657
+ 3,673,657
2 8 2
! 1875
74,425,000
74,921,873
+ 496,873
2 6 3
i 1876
76,625,000
77,131,693
+ 506,693
2 7 1
j 1877
78,412,000
78,565,036
+ 153,036
2 7 6
i 1878
79,146,000
79,763,299
+ 617,299
2 7 8
1 1879
83.230,000
83,115,972
- 114,028
2 9 2
i 1880
83,055,000
81,265,000
-1,790,000
2 7 7
214
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The following table shows the total amount of the estimated and
uctnal gross public expenditure for the sixteen years from 1865 to
1880, with the difference between the calculated and real expenses,,
and the proportion of actual payments per head of population : —
Years ended
JIarch 31
EXPENDITUIIE
Estimated
in the
Budgets
Actual pay-
ments out of
the Exchequer
More (+)
or less ( — )
than Budget
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1860
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
£
67,219.000
67,249,000
67.031,000
71,287,000
77,858.000
68,498,000
69,486,000
72,433,000
71,663.000
75,511,815
74,527,000
76,741,000
78.901,000
85,669,000
86,241,110
85,999,871
66.462,206
65,914,357
66,780,396
71,236,242
74,971,816
68,864,752
69,548,539
71,490,020
70,714,448
76,466.510
74,328,040
76,621,773
78,125,227
82,403.495
85,407.789
84,105,754
£
- 786,794
-1,334,643
- 250,604
- 50,758
-2,886,184
+ 366,752
+ 62,539
- 942,980
- 948,552
+ 954,695
- 198,960
- 119,227
- 775,773
-3,265,505
- 833,321
-1,894,117
Proportion
of
expenditure
per head of
population
of the
United
Kingdom
£ s.
(/.
2 5
0
2 4
2
2 4
0
2 6
6
2 8
6
2 4
0
2 4
3
2 5
0
2 4
5
2 7
7
2 5
10
2 6
10
2 7
2
2 9
3
2 10
6
2 9
3
The expenditure for the financial periods 18r38 and 1869 included
supplemental votes for the Abyssinian expedition, to the amount of
5,600.000/., and the expenditure for the year 1873-74 was inclusive
of the sum of 3,200,000/. paid for ' Alabama Claims ' under the
Treaty of Washington. In the expenditure for the year 1875-76
Avere included disbursements not covered by money raised, to the
amount of 276,566/., for the army, and for arrangements for the pur-
chase of Suez Canal shares. The expenditure for 1877-78 included
extraordinary disbursements in connection Avith the Russo-Turkish
Avar, and that I'or the years 1878-79 and 1879-80 a portion of the
cost of the Avar in South Africa.
It will be seen from the above tables that, during the sixteen
financial year.s, ending INIarch 31, from 1865 to^ 1880, in the first
three there Avas a large sur^Dlus, amounting to 3,851,230/. in 1865;
to 1,897,935/. in 1866; and to 2,654,172/. in 1867. But in the
year ending March 31, 1868, there was a considerable deficit,
namely, 1,636.024/., which increased to 2,380,825/. in the year
ending INIarch' 31, 1869, the deficit of both periods _ being due
entirely to the expenditxu-e of the expedition to Abyssinia. The
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
215
financial year 1869-70 showed again a surplus of 6,569,500/. ;
the year 1870-71 a surplus of 396,681/. ; the year 1871-2 a sur-
plus of 3,218,294/.; the year 1872-73 a surplus of 5,894,322/.;
the year 1873-74 a surplus of 869,147/. ; the year 1874-75 a
surplus of 593,833/. ; the year 1875-76 a surplus of 509,920/. ;
and the year 1876-77 a siu-plus of 439,809/. Finally, the year
1877-78 exhibited a deficit of 2,640,197*/., the year 1878-79 a
deficit of 2,291,817/., and the financial year 1879-80 a deficit of
2,840,692/.
During the greater part of the period, there was an almost
uninterrupted reduction of taxation. The changes made in taxa-
tion in the sixteen years, 1864 to 1879, were as follows: —
Years
ending
Mar.31
1864
Taxes repealed or
reduced
^Tz^rt' I Taxes imposed ^^-^
Customs : —
Duties reduced :
Tea .
Tobacco
Charges on bills 1
of lading re- [
pealed . j
Property tax re- )
duced . i
Total .
£
1,641,541
74,055
180,723
2,750,000
Customs : —
Duty on chicory : ")
— increased . J
Excise : —
Chicory :-increased
Stage carriages
Beer dealers :-ad- "1
ditional licence J
Beer retailers
Total .
£
6,811
1,000
11,000
2,000
10,000
4,646,319
30,811
1865
Customs : —
Keduced :
Sugar & molasses
Confectionery
Excise: —
Tea licences reduced
Stamps : —
Various reductions
Property tax red.
Total .
i
i
1,741,272 1
3,112 1
15,000
365,000
1,230,000 1
3,354,384
Excise : — •
Occasional licen- "|
ces to retailers j
Sugar used in 1
brewing: — Duty ■
increased . j
Licences : — vari- ~J
ous trade, imp. /
Chicory duty in- "^
creased . )
Total .
1,000
6,000
110,000
2,000
119,000
1866
Customs : —
Tea duty reduced .
Stamps : — ■
Fire ins. duty red. .
Property tax red. .
Total .
1
2,224,981
520,000
2,600,000
Customs : —
Sugar-cane juice "!_
duty increased J
Total .
1,576
5,344,981
1,576
2l6
THE STATESMAN S TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Years,
ending
Mar.ol
Taxes repealed or
reduced
^^Zn' ! Taxes imposed
Estimated
Amount
1867
Customs & Excise : —
Various reductions
in stage carriages
duties, and post-
horse licences.
601,462 i
Nil .
i
£
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
Stamps : —
Marine Insu- ~1
ranees reduced . /
Assessed Taxes : —
Dog duty reduced .
Total .
210,000
105,000
315,000
Excise : —
Dog licences.
Taxes: —
Income-tax incr. .
Total .
150,000
1,450,000
1,600,000
Nil .
Taxes :—
Income-tax incr, .
1,450,000
Customs & Excise : —
Various reductions
Stamps : —
Fire Ins. repealed
Various taxes rep. .
1,231,687
1,000,000 ;
166,983 i
1,450,000
3,848,670
Customs : —
Beer, spruce: in-')
creased . /
Excise: —
Licences imposed in
lieu of Assessed
Taxes repealed
Total
114
1,112,886
Income-tax reduced .
Total .
1,113,000
Customs : —
Sugar reduced
Excise : —
Licences repealed .
Stamps : —
Stamp upon News- "1
papers repealed 1
Stamps reduced
Income-tax reduced .
Total .
2,783,281
40,000
120,000
201,400
1,500,000
4,644,681
Customs :—
Spirits, perfumed, "i
increased . ./
Excise : —
; Licence to carry ~1
Guns imposed J
Sugar used in "j
Brewing, in- I
creased . . J
2,338
75,000
70,000
Total .
147,338
Customs : —
Various small re- "\
ductions . j
Total .
1
45
45
Customs : —
Duties imposed . 131
Taxes :—
Income-tax inc. . 3,050,000
Total . . 3,050,131
GEEAT BRITAIN AND lEELAND.
21'
Years
ending
Mar.Sl
Taxes repealed or i Estimated
reduced Amount
_, . , Estimated
Taxes unposed Amount
i
il873
' 1874
i
1
Customs and Excise :
Chicory reduced .
Coflfee
Income Tax reduced
Total
£ \
61,868 1
191,301 i
3,642,000
3,895,169
Customs : — £
Chloroform, duty ~l q^
increased . J
Total . . 64
Ciistoms : —
Sugar Duty red. .
Excise : —
Duty repealed
Income Tax reduced
Total .
1,617,380
30,000
1,756,000
Excise : —
Sugar used in 1
Brewing duty [■
increased . J
Total .
30,000
30,000
3,403,380
2,771,903
1,840,000
4,611,903
' 1875
1
i ■
Customs and Excise :
Duties repealed .
Income tax reduced
Total .
Excise : —
i Sugar used in"!
brewing, duty r
increased . j
Total .
57,000
57,000
jl876
1
Excise duties .
Stamps repealed
Total .
60,000 "' Nil
6,000 1
66,000 1
j
i
1877
Licence Excise | 26,000
Duties reduced J '
Duties on Offices ~| i
and Pensions > 950
reduced J
Income Tax re- 1
duced by exemp- [ i 390,000
tions j 1
Total . . 416,950"^
Taxes :—
Income Tax "1
increased j
Total .
1,966.000
1,966,000
1878
1879
1
Stamps : — 1
Duties reduced . 6,000 i| Nil
j j
3,600,000
750,000 ,
1
100,000 1
4,460,000
House Duty re- \ "n oOO ' Income Tax in-"!^
duced i i ' creased J
Tax on Machi-"\ 80 000 1 Tobacco Duties"!
nery reduced j ' increased J
Total. .' 110,000! Dog Licences inO
1 creased /
Total .
2l8
THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The subjoined table gives an abstract of total alterations of taxes
ill the sixteen financial years, ending March 31, from 1864 to 1879 : —
Repealed or
Reduced
£
]> 15,219,888
17,158,000
468,656
2,428,400
Imposed
Actual
Diminution (— )
or Addition ( + )
Customs .....
Excise .....
Property and Income Tux
Other Taxes ....
Stamps (incl. Succession Duty)
£
2,498,950
11,516,000
£
-12,720,968
- 6,642.000 i
458,656'
- 2,428,400
Total ....
35,264,944
14,014,920
-21,250,024
The revenue from the most important of direct taxes, that upon
incomes, underwent many alterations from the time it was established
in its present form in 1842, till the year 1880.
The annual revenue during each of the financial years from 1870
to 1878 was as follows : —
Tax
in £
Annual
Receipt
Rate jdeklecl
by Id. in tlie £
£
1.499,351
1,614.761
1,674.342
1,757,537
1,871,800
1,945,600
1,963,800
1,940,000
1,945,100
Iiimitations.
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
I 1875
1 1876
1877
1878
od.
■id.
6c/.
4rZ.
3d.
2d.
2d.
U.
3d.
£
10,044,000
6,350,000
9.084,000
7,600,000
5,691,000
4,306,000
4,109,000
5,280,000
5,820,000
"1 On incomes of and above £100,
I with an abatement of £60 on
J incomes under £200.
On incomes of and above £100,
but with an abatement of £80
1 on incomes under £300.
J
~| On incomes of and above £l50,
K with an abatement of £120 on
J incomes under £400.
The total amount annually raised by local taxation was as follows
in the three divisions of the United Kingdom in the year ending
March 31, 1874, this being the latest official return: —
Divisions
Receiots from
Taxes
Raised 'oy Loans
Total local
Revenue
from aU sources
£
37,731.193
3,202,714
4,699,908
!
1 England and "Wales
j Scotland (partly estimated) .
i Ireland .....
1
£
23,897,029
2,372,557
2,996,009
£
8,201,499
149,494
129,493
8,480,486
Total for United-Kingdom
29,265,595
45,533,815
The following table exhibits the amount of the various branches
GKEAT BRITAIN AKD IRELAND.
219
of local expenditure m ecich of the three divisions of the United King-
dom in the year ending March 31, 1874: —
Local Expenditure
ExGi.AXD AX]) Waxes.
In the Metropolis : —
Poor Eelief, inchiding "Workhouse Loans repaid
All other Parochial Expenditure payable out of Poor \
Eates . . J
Local Management by Vestries, &e. (exclusive of"|
Metropolitan Board of Works), Maintenance of ~>
Roads, &c., Watering, Lighting. Sewerage, &c. . J
Metropolitan Board of Works : Local Public Works, "1
Sewerage, &c. ......./
Corporation and Commissioners of Sewers of City of T
London. Local Public Works, Sewerage, &c. . J
Metropolitan Police .......
School Boards ........
Burial Boards, &c. ........
Total Local Expenditure in 3Ietropolis
Countr}' Districts : —
Poor Rehef, including Workhouse Loans repaid
All other Parochial Expenditure payable out of Poor ^
Rates ........./
County purposes : Police, Prisons, Lunatic Asylums, &c. .
Municipal Boroughs for Public Works. Police, &c. .
LTrban Sanitary Authorities ......
Riu'al ,, ,, ......
For Maintenance of Public Roads, by —
Higliway Boards ......
Turnpike Trusts . ...
School Boards ........
Burial Boards for Piablic Cemeteries ....
Other purposes ........
Total Local Expenditure in Country Districts
Coast Districts : —
For Erection, Maintenance, and Repairs of Commercial "\
Harboiirs ........ j
For Erection, Maintenance, and Repairs of Lighthouses, "1
&c., and for Pilotage and saving Life at Sea . /
Total England and Wales
£
1,636,541
136,607
1,773,048
1,516,964
1,385,015
1,136,371
1,041,601
743,448
56,710
7,653,157
6,053,998
_583,154
6,637,152
2,780,165
3,573,433
7,958,208
159,419
1,575,608
671,099
1,214,617
341,971
422,465
25,334,137
3,082,571
680,689
36,750,554
220
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Local Expenditure
Scotland.
Parochial Boards for Relief of the Poor .
Town Authorities ......
County Assessments : Police, Prisons, Roads, &e.
Turnpike Trusts
School Boards
Other purposes
851,365
1,176,000
258,000
180,158
327,847
364,172
Total Scotland . . . . . . . | 3,157,542
Ireland.
Poor Relief
Town Authorities ......
Grand Jury Cess: Roads, Bridges, Prisons, &e.
Police ........
Harbours and Lights .....
Other purposes ......
Total Ireland
Total United Kingdom
1,000,880
663,776
1,139,583
1,214,183
477,861
119,341
4,615,624
44,523,720
According to a return issued in the Parliamentary session of 1876,
the total amount of taxes actually received at the E.xx;hequer amounted
to 65,353,000/. in the financial year ending March 31, 1874. Adding
this sum to the 29,247,595/. raised in the same period by local
taxes — exclusive of loans — the total taxation of the United
Kingdom in the year was 94,600,595/., or 21. 18s. lie?, per head of
the popidation.
The largest branch of national expenditure, amounting to three-
fourths of the receipts from local taxation in the United Kingdom,
is that for the interest and management of the National Debt. The
expenditure on this account more than quintupled in the course of
the last hundred years, since the war of independence of the United
States. At the commencement of the American struggle, in 1775,
the total charge for interest and management was less than 4^
millions sterling ; but at the end of the war it had risen to 9^
millions. The twenty years warfare with France, from 1793 to
1814, added nearly 23 millions sterling to the annual charge of the
debt, which had risen to 32 millions in 1817, year of consolidation
of the English and Irish exchequer. Since this date, the capital
of the debt went on decreasing, the total decrease to the present
time, amounting to 56 millions sterling, bringing with it a decline
of the annual charge for interest and management to the amount ot
upwards of five millions.
GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
221
The following table exhibits the growth of the debt from its
origin to the year 1879, at various periods : —
Periods
Debt at the Eevolution, in 1689
Excess of debt contracted during the reign
of William III. above debt paid oflf
Debt at the accession of Queen Anne, in 1702
Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign
Debt at the accession of George I., in 1714
Debt paid off during the reign of George
I., above debt contracted
Debt at the accession of George 11., in 1727
Debt con tractedfrom tlie accession of George
II. till the peace of Paris in 1763, three
years after the accession of George III.
Debt in 1763
Paid during peace, from 1763 to 1775
Debt at the commencement of the American
war, in 1775 .....
Debt contracted during the American war
Debt at the conclusion of the American war.
in 1784
Paid during peace from 1784 to 1793
Debt at the commencement of tlie French
war, in 1793 ......
Debt contracted during tlie French war
Total funded and unfunded debt on the 1st
of Februiiry, 1817. when the English and
Irish Exchecjuers were consolidated
Debt cancelled from the 1st of February,
1817, to 5th of Januaiy, 1836 . " '.
Debt, and charge thereon otli of January,
1836
Debt, including terminable annuities, and
charge thereon, 31st of March, 1880 .
Capital
of
Debt
Intere-st
and Manage-
ment
£
664,263
15,730,439
&
39,855
1,271,087
16,394,702
37,750,661
1,310,942
2,040,416
54,145,363
2,053,125
3,351,358
1,133,807
52.092,238
86,773,192
2,217,551
2,634,500
138,865,430
10.281,795
4,852,051
380,480
128.583.635
121,267.993
4,471,571
4,980,201
249,851,628
10,501,380
9,451,772
243,277
239.350,148 9,208.495
601,500.343 I 22,829,696
840,850,491 32.038.191
53,211,675 2,894,674
787.638,816
774,044,235
29,143,517
27,488,185
The capital of the national debt varied as tbllows during the fifteen
years, ending March 31, from 1866 to 1880 : —
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Financial
Debt
Years
encled
Mai-cli 31
Funded
Terminable
Annuities.
&
Unfunded
Total
A
£
£
1866
773,941.190
23.833.621
8.187,700
805,962.511
1867
770.188,625
25,607.076
7,956,800
803,752,501
1868
741,844.981
53.258.874
7,911,100
803,014,955
1869
741,112,640
51.913.623
9.896,100
802,922,363
1870
741,514.681
49,667.479
6.761,500
797,943,660
1871
732,043,270
54,413,310
6,091,000
792,547,580
1872
731,756,962
52,286,775
5,155,100
789,198,837 !
1873
727,374.082
50,201,768
4,829,100
782,404,950 !
1874
723.514,005
48,024,178
4.479,600
776,017.783 j
1875
714,797,715
52,311,487
5,239,000
772,348,202 !
1876
713,657,517
49,078.792
11,401.800
774,138,109 1
1877
712.621.355
46,549,819
13,943,800
773,114,974 1
1878
710,843,007
43,644,057
20,603,000
775,090,064 j
1879
709,430,593
40,345,454
25,870,100
775,646,147
1880
710,476,359
36,222.976
27,344,900
774,044,235 '
The alterations in amounts of unfiinded debt after 1866 were
caused by the conversion of stock into terminable annuities. The
unfunded debt was inckisive of Suez Canal bonds to the amount
of 4,000,000/. in 1876, of 3,900,900/. in 1877, of 3,929,200/. in
1878, of 3,866,300/. in 1879, and of 3,801,000/. in 1880.
The balances in the Exchequer for the sixteen years from 1865
to 1 880 amounted to the following sums : —
Financial Year
ended March 31
Amount
&
7.690,922
Financial Years
ended Marcli 31
Amount
1865
1873
£
1,992,705
1866
5.851,314
1874
17,442.854
1867
7,294,151
1875
6,265,322
1868
4,781,846
1876
5,119.587
1869
4,707.259
1 1877
5,988.650
1870
8,606,647
1878
6,243,389
1871
7.023,435
1879
6,915,756
1872
9.342,652
1880
3.273,428
By the provisions of an Act of Parliament, passed in the session
of 1875, the national debt is to l»e gradually reduced by means of
a new permanent Sinking Fund, maintained by annual votes of
the legislature. The charge of the Sinking Fund for the financial
year ending March 31, 1876, was fixed at 27,-! 00,000/. ; for the
year 1876-77 at 27,700,000/. ; and for every subsequent year at
28,000,000/. It was also provided that the charges under this head
should be entered under the Consolidated Fund.
GEEAT BEITAIN AND IRELAND. 22'
Army and Navy.
1. Arm}).
The maintenance of a standing army, in time of peace, without tlie
consent of Parliament, is prohiliited by the Bill of Eights of 1690.
From that time to the present, the nvimber of troops which the
security of the kingdom and its possessions rendered it necessary to
maintain, as well as the cost of the different branches of the service
in detail, have been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House of
Commons. The amount of the military force to be maintained for
the year is always a matter for the decision of the Government. The
question is annually brought under consideration, shortly before the
commencement of the parliamentary session, at a meeting of the
Cabinet, when, on the basis of communications made by the Com-
mander-in-Chief, a decision is arrived at as to the number of officers
and men, of each arm of the service, to be maintained for the coming
year. Upon this decision, the Secretary of State for War fi-ames
the ' Army Estimates,' or detailed accounts of the strength and cost
•of the army, which are submitted in ' votes ' — 25 in the estimates
of 1880-81 — to the approval of the House of Commons.
Parliament exercises another important means of control oi^er the
•army. Foi-merly in time of war, or rebellion, the troops, kept only
at such periods, were subject to martial law, and liable to be
severely punished for mutiny or desertion. But when armies
began to be maintained in time of peace, questions of discipline
•arose. The common law, which alone prevailed, knew of no
distinction between a citizen and a soldier, so that, if the soldier
deserted, he could only be punished for breach of contract ; if he
struck his officer, he was only liable to an indictment for the assault.
Such questions soon came before the tribunals, and Chief Justice
Holt, when Recorder of London, decided that, although the Kino-
may, by his prerogative, enlist soldiers, even in time of peace, still
if there was no statute passed toprmish mutiny, and to subject them
to a particular discipline, they could not be punished for any military
■offence, and they were only amenable to the same laws as the rest
•of the King's subjects. Hence the authority of Parliament became
necessary for the maintenance of military discipline. Parliamem;
granted this in an Act, limited in its duration to one year, which
Act was sixbsequently passed at the commencement of every session
under the name of the ' Mutiny Act,' investing the Crown with large
powers to make regulations for the good government of the army,
and to frame the Articles of War, Avhich form the military code.
Subject to such restrictions, the army has now become a reco!?nised
part of the constitution, under the will of Parliament.
224
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
According to the army estimates laid before the House of Commons
in the session of 1880, the regular army of the United Kingdom —
exclusive of India — during the year ending March 31, 1881, is to
consist of 7,375 commissioned officers, 17,314 non-commissioned
officers, trimipeters, and drummers, and 107,170 rank and file, being
a total of 131,859 men of all ranks. This force is to be composed of
the following staff, regiments, and miscellaneous establishments : —
Branches of the Military Service
Officers on the General and Departmental
Staff:—
General staff ....
Army accountants ....
Chaplain's department .
Medical and veterinary department
Commissariat department, &c. .
Total Staff
Eegiments :
Eoyal horse artillery, inchidinf
ridinr
establishment ....
Cavalry, including life and horse guards
Royal artillery ....
Royal engineers ....
Army Service Corps
Infantry, including foot guards
Army hospital corps
West India regiments
Colonial corps, including Gun Lascars
Total Regiments
Staff of Militia :—
Artillery .....
Infantry .....
Total Militia Staff
Miscellaneous Establishments :
Instruction in gunnery and engineering
Royal military academy. Woohvieh .
Royal military college, Sandhurst .
Staff College
Regimental schools
Manufacturing establishments
Various ditto ....
Total Miscellaneous
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers
trumpeters,
and
drummers
237
245
86
611
361
1,540
138
138
Rank and
file
.
122
229
2,783
. 1 603
1,382
10.949
• 1 G78
1,491
16,847
•
391
779
4,053
.
2
525
2.503
3,364
6,823
65,830
52
310
1,590
102
156
1,680
20
61
506
5,334
49
11,756
106.641
891
252
301
24
4,007
—
4,898
—
63
71
22
21
8
34
22
18
6
2
2
14
175
—
16
37
—
21
112
300
137
432
399
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
225
Year 1880-81.
Officers
Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,
and
dmmmers
Rank and
file
Kecapitulation :
Total, general and departmental staff
„ regiments
„ staff of Militia ....
,, miscellaneous ditto
Total regular army, the cost of which is "1
defrayed from Army Grants . J
1,540
5,334
301
137
138
11,756
4,898
432
106,701
399
7,312
17,224
107,100
The following table exhibits, after official returns, the number of
men, rank and file, maintained for service in the United Kingdonr*
since the year 1800, at quinquennial periods up to 1870, and from
that date to 1876 annually, on the 1st of January in every year : — -
Year
Cavalry '
Artillery
Engineers
Infantry ,
Total
1800
14,003
6,935
421
49,386
70,745
1805
17,839
13,692
786
74,014
106,331
1810
20,405
16,814
974
74,325
112,518
1815
14,913
9,617
1,322
54,879 ;
80,731
1820
9,900
4,046
371
46,799 '
61,116
1825
7,710
3,463
452
34,639
46,264
1830
8,036
4,037
682
35,339
48,094
1835
7,389
4,017
566
35,242
47,214
1840
7,190
4,118
544
38,624
50,476
1845
7,507
4,183
647
47,533
69,870
1850
8,108
7,353
1,201
50,415
67,077
1855
7,105
8,569
885
32,783
49.342
1860
11,389
14,045
1,707
62,366
89,507
1865
11,015
13,338
2,624
51,433
78,410
1870
10,910
14,469
2,890
56,092
84,361
1871
10,792
13,529
2,632
55,519
82,472
1872
11,765
14,334
3,356
64,947
94,402
1873
12,745
16,892
3,662
67,846
101,145
1874
13,051
19,205
3,646
62,817
98,719
1875
13,358
19,418
4,020
55,590
92,386
1876
13,375
17,806
4,007
61,037
1 96,275
The distribution of the army on the 1st of January, 1880, -was as
follows : — 40 per cent, of the British army were stationed in England
and Wales, 2 per cent, in Scotland, 12 per cent, in Ireland, and
46 per cent, abroad.
The total force of the British anny in India was stated to
amount to 62,653 men of all ranks in the estimates of 1880-81.
The number in the year 1871-72 amounted to 62,864, in 1872-73 to
Q
226
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
62,957, in 1874-75 to 62,840, in 1875-76 to 62,850, in 1876-77 to
62,849, and from 1877 to 1880 of 62,653 men. (See India, p. 685.)
The troops here enumerated do not constitute the whole armed
force of the United Kingdom ; but the army estimates for the year
ending March 31, 1881, as well as former years, contained votes of
money for four classes of reserve, or auxiliary forces, namely, the
militia, the yeomanry cavalry, the volunteer corps, and the enrolled
pensioners and army reserve force. The total number of militia
provided for in the army estimates of 1880-81, was 139,111, of
which number 113,484 men were in training at the end of 1879.
The total number of yeomanry cavalry provided for was 14,511,
of v;hich number there was 10,508 in training at the same date.
The total number of volunteers provided for in the army estimates
of 1880-81, was 245,648, of whom there were in training 206,265
at the end of 1879. The total of volunteers comprised 43,499 ar-
tillery, 600 light horse, 9,870 engineers, 120 mounted rifles, and
119,119 rifle volunteers, with a staff of 1,440. Finally, the number
of enrolled pensioners and army reserve force provided for in the
army estimates of 1880-81, was 47,000, divided into two classes,
23,000 men forming the first, and 23,000 the second class.
The total cost of the British army, provided for by Parhament in
the army estimates for 1880-81, was calculated at 15,541,300/.; but
from this amount there was deducted the sum of 561,000L for
' estimated exchequer extra receipts,' leaving the net charge as
army services for the year ending March 31, 1881, at 14,980,300/.
The following is an abstract of the votes of the army estimates for
the year 1880-81, with the corresponding sums of the financial
year 1879-80 :—
Aemy Estimates.
I. Eegxtlab Fohces :
General staff and regimental pay, allowances, and
charges ........
Di^^.ne service .......
Administration of martial law ....
Medical establishment and services .
II. AuxixiARY ANT) Resebve Fobces :
Militia pay and allowances
Yeomanry cavalry .....
Volunteer corps
Enrolled pensioners and army reserve force
III. Commissariat Establishments and Services :
Commissariat establishments and wages
Provisions, transport, and other services .
Clothing establishments and supplies
Manufacture and repair of war stores
IV. Works and Buildings:
Superintending establishment and expenditure
for works, buildings, and repairs, at home and
abroad 853,300 853,000
1879-80
1880-81
£
£
4,598,000
4,579,000
60,600
50,700
29,400
29,800
266,200
308,400
495,200
552,900
47,900
74,400
512,400
539,600
203,000
208,800
[CEs:
392,400
386,700
3,007,000
2,790,000
801,600
825,100
l,3c0,000
1.185,000
GKEAT BRITAIN AND lEELAND.
227
V. Various Services;
Military education ....
Miscellaneous services
Administration of the army
Total effective services .
VI. Non-effective Services :
Rewards for military service
Pay of general officers
Pay of reduced and retired officers
Widows' pensions and compassionate allowances
Pensions for wounds
In-pensions
Out-pensions
Superannuation allowances
Militia and volunteer corps
Total non-eflfective services .
Recapitulation :
Effective services ....
Non-effective services
Total effective and non-effective services
1879-80
1880-81
£
£
16.5,800
162,200
34,400
36,400
232.700
21.5.900
13,019,900
12,797,900
33,100
33,900
98,000
92.000
918,100
892.700
5 121,500
126,200
16,800
16,500
35,900
34,300
1,186,000
1,312,000
178,600
196..500
37,800
39,300
^,626,800
2,743,400
13,019,900
12,797,900
2,625,800
2,743,400
15,645,700
15,641,300
It will be seen that the estimates for 1880-81 showed a net decrease
of 104,400Z. as compared with the previous year's vote ; the amount
of the vote in 1879-80 having been 15,645,700/.— inclusive of
various sums voted upon supplementary estimates — and the amount
of the estimate for 1880-81 being 15,541,300Z. The amount
paid into the exchequer as extra receipts, during the year 1879-80,
was 570,500/., as compared with 561,000/. estimated to be paid
in during 1880-81. The Exchequfr Extra Receipts are derived
from supplies voted in the army estimates of previous years and
not expended, and include contributions from Colonial revenues in
aid of the military expenditure of the United Kingdom.
Under various laws of army organisation, completed in 1876,
Great Britain and Ireland are partitioned into ten military districts
or general officers' commands. These are further divided into
sub-districts, the division varying with the arms of the service.
For the infantry there are 66 sub-districts, commanded bv line
colonels; for the artillery there are 12 sub-districts, commanded
I)y artillery colonels ; and for the cavalry there are two districts,
commanded by cavalry colonels. The authority of the Commander-
in-Chief is distributed, in the first instance, to the general officers
commanding districts, and passes downward from them to the
infantry colonels, the artillery colonels, and the cavalry colonels.
The brigade of an infantry sub- district consists, as a rule, of two
line battalions, two militia battalions, the brigade depot, rifle volun-
teer corps, and infantry of the army reserve. Of the two line
q2
228
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
battalions one is generally abroad and the second at one of the home
stations. An artillery sub-district contains, in addition to the royal
artillery, the militia artillery, and that of the volunteers and of the
army reserve ; and a cavalry colonel similarly has command, not
merely over the cavalry regiments within his district, but over the
yeomanry, volunteers, and reserve cavalry. The colonel of each
district is responsible for the training, inspection, recruiting, and
instruction of all the forces under his command.
A Parliamentary return issued in the session of 1879, and bearing
the date of the War Office of August 16, 1878, gives as follows the
numbers of commissioned officers and non-commissioned officers
and men, native of each of the three divisions of the United King-
dom, composing the army
Commissioned officers
Non-commissioned officers and men .
EnEjlish
Scottish ,
Irish
5,738
124,708
785
14,235
1,386
39,121
130,446
15,020
40,507
The infantry of the line, largest branch of the service, was officered,
at the date of the return, by 3,232 Englishmen, 439 Scotsmen, and
926 Irishmen, while the rank and file consisted of 74,367 English-
men, 9,477 Scotsmen, and 29,448 Irishmen.
It appears from a report of the Director- General of Military
Education, issued as a Parliamentary paper in 1874, that, on the
1st of January, 1874, ovit of regiments and corps amounting to
178,356 men, 10,724 could neither read nor write, 9,543 covdd read
but not write, 99,910 could read and write, and 58,179 were better
aducated. There exists compulsory education in the army, the rule
laid down being that every recruit is obliged to attend school until
he is in possession of a fourth class certificate of education.
The establishments for military educational purposes comprise the
Coimcil of Military Education, Royal Military Academy at Wool-
wich, Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst, Royal Military
Asylum and Normal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Military
School at Dublin, Department for Instruction of Artillery Officers,
Military Medical School, and a varying number of Garrison Schools
and Libraries. In the army estimates for 1880-81, the sum pro-
vided for military education was 162,215/., representing a decrease
of 3,62 H. over the previous year. The two principal educational
establishments for officers are the Royal Military Academy at
Woolwich, and the Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst.
In the army estimates of 1880-81 , the cost of the Woolwich Academy
was set down at 40,980/., and of the Sandhurst Colleges at 48,643/.
At Sandhurst, 20 ' Queen's cadets ' are educated for the Indian army,
for which 3,000/. per annum is paid out of the revenues of India.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229
2. Navy.
The government of the navy, vested originally in a Lord High
Admiral, has been carried on since the reign of Queen Anne — with
the exception of a short period, April 1827 to September 1828, when
the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., revived the ancient
title — by a Board, known as the Board of Admiralty, and the mem-
bers of which are styled ' Lords Commissioners for executing the
office of Lord High Admiral.' The Board consists of five members,
namely, the First Lord, who is always a member of the Cabinet, and
four assistant commissioners, styled, respectively. Senior Naval Lord,
Third Lord, Junior Naval Lord, and Civil Lord. Under the Board
is a Financial Secretary, changing, like the five Lords, with the
Government in power ; while the fixed administration, independent
of the state of political parties, consists of two Permanent Secretaries,
and a number of heads of departments, the Controller of the Navy,
the Accountant-General, Director-General of the Medical Department,
Director of Engineering and Architectural Works, Director ol
Ti-ansports, Director of Contracts, Director of Naval Construction,
Director of Naval Ordnance, and the Superintendents of Victualling
and Stores. The First Lord has supreme authority, and all
questions of importance are left to his decision. The Senior
Naval Lord directs the movements of the fleet, and is responsible for
its discipline. The Third Lord has the management of the dock-
yards, and superintends the building of the ships. The Junior
Naval Lord deals with the victualling of the fleets, and with the
transport department. The Civil Lord is answerable for the accounts,
and the Financial Secretaiy for all piu-chases of stores.
The navy of the United Ivingdom is a perpetual establishment,
and the statutes and orders by which it is governed and its discipline
maintained — unlike the military laws, Avhich the Sovereign has
absolute power to frame under the authority of an Act of Parlia-
ment— have been permanently established and defined with great
precision by the legislature. The distinction also prevails in the
mode of voting the charge for these two forces. For the army, the
first vote sanctions the number of men to be maintained ; the second,
the charge for their pay and maintenance. For the navy, no vote is
taken for the numberof men; the firstvote is for the ivages of the stated
number of men and boys to be maintained ; and though the result
may be the same, this distinction exists both in practice and principle.
According to the naval estimates granted by Parliament in the
session of 1880, the expenditure for the navy, for the year ending
March 31, 1881, will be 10,492,935Z. as compared with 10,586,894/.
voted for the year 1879-80, or a decrease of 93,959^. The fol-
lowing is an abstract of the estimates for 1880-81 as compared with
the votes for 1879-80 :—
230
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Navy Estimates.
Wages to seamen and marines ....
Victuals and clothing for ditto ....
Admiralty ofBce ......
Coastguard service, royal naval coast volunteers,
and royal naval reserve .....
Scientific branch ......
Dockyards and naval yards at home and abroad
Victualling yards and transport establishments at
home and abroad ......
Medical establishments at home and abroad
Marine dinsions
Naval stores, and ships built by contract :
Naval stores ......
Ships &c. built by contract
New works, building, machinery, and repairs
Medicines and medical stores ....
Mai'tial law and charges .....
Miscellaneous services .....
Total for the effective service
Half-pay, reserved half-pay, and retired pay to
oifieers of the navy and royal marines
Military pensions and allowances
Civil pensions and allowances ....
Total for the naval service ....
1879-80
£
2,708,695
1,003,375
185,400
1880-81,
£
2,721,536
1,013,524
179,485
193,870
105,576
1,355,000
194,278
113,107
1,343,585
76,570
67,030
21,408
71,160
;63,445
21,402
1,030,000
842,000
666.749
75,710
7,985
140,539
1,011,000
769,000
558,950
75,150
9,250
135,760
8,379,907
8,280,632
891,615
803,920
301,211
895,156
823,219
322,428
10,376,653
10,321,435
For the Service of other Departments of Goatirnment.
Army department (conveyance of troops) . . 210,2501 171,500
Grand total .... 10,586,903] 10,492,935
A supplementary grant for the navy, amounting to 150,000/., was
made by Parliament late in the session of 1880.
The number of seamen and marines provided for the naval ser-
vice in the estimates for 1880-81 was as follows: —
For the Coastguard :
For the Fleet :
Seamen .... 35,700
Boys, including 2,200 for
training .... 4,900
Marines, afloat .
„ on shore
0,200
6,800
40,600
13,000
53,600
Afloat (included with fleet) and
On shore, officers and men . . 4,000
Indian Service :
Ofllcers and men .... 1 ,200
Grand Total . 58,800
Included in the number of 35,700 seamen of the fleet, provided
for in the estimates of 1880-81 were 136 flag oflficers ; 30 officers
superintending dockyards and naval establishments; and 2,691
other commissioned oflicers, on active service.
The efficient strength of the navy of the United Kingdom is shown
in the subjoined official retxirn, annexed to the navy estimates for
GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
231
1880-81, giving a comparative statement of the number of steam
ships and sailing vessels — classified under the two heads of sea-
going steamers, and reserve steamers and sailing vessels — afloat and
in commission on the 1st December 1878, and on the 1st December
1879:—
SMps in Commission
Sea-going steamers : —
Ironclad line-of-battle ships .
Other „ „
Ironclad frigates and corvettes
Other „ „ „ .
Sloops and small vessels .
Total sea-going steamers
Reserve steamers and sailing vessels :—
First reserve steamers
Receiving and depot steamers .
„ ,, „ sailing vessels
Surveying steamers .
Troop ships, steamers
Store ships, steamers
Tenders, steamers .
„ sailing vessels .
Coast-guard cruisers, steamers
,, „ sailing vessels
Gunnery training vessels, and sloops, sailing
Drill ships for the Naval Reserve .
Decl, 1878
13
28
67
Total reserve steamers and sailing vessels
Total navy ......
114
13
4
7
3
38
11
4
22
9
9
135
249
Dec. 1,1879
10
26
66
107
9
6
12
4
6
2
37
11
4
22
9
9
131
238
The most important division of the navy, the ironclad fleet of
war, consisted, at the end of 1880 of 68 ships, afloat and building,
of which number 48 were described as efficient, while 3 were not
strictly British, being built solely for the defence of the Colonies,
and 17 had become inefficient for naval warfare. The following is
a tabidated Hst of the 48 efficient ironclads, divided into five classes,
according to strength of armour and armament, and mode of con-
struction. The columns of the table exhibit, after the name of each
ship, first, the minimum and maximum thickness of armour ;
secondly, the number and weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated
horse-power of engines ; and fourthly, the tonnage, that is displace-
ment in tons. Those ironclads marked with an asterisk (*) before
their names were not completed, at the end of 1880 : —
232
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Armour
Guns
Indicated
Displace-
Kames of ironclads
tuiCKness ,
inches
Number
Weight
Horse-
power
ment, or
tonnage
FiHST Class :
Inflexible
16 to 24
4
81 -ton
8,000
11,406
Dreadnought
14
4
38-ton
8,000
10,886
Devastation .
12 to 14
4
35-ton
6,652
9,387
Thunderer .
12 to 14
{I
38-ton "1
35-ton J
38-ton
6,270
9,387
*Colossus
16 to 18
4
5,500
9,150
*Majestie
16 to 18
4
38-ton
6,000
9,146
Second Class:
Neptune
10 to 12
4
3 5 -ton
6,000
9,000
*Agamemnon .
10 to 12
4
25-ton
6,000
8,492
*Ajax ....
10 to 12
4
25-ton
6,000
8,492
Superb ....
10 to 12
4
25-ton
7,430
8,760
Belleisle
10
4
25-ton
3,200
4,720
Orion ....
10 to 12
4
25-ton
3,900
4,720
Glatton
10 to 12
2
25-ton
2,868
4,912
Rupert ....
9 to 14
2
18- ton
4,200
5,358
Hotspur
8 to 12
1
25-ton
3,497
4,010
*Conqueror . ,
4 (steel)
2
25 ton
4,500
6,200
^Polyphemus .
3 (steel)
no
guns
5.500
2,640
Third Class:
Monarch
8 to 10
[1
1 8
25-ton ~1
6i-ton/
18-tou1
12-ton \
6i-ton J
7,842
8,322
Hercules
6 to 9
\ '
7,200
8,677
I 4
Sultan
6 to 9
I 4
18-ton"
12-ton ■
8,629
9,286
1
Alexandra
8 to 12
/ 2
Uo
25-ton (^
18-ton /
9,492
8,615
i
T^m^raire .
8 to 11
\ 4
25-ton 1
18-ton/
7,700
8.540
;l
*Collingwood .
8 to 10
4(steel)
35-ton
7,000
9,150
Nelson ....
8 to 10
{»
18- ton "1
12-ton/
6,640
7,323
Northampton
8 to 10
{s
1 8-ton "1
12-ton/
6,070
7,323
Shannon
8 to 10
{I
1 8-ton \
12-ton/
3,370
5,439
Bellerophon .
4 to 9
{"
12-ton ~1
6 2-ton J
6,521
7,551
Audacious
6 to 8
14
12-ton
4,021
6,034
Invincible
6 to 8
10
12-ton
4,832
6,034
Iron Duke
6 to 8
10
12-ton
4,268
6,034
Swiftsure
6 to 8
10
12-tou
4,913
6,333
Triumph
6 to 8
10
1 2-tou
4,892
6,660
Penelope
5 to 6
10
12-ton
4,703
4,394
Fourth Class :
Cyclops
6 to 10
4
18-ton
1,660
3,430
Gorgon . . ' .
6 to 10
4
18- ton
1,670
3,430
Hecate
6 to 10
4
18-ton
1,755
3,430
Hydra ....
6 to 10
4
18 ton
1,472
3,430
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
233
Armour-clad ships
Fifth Ciass:
Warrior
Black Prince
Minotaur
Achilles
Agincourt
Northumberland
Lord Warden
Hector .
Valiant
Defence
Resistance
Armour
thickness ;
inches
■H
H
to 5^
u
Guns
Number Weight
/I
u
{'?
Ca
no
\16
rio
116
18
18
18
16
18
9-ton 1
6^-ton /
9-ton 1
65-ton/
12-ton \
6i-tonJ
1 2-ton \
6|-tonJ
12-ton \
65-ton J
12-ton "i
6 5- ton J
6^-ton
65-ton
6^-ton
65-ton
6i-ton
Indicated
Horse-
power
5,469
5,772
6,702
5,722
6,867
6,558
6,706
3,256
3,256
2,537
2,537
Displace-
ment, or
tonnage
9,137
9,137
10,627
9,694
10,627
10,627
7,842
6,713
6,713
6,070
6,070
The following is a succinct description of the most notable
ironclads, under their divisions, as in the preceding tabular list,
into five classes : —
First class — Six turret-ships for great naval warfare at home
and abroad : the Inflexible, the Dreadnought, the Devastation, the
Thunderer, the Colossus, and the Majestic. The requirements
aimed at in the construction of this class of ironclads were to carry
the heaviest possible guns and armour, to be very manageable, and to
have room for a large supply of coal. The principal war-ship of this
class, the Inflexible, built at Portsmouth dockyard, and completed in
1878, is 320 feet in length, and 75 feet in breadth at the water line,
with a total weight of armour 3,155 tons. The power and strength of
the ship is concentrated in its central part, which forms a citadel 12 feet
high, one half above and half below the water, is 75 feet broad and
110 feet long, and encloses within its rectangular walls the engines
and boilers, the base of the turrets, the hydraulic loading gear, the
magazines, and all those parts of the ship which are most vulnerable.
Its walls are 41 inches thick, and consist of armour-plates varying in
thickness from 1 6 inches to 24 inches, with strong teak backing
between and behind the plates. The ship extends 18 feet below
the citadel and 105 feet before and behind it, and the office of these
extramural portions, which are in the main unai-moured, is to float
the citadel, described by the designer as ' a rectangular armoured
■castle.' The central part of this armoured castle is filled by the two
turrets, 12 feet high, with an internal diameter of 28 feet, placed to
'the right and left — unlike aJl other double turret ships, where both
234 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Stand in a line — each holding two 81 -ton guns, capable of firing^
1,6501b. shot, with a charge of 300 lbs. powder. The Inflexible was
originally designed to be a mastless turret-ship, but when already-
far advanced in construction, it was decided by the Admiralty that
there should be two iron masts, 9G feet and 83 feet high, with
brig-rigged sails 18,470 square feet in area. — The three next war-
ships of the first class, the Dreadnought, the Devastation, and the
Thunderer, are mastless, and dependent, therefore, solely on steam-
power. Their speed, like that of the Inflexible, averages thirteen
knots an hour ; they have two independent screws and two sets of
engines, and they carry 1,600 tons of coal, or sufficient to take
them over a distance of 6,000 miles. The deck is given up in
heavy weather to the waves ; but a narrow deck-house, running
between the two turrets, is so spread out at the top as to form a
spacious hurricane or flying-deck, 24 feet above water. The last
two of the six turret- ships of the first class, the Colossus and the
Majestic, were in course of construction at the end of 1879. They
differ from the preceding ones in being built entirely of steel, instead
of iron. They are sister-ships, 325 feet in length, and 68 feet in
extreme breadth. Like the Inflexible, both have a central armoured
citadel, about one-third the length of the ship, rising high out of the
water ; and two submerged ends on which are raised unarmoured
structures, which complete the Ibrm of the vessel and provide space
for her crew of 400 officers and men, stores, and fuel, besides pro-
viding these portions of the ship with the necessary stability. The
tiu-rets are placed en echelon^ so as to command a fore-and-aft fire
from all the guns. The Colossus and the Majestic are expected to
be completed before the end of 1881.
Second class — Eleven ships constructed for ocean warfare, but
inferior in power to those of the first class. At the head of the list
stands the Neptune, built in the Thames, by order of the Emperor
of Brazil, and called originally the Independenzia, but purchased in
March 1878 by the British Government for 640,350/. Besides
being of great strength, the Neptune has a powerful ram, made of
hardened gun-metal. The following two ships of this class, the
Agamemnon and Ajax, exact imitations of the Inflexible, were in
course of being completed at the end of 1879, the first at Chatham,
and the second at Pembroke dockyard. The next three ships in
the list, the Superb, the Belleisle, and the Orion, were purchased in
March 1878 by the British Government, for the respective sums of
452,895Z., of 240,000/., and of 126,825/., having been constructed
in the Thames, by order of Turkey. The next in this class are
three rams, the Glatton, the Rupert, and the Hotspur. Nearly all
British ironclads are fitted to act occasionally as rams, but in the
Glatton, the Rupert, and the Hotspur, built in 1870-72, the ramming
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 235
power is made the principal object. The ram, in these three iron-
clads, has its sharp point about eight feet below the water-line, and
tAvelve feet in advance of the upright portion of the stern. Two
other vessels of this class, the Conqueror and the Polyphemus, both
built of steel, were on the stocks at the end of 1879. The last, the
Polyphemus, constructing at Chatham dockyard, is intended to
represent an entirely new type of ship for aggressive naval warfare.
The Polyphemus may be described as simply a steel tube, deeply
immersed, the convex deck rising but 4 feet 6 inches above the
water line. She carries no masts and sails, nor any heavy guns, her
whole power being concentrated in a powerful ram bow, 12 feet
long, and, under it, a large ' torpedo port,' which will enable White-
head torpedoes to be ejected right ahead of the ship. There are
also two ' torpedo ports ' on each side amidships, from which they
will be ejected on the broadsides. The Polyphemus was commenced
in Sept, 1878, and is expected to be ready for sea by the end of 1880.
Third class — A number of rigged ships for cruising, foremost among
them the Monarch, the Hercules, the Sultan, the Alexandra, the
Temeraire, the Nelson, the Northampton, and the Shannon. The
Monarch, sole rigged turret-ship of the ironclad navy, launched
in 1869, has 8-inch armour only at the water-line, with 10-inch
armour over the port-holes, and 8-inch over the rest of each of the
two turrets. Both the Hercules and the Sultan, completed in 1870,
carry 9-inch armour at the water-Une, and 6-inch and 8-inch over
the turrets. Similar in design to the last two vessels, but rather
stronger, and Avith improvements in construction, are the Alexandra,
launched in 1875 ; the Temeraire, which embodies in its construction
both the turret and broadside principle ; the twin ships Nelson and
Northampton, built at Glasgow ; and the Shannon, all launched in
1876. A svibdivision of this class is formed by the Bellerophon,
the Audacious, the Invincible, the Iron Duke, the Swiftsure, and
the Triumph, in the first list, and the Penelope and the Eepulse in
the second. The whole of the vessels of this class are broadsides,
very powerftd for their size, and especially adapted for foreign service.
Fourth class — A small gi-oup of ships, originally deemed very
powerful, but at present only fitted for coast defence. The group
consists of four mastless turret ships, the Cyclops, the Gorgon, the
Hecate, and the Hydra, built during the years 1870 and 1871.
Each of these vessels has two turrets, with two 18-ton giuis in
each turret, a hull 225 feet long and 45 feet beam, covered by a
belt of armom- seven feet wide in two strakes, the upper one eight
inches thick and the lower one six inches thick amidships, tapering
fore and aft. Above the hull is raised a breastAvork, 117 feet by
84 feet, plated with 6 ft. 6 in. of armour, varying in thickness from
236 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
eight to nine inches. This breastworlc protects the engines and
machinery for working the turrets, which are built at either end.
Fifth class — A number of partly antiquated rigged ships for
cruising: the Warrior, the Black Prince, the Minotaur, the Achilles,
the Agincourt, the Northumberland, and the Lord Warden, in the
first list, and the Hector, the Valiant, the Defence, and the Resist-
ance in the second. The vessels of this class vary greatly in
size, but their armament, strength, and speed are very similar. AU
are of considerable speed, varying from 14 to 15 knots an hour;
nevertheless their great length and consequent 'unhandiness,'
together with limited fighting power, render them unfit for anything
beyond the protection, or destruction, of mercantile fleets. Next in
rank to the Warrior and Minotaur, of lesser power as well as speed,
stands the Lord Warden, wooden ship. A subdivision of the class, im-
perfectly armed and protected, are the old ironclads. Hector, Valiant,
Defence, and Resistance, constructed in the years 1861 to 1863.
The ironclads not included in the preceding list are three small
vessels for colonial defence: the Abyssinia and the Magdala, sta-
tioned permanently at Bombay, and the Cerberus, built at the cost
of the government of Victoria, stationed permanently at Melbourne.
Their armour thickness varies from 6 to 10 inches, and each carries
four 18-ton guns. They form part of Her Majesty's navy for the
defence of the colonies. There are, besides, a number of ironclads held
to be non-efficient, namely, the iron turret-ship Prince Albert, and
seven ships of the Warrior class, namely, the Lord Clyde, the Cale-
donia, the Ocean, the Royal Sovereign, the Prince Consort, the Royal
Oak, the Royal Alfred, and the Zealous. These converted line-of-
battle ships, carrying from 4^ to 5^ inch armour, were condemned in
the years 1876 to 1879. Condemned also as inefficient are the iron-
clad wooden sloops Research, Pallas, Favourite, and Enterprise;
the gun-vessels Viper, Vixen, and Waterwitch, the last on the
hydraulic principle of propulsion ; and the floating batteries Erebus
and TeiTor, built during the Russian war. The whole of these
vessels are of antiquated construction, and pronounced to be useless
for modern warfare.
Among the unarmoured ships of the British navy, the chief are
three iron-built frigates, the Shah, the Inconstant, and the Raleigh.
The Shah, launched in Sept. 1873, an iron screw frigate, cased with
wood, of 5,700 tons burthen and 7,500 horse-power, carrying 26 guns
— two 12-ton, sixteen 6^-ton, and eight 64-pounders — is reported the
swiftest vessel in the navy.
Area and Population.
The population was thus distributed over the various divisions of
the United Kingdom at the census of April 3, 1871 : —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
^17
Area in Inhabited
statute acres Houses
Population
England ....
Wales
England and Wales .
Scotland ....
Ireland
Great Britain and Ireland
Isle of Man ....
Channel Islands —
Jersey ....
Guernsey and others
United Kingdom .
32,590,397
4,734,486
4,009,783
249,334
21,495,131
1,217,135
37,324,883
19,496,132
20,819,829
4,259,117
412,185
961,229
22,712,266
3,360,018
5,411,416
77,640,844
145,325
28,717
19,605
5,632 531
9,413
8,738
5,831
31,483,700
54,042
56,627
33,969
77,834,491 5,656,513
31,628,338
The next decennial census is to be taken on April 3, 1881, accord-
ing to a statute passed in the session of 1880.
A series of official retiu-ns, published in the years 1875 and
1876 — issued in compliance with a motion made in the House of
Lords, February 19, 1872 — stated the number of owners of land
in Great Britain and Ireland, exclusive of the metropolis, as
follows : —
Number of
owners below an
acre
Number of
owners above an
acre
Total number
of owners
England and Wales exclusive
of London
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Great Britain and Ireland
703,289
113,005
36,114
269,547
19,225
32,614
972,836
132,230
68,758
852,408
321,386
1,173,824
The total number of acres accounted for in the returns numbered
72,119,882, being 5, .515,300 acres less than the whole area of Great
Britain and Ireland. Excluded from the ownership survey were,
besides the metropolis and the lands of all owners possessed of less
than an acre, and Hkewise all common and waste lands.
The following table gives an abstract of the same returns, showing
the percentage of owners below an acre, the proportion of owners to
population, and the proportion of owners to inhabited houses in
Great Britain and Ireland : —
238
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
England and "Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Great Britain and Ireland
Percentage of
owners below an
acre
72-3
85-5
52-6
72-6
Proportion of
owners to
population
1 in 20
1 in 25
1 in 79
1 in 24
Proportion of
owners to
inhabited houses
1 in 4
1 in 3
1 in 14
1 in 4
In the subjoined table an abstract is given, after the same returns,
of the average estimated rental per acre, the average extent of land
held by each owner, and the average estimated rental of each
owner in Great Britain and Ireland : —
Average
estimated rental
per acre
Average extent
of land held
by each owner
Average
estimated rental
of each owner
England and "Wales .
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Great Britain and Ireland
£ s. d.
3 0 2
0 19 9
0 13 4
ac. r. p.
33 3 30
143 1 6
293 0 32
£ s. d.
102 3 0
141 8 0
195 3 0
1 16 5
61 1 30
112 0
It is officially admitted that these returns cannot be altogether
relied on, and have to be looked upon in general as understatements,
seeing that the machinery by Avhich they were obtained — namely,
the valuation lists of parishes — was in many cases extremely defec-
tive. Still the figures must be held of considerable value as indi-
cating approximately, and in the absence of all other information,
the ownership and division of the soil of the United Kingdom.
The division of the sexes in the United Kingdom was as follows,
at the census of April 3, 1871 : —
Males
Females
Excess of females
over males
England ....
Wales ....
England and "Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
Isle of Man .
Channel Islands —
Jersey
Guernsey and others .
United Kingdom
10,454,334
604,600
11,040,797
612,535
586,463
7,935
11,058,934
1,603,143
2,639,826
25,914
24,875
15,433
11,653,332
1,756,875
2,771,590
28,128
31,752
18,536
594,398
153,732
131,764
2,214
6,877
3,103
15,368,125
16,260,213
892,088
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
239
The enumerated population of the United Kingdom is variously-
defined for fiscal, statistical, and administrative purposes, as shown
in the following table : —
Population, 1871
United Kingdom : including Islands in British Seas, and Army,
Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad . . 31,857,338
United Kingdom : including Islands in British Seas, but excluding
Army, Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad 31,628,338
United Kingdom: excluding Islands in British Seas, and Army,
Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad . . 31,483,700
The population of the United Kingdom increased at the rate of
8*8 per cent, in the ten years between the census of 1861 and that
of 1871, representing a daily addition of 500 to the population.
Computed on the basis of the registration of births and deaths,
the population of the United Kingdom and its divisions was, ex-
clusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, as follows,
at the end of June, in the ten years from 1871 to 1880 : —
Years
Total of
United
Kingdom
England
and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
1871
31,513,442
22,760,359
3.366,375
5,386,708
1872
31,835,757
23,067,835
3,399,226
5,368,696
1873
32,124,598
23,356,414
3,430,923
5,337,261
1874
32,426,369
23,648,609
3,462,916
5,314,844
1875
32,749,167
23.944,459
3,495,214
5,309,494
1876
33,093,439
24.244,010
3,627,811
5,321,618
1877
33,446.930
24,547,309
3,660,715
5,338,906
1878
33,799,386
24,854,397
3,593,929
5,351,060
1879
34,156,113
25,165,336
3,627,453
5,363,324
1880
34,505,043
25,480,161
3,661,292
5,363,590
The estimated population of the principal towns of the United
Kingdom was as follows, at the end of June 1879 : — London,
3,620,868; Glasgow, 578,156; Liverpool, 538,338; Manchester,
with Salford, 539.668; Birmingham, 388,884; DubUn, 314,666;
Leeds, 311,860 ; Sheffield, 297,138 ; Edinburgh, 226,075 ; Bristol,
209,947; Bradford, 191,046; Nottingham, 169,396; Dundee,
142,951; Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 146,948; Hull, 146,347; Ports-
mouth, 131,821; Leice.ster, 125,622; Sunderland, 114,575; Oldham,
111,318; Brighton, 105,608; Aberdeen, 98,181 ; Norwich, 85,222;
Wolverhampton, 75,100; Plymouth, 74,293; Leith, 54,570. The
calculated rate of increase of population in these several towns be-
tween 1876 and 1879, based upon the ascertained rate of increase
between 1861 and 1871, varied to a marked extent; it was equal
to but 4 and 7 per 1,000 in Manchester and Norwich, whereas it
240
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
ranged upwards in the other towns to 26 in Sheffield, 32 in Bradford,
and 34 in Leicester.
Subjoined is a more detailed account of the population of
1. England and Wales ; 2. Scotland; 3. Ireland; and 4. Islands in
the British Seas.
1. England and Wales.
England and Wales, taken by themselves, are more densely popu-
lated than any other country in Europe, except Belgium. On an
area of 58,320 square miles, or 37,324,883 acres, there lived, on the
3rd of April 1871, according to the census, 22,712,266 inhabitants,
or 389 individuals per square mile. The population of England and
Wales was as follows at the eight enumerations, 1801 to 1871 : —
Population
Males
Females
Total
1801, March 10th
1811, May 27th
1821, May 28th
1831, May 29th
1841, June 7th
1851, March 31st
1861, April 8th
1871, April 3rd
4,254,735
4,873,605
5,850,319
6,771,196
7,777,586
8,781,225
9,776,259
11,058,934
4,637,801
5,290,651
6,149,917
7,125,601
8,136,662
9,146,384
10,289,965
11,653,332
8,892,536
10,164,256
12,000,236
13,896,797
16,914,148
17,927,609
20,066,224
22,712,266
The following table shows the area, in statute acres, number of
inhabited houses, and population of each of the 52 coimties of Eng-
land and Wales, at the date of the census of 1871 : —
Area in
Inhabited houses.
Population,
Counties or Shires
statute acres
April 3, 1871
April 3, 1871
England.
Bedford .
295,582
30,506
146,257
Berks
451,210
39.638
196,475
Buckingham
466,932
37,257
175,879
Cambridge .
525,182
40,272
186,906
Chester
707,078
•j 110,449
561,201
Cornwall
873,600
73,950
362,343
Cumberland
1,001,273
44,061
220,253
Derby
658,803
78,309
379,394
Devon
1,657,180
105,200
601,374
Dorset
632,025
39,410
195,537
Durham
622,476
114,705
685,089
Essex
1,060,549
92,356
466,436
Gloucester .
■ , .
805,102
101,407
534,640
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
241
Area in
Inhabited houses.
Population,
Counties or Shires
statute acres
April 3, 1871
Aprils, 1871
England — continued.
1
Hereford .
534,823 ;
26,371
125,370
Hertford .
391.141
39,056
192,226
HuntiBgdon
229,544
14,032
63,708
Kent ....
1,039,419
151,344
848,294
Lancaster .
1.219,221
530,490
2,819,495
Leicester .
514,164
58,606
269,311
Lincoln
1,775,457
94,212
436,599
Middlesex .
180,136
321,229
2,539,765
Monmoutli .
368,399
36,169
195,448
Norfolk
1,354,301
99,428
438.656
Northampton
1 630,358
52,539
243,891
Northumberland
1 1,249,299
62,436
386,646
Nottingham
1 526,076
68,419
319,758
Oxford
1 472,717
37,849
177,975
Eutland .
! 95,805
4,766
22,073
i Salop ....
i 826,055
50,804
248,111
Somerset .
1,047,220
92,205
463,483
; Southampton
1,070,216
98,283
544,684
i Stafford .
728,468
167,614
858,326
; Suffolk
' 947,681
76,501
348,869
Surrey
I 478,792
168,443
1,090,635
j Sussex
1 936,911
75,385
417,456
i Warwick .
563,946
131.442
634,189
Westmoreland .
485.432
12,671
65,010
Wilts.
865,092
54,874
257,177
Worcester .
472,165
69,988
338,837
York (East Biding) .
I 768,419
50,838
241,672
„ (City) . .
! 2,720
13,006
64,908
\ „ (North Riding) .
1,350,121
48,549
234,817
1 „ {West Biding) .
1 Total of England .
1,709,307
388,004
1,854,172
32,590,397
4,003,073
' 21,453,345
Wales.
Anglesey .
193,453
12,170
1 51.040
1 Brecon
460,158
12,647
: 59,901
Cardigan .
443,387
16,420
73,441
Carmarthen
606,331
24,333
116.710
1 Carnarvon .
370,273
1 23.298
106,121
Denbigh
1 386,052
22,500
105,102
Flint . . . .
1 184,905
16.636
76,312
Glamorgan .
! 547.494
72,905
i 397,859
Merioneth .
; 385.291
i 10,006
46,598
Montgomery
483,323
1 13,911
j 67.623
Pembroke .
, 401,691
1 19,583
1 91,998
Eadnor
Total of Wales
Total of England "1
and Wales J
I 272,128
1 4,925
25,430
! 4.734,486
37,324,883
249,334
1,218,135
4,252,407
22,671,480
242
THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
One-fourth of the total urban population of England and Wales
is in London. The limits of the metropolis are variously defined by
the Registrar-General and the corporate and other bodies exercising
administrative functions, and under these definitions the population
was found to member, at the census of 1871, fi'om 3,024,066 to
3,885,641 soiils. The following table gives the results of both the
census of 1861 and of 1871:—
Population,
1861
Population,
1871
London within the Eegistrar-General's tables 1
of mortality . . . . . .1
London within the limits of the Metropolis "^
Local Management Act. . . . 'i
liondon Postal District ....
:>r.tropolitan and City of Loudon Police ~(
District /
-Metropolitan Parliamentary Boroughs
2,803,989
2,808,862
2,967,956
3,222,720
2,640,253
3,254,260
3,266,987
3,536,129
3,885,641
3,024,066
Eighteen cities and towns have been selected by the Kegistrar-
General for the publication of weekly rates of mortality in compari-
son with those of the metropolis and of other British and foreign
cities. Those eighteen cities and toAvns comprise a total population
of 6,270,275, being less than a third, but more than a fourth, part
of the entire population of England and Wales. Within their
municipal limits, the population enumerated in 1861 and 1871,
with the decennial rates of increase, was as follows : —
Cities and Towns
1861,
AprUS
1871,
AprUS
Bate
of increase
per Cent.
London
2,803,989
3,254,260
161
1 /iverpool
443,938
493,405
11-1
Manchester .
338,722
351.189
3-7
l>irminc;liam
296,076
343,787
16-1
Leeds .
207,165
259.212
25-1
Sheffield .
185,172
239,946
29-6
Lristol
154,093
182,552
18-5
Bradford .
106,218
145,830
37-3
Xewcastle-on-Tyu
e
109,108
128,443
17-7
Salford
102,449
124,801
21-8
Hull .
97.661
121,892
24-8
Portsmouth
94,799
113,569
19-8
Sunderland
78,211
98,242
25-6
Leicester
68,056
95,220
40-0
!N"ottingham
74,693
86,621
160
Oldham
72,333
82,629
14-2
Norwich
74,891
80,386
7-3 i
Wolvevhampton
60,860
68,291
12-2 1
Total ....
5,368,434
6,270,275
16-8
GKEAT BRITAIN AND lEELAND.
243
Subjoined is the birth, death, aud marriage rate of the population
of England and Wales, for the fifteen years from 1865 to 1879, with
the estimated population for the middle of each year : —
Years
Estimated
population
Birtlis
Deaths
Mai-riages
1865
21,085,139
747,870
490,909
185,474
1866
21,342,864
753,870
500,689
187,776
1867
21,608,286
768,349
471,073
179,154
1868
21,882,059
786,156
480,622
176,962
1869
22,164,847
772.877
495,086
175.629
1870
22,457,366
792,129
515,544
181,655
1871
22,760,359
797.428
514,879
190,112
1872
23,067,385
825,907
492,065
201,267
1873
23,356,414
829,778
492,520
205,615
1874
23,648,609
854,956
528,632
202,010
1875
23,944,459
850,187
546,317
201,212
1876
24,244.010
887,968
510,315
201,874
1877
24,547,309
888,200
500,496
194,352
1878
24,854,397
891,908
539.874
190,054
1879
25,165,336
882,866
528,194
181,719
The proportion of male to female children born in England is as
104,811 to 100,000. But as the former suffer from a higher rate
of mortality than the latter, the equilibrium between the sexes is
restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally changed, by
emigration, war, and perilous male occupations, to the extent that
there are 100,000 women, of all ages, to 94,900 men in England.
The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and ' casual poor,'
in receipt of relief in the several unions and parishes, was as fol-
lows, on the 1st January, for the fifteen years from 1869 to 1880 : —
.January 1
Number
of unions
and
parishes
Adult
able-bodied
paupers
All other
paupers
Total
1866 .
655
149,320
771,024
920,344
1867
655
158,308
800,516
958,824
1868
655
185,630
849,193
1,034,823
1869
655
183,162
856,387
1,039,549
1870
649
194,089
885,302
1,079,391
1871
648
189.839
892.087
1.081.926
1872
647
153,753
823,911
977,664
1873
647
127.697
762,675
890,372
1874
647
114,324
714,957
829,281
1875-
647
115,209
700.378
815,587
1876
649
97,065
652,528
749.593
' 1877
650
92,806
635.544
728.350
1 1878
649
97,927
644,776
742,703
i 1879
649
118.933
681,493
800,426
! 1880
649
126,228
711,712
1 837,940
244
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The number of criminal offenders committed for trial, and con-
victed, in England and Wales, Avas as follows in the fifteen years
from 1865 to 1879 :—
Committed for trial
Convicted
Men
Women
Total
1865 .
1866.
1867.
1868 .
18p9 .
1870 .
1871 .
1872 .
1873 .
1874 .
1875 .
187G .
1877 .
1878 .
1879 .
! 15.411
j 14,880
: 15,208
1 16,197
' 15,722
i 14,010
12,640
11,467
11,490
11,912
! 11,662
12.711
12,536
13,104
1 13,130
1
4,203
3,969
3,763
3,894
3,596
3,568
3.629
3,334
3,403
3,283
3,052
3,367
3,354
3,268
3,258
19,614
18,849
18,971
20,091
19,318
17,578
16,269
14,801
14,893
15,195
14,714
16,078
15,890
16,372
16,388
14,740
14.254
14,207
15,033
14,340
12,953 1
11,946 ;
10,862
11,089
11,509
10,954
12,195
11,942 j
12,473 i
12,525
In 1842, the number of criminal offenders committed for trial
was 31,309, and of those convicted 22,733, and the number con-
tinued increasing till 1854. Subsequently there was a decrease
both in the number of persons committed for trial and convicted,
attributed in part to the Criminal Justice Act of 1855, which
authorised Magistrates to pass sentences for short periods, with the
consent of the prisoners. It will be seen from the above table that
the number of criminal offenders underwent a gi-adual decline
during the whole of the period from 1868 to 1879.
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 30,685 square miles, including its
islands, 186 in number, with a population, according to the census
of 1871, of 3,360,018 souls, giving 109 inhal)itants to the square
mile. More than three-fourths of the surface of the country is
sterOe, consisting of mountains, morasses, and other waste lands.
Out of the total, computed at 19,496,132 acres, only 4,640,803 acres
were cultivated in 1876.
The country is divided into 33 civil counties, grouped imder
eight geographical divisions. The following table gives the results
of the census of 1871, the numbers of population including the
military in barracks and the seamen on board vessels in the har-
bours on the 3rd of April, 1871 : —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
245
Divisions
and
civil counties
Inhabited
houses
Population
Males
Females
Total
1. Northern: —
Shetland
5,740
13,080
18,525
31,605
Orkney .
6,301
14,346
16,926
31,272
Caithness
7,476
18,939
21,050
39,989
Sutherland .
4,798
11,127
12,559
23,686
2. North-Western : —
Ross and Cromarty
15,932
38,029
42,880
80,909
Inverness
16,659
40,798
46,682
87,480
3. North-Eastern: —
Nairn .
2,046
4.771
5,442
10,213
Elgin .
8.564
20.278
23,320
43,598
Banff .
11,663
29,345
32,665
62,010
Aberdeen
34,691
115,891
128,716
244,607
Kincardine .
6,681
16,790
17,861
34,651
4. East-Midland:—
j Forfar .
25,859
106,223
131,305
237,528
1 Perth .
22,387
60,592
67,149
127,741
Fife .
27,340
74,700
85,610
160,310
Kinross.
1,669
3,387
3,821
7,208
1 Clackmannan
3,447
11,543
12,199
23,742
5. West-Midland:—
Stirling .
14,315
48,160
50,019
98,179
Dumbarton .
8,043
28,817
30,022
58,839
Argyll .
14,367
36,898
38,737
75,635
Bute .
2,434
7,624
9,353
16,977
6. South-Western :—
Renfrew
13,606
103,612
113,307
216,919
Ayr
27,132
98,110
102,635
200,745
Lanark .
49,080
377,739
387,540
765,279
7. South-Eastem : —
Linlithgow .
6,507
21,074
20,117
41,191 1
Edinburgh .
28,437
153,821
174,514
328,335
Haddington .
7,322
18,060
19,710
37,770 '
Berwick
6,534
17,406
19,068
36,474
Peebles
2,246
5,946
6,368
12,314
Selkirk .
1,752
6,730
7,271
14,001
8. Southern : —
Roxburgh
7,869
25,703
28,262
53,965
Dumfries
13,833
34,782
40,012
74,794
Kirkcudbright
7,705
19,479 1
22,373
41,852
Wigtown
Scotland .
6,930
17,833
20,962
38,795
419,365
1,601,633
1,756,980
3,358,613
The following table exhibits the numbers of the po]nilation of
246
THE STATESMANS TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Scotland at the dates of the several enumerations, together with the
increase between each census, and the percentage of increase: —
Dates of enumeration
Population
Increase
Percentage
of decennial
increase
March 10, 1801
May 17, 1811
May 28, 1821
May 29, 1831
June 7, 1841
March 31, 1851
Apri 8, 1861
Apri 3, 1871
1,608,420
1,805,834
2,091,521
2,364,386
2,620,184
2.888,742
3,062,294
3,360,018
197,444
28.5,657
272,865
255,798
268,558
173,552
297,724
12-27
15-82
13-04
10-82
10-25 i
6-00 !
9-80
Increase in seventy yeaxs
1,751,598
100-12
The Registrar-General of Scotland reported the following as the
estimated population of the eight principal towns in the middle of
the year 1877 : Glasgow, 555,933 ; Edinburgh, 21t),729 ; Dundee,
142,951; Aberdeen, 98,181; Greenock, 70,192; Leith, 54,257;
and Paisley, 48,679. The total represented more than a third of the
population of Scotland. The tendency to agglomerate in towns is
even greater in Scotland than in England.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and mar-
riages in Scotland, in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879, with the
estimated population for the middle of each year : —
Years
1870
Estimated
ulation
Birth.?
Deaths
Marriages
3,222,837
115,423
74,067
23,788
1871
3,366,375
110,127
74,644
23,966
1872
3,399,226
118,873
75,741
25,580
1873
3.430,923
119,738
76,857
26,730
1874
3,462,916
12.3,795
80,676
26,247
1875
3,495,214
123,693
81,785
25,921
187G
3,527,811
126,749
74,122
26,563
1877
3,560,715
126,824
73,946
25,790
1878
3,593,929
126,707
76,775
24,333
1879
3,627,453
125,736
73,329
23,462
The division of the soil in Scotland is greater than in England
and Wales, but less than in Ireland. In the returns of the ' Modern
Domesday Book ' of 1875-76 the number of landowners possessing
more than an acre is given at 19,225, and of those possessing les.s
than an acre at 132,230. (See pages 237-38.)
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive
of casual poor, who v.'ere in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland,
GEEAT BKITAIN AND IKELAND.
247
during the ten years from 1870 to 1879, on the 14th of May in
each year, is shoA\Ti in the subjoined table : —
Tear
Kumber of
parishes
Paupers
Dependents
Total
1870
887
79,290
46,897
126,187
1871
887
77,759
45.811
123,570
1872
887
74,752
42,859
117.611
1873
886
71,537
40.459
111,996
1874
886
68,428
37,467
105.895
1875
886
65,661
35,930
101,591
1876
886
63.362
35,235
98,597 i
1877
886
62,058
34,346
96.404
1878
887
61,156
33,515
94,671
1879
886
62,315
35,361
97,676
Thenumber of criminal offenders, committed for trial, and con-
victed, in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879, was as follows : —
Years
1 Co
mmitted for trial
1
1 Men
Women
Total
1870 .
! 2.430
616
3,046
2,400
1871 .
1 2,253
695
2,948
2,184
1872 .
' 2,358
686
3,044
2.259
1873 .
2,118
637
2,755
2,110
1874 .
2,279
601
2,880
2,231
1875 .
1 2,285
587
2,872
2,205
1876 ,
[ 2,103
600
2,703
2,039
1877 .
2,179
505 •
2,684
2,009
1878 .
2,373
549
2,922
2,273
1879 .
2,185
514
2,699
2,090
It wiU be seen from the above tables that, notwithstanding a large
increase of population, there was a gradual diminution of crime,
and still more of pauperism, in Scotland during the decennial period.
3. Ireland.
Ireland has an area of 31,874 square miles, or 20,322,641 acres
hihabited, in 1871, by 5,411,416 souls. This gives a density of
jwpulation of 169 inhabitants per square mile, or considerably less
than one-half of that of England.
The movement of the population of Ireland since the beginning
of the centvuy was very different from that of England and Scotland.
There was an increase, slow at first, and then rapid, from 1801 to
1841, and a decrease, more rapid than the previous increase, from
1841 to 1871. At the census of 1801 the population of Ireland
248
THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
^ras 0,395,456; in 1811 it had risen to 5,937,856; in 1821 to
6,801,827 ; in 1831 to 7,767,401 ; and in 1841 to 8,175,124. At
the next census, that of 1851, the population was found to have sunk
to 6,552,385, representing a decline of nearly twenty per cent., while
the following two census returns showed another decline of above
eighteen per cent. The decline during the last deceiniial periods was
spread unequally over the four provinces of Ireland, as illustrated
in the subjoined table, which gives the results of the enumerations of
April 8, 1861, and of Aj^ril 3, 1871, together with the decrease, in
numbers and rate per cent., between 1861 and 1871 : —
Provinces
I8GI
1871
Decrease between 1861
and 1871
Number ^«;^„P«
cent.
Leinster .
Minister .
Ulster
Couuaught
Total of Ireland
1,457,635
1,513,558
1.914.236
913,135
1,335,966
1,390,402
1,830,398
845,993
121.669 ' 8-35
123,156 ' 8-14
83,838 : 4-38
67,142 7-35
5,798,564
5,402,759
395,805 6-83
The numbers of the population of the counties, cities, and towns
of the four provinces of Ireland were found to l)e as folloAvs at the
:!
Provinces,
Population
and towns
Males
Females
Total
'
Province of Leinstcr.
Carlow County
25,356
26.116
51,472
Drogheda Town .
6.661
7,728
14,389
Dublin City, Municipal
115,363
130,359
245,722
„ Suburban townships
21,573
28,546
50,119
„ County
51,256
58,528
109,784
Kildare „
45,646
38.552
84,198
Kilkenny City
6,007
6,657
12,664
,, County .
46,892
49,746
96,638
Kings „
38,192
37,589
75,781
Longford „
32,418
31,990
64,408
Louth „ .
34,423
35,386
69,809
Meath „ .
47,934
46,546
94,480
Queen's „
38,518
38,553
77,071
Westmeath „
39,768
38.648
78,416
Wexford „
64,125
68,381
132,506
Wicklow ,, . • ,
Total of Leinster .
39,376
39,133
78,509
653,508
682,458
1,335,966
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
249
Provinces,
counties, cities.
Population
and towns
Males
Females
Total
Province of Munsfer. '.
Cashel City .
1,832
2,144
3,976
Clare County
73,470
74,524
147,994
Cork City . . . ,
36.713
41,669
78,382
„ County, E.E.
130,895
130.489
261,384
W.R.
87,887
88,393
176,280
Kerry „
97.560
98,454
196,014
Limerick City
18,257
21.571
39.828
„ County .
74,344
77,141
151,485
Tipperary „ N.E. .
45,976
46,910
92,886
„ S.R .
58,333
61,015
119,348
Waterford City .
10,946
12,391
23,337
„ County .
Total of Munster .
Province of Ulster.
47,815
51,673
99,488
684,028
706,374
1,390,402
Antrim County
112,466
123,470
235,936
Armagh City
3,651
4,215
7,866
„ County .
82,345
89.010
171,355
Belfast Town
79,754
94,640
174,394
Carrickfergus County of
Town
4,296
5,156
9,452
Cavan County
70,331
70,224
140,555
Donegal „
105.903
112,089
217.992
Down „
130.683
147,092
277,775
Fermanagh ,,
45,365
47,323
92,688
: Londonderry City
11,711
13,531
25,242
,, County .
71.526
77,164
148,690
] Monaghan „
54.940
57,845
112,785
Tyrone ,,
Total of Ulster
' Proviiice of Connaught.
105,072
110,596
215,668
878,043
952,355
1.830.398
■
: Galway County .
116,187
118,886
235,073
; „ Town
6.110
7,074
13,184
j Leitrim County .
47.579
47,745
95,324
1 >^ayo
120,729
125,126
245,855
Roscommon County
71,093
70,153
141,246
i
j Total of Connaught.
56,846
58,465
115,311
418,544
427,449
845,993
Total of Ireland ,
2,634,123
2,768,636
5,402,759
The number of inhabited houses at the census of 1871 was
961,229, against 1,046,223 in 1861, and 1,328,839 in 1851, the
decrease amounting to 4^ per cent, in the decennial period 1861-71
250
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Of iminhabited laonses there were 28,322 at the census of 1871, the
number repi'esenting a decrease of 30"85 per cent, from 1861 to 1871.
The subfoined table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages, in each of the eight years 1872 to 1879, together with
the estimated population of Ireland in the middle of the year : —
A Parliamentary return issu.ed in the session of 1880, states that
the total number of natives of Ireland who left the Irish ports from
May 1, 1851 — the date at which the collection of these returns
commenced— to December 31, 1879, was 2,541,670, comprising
1,356,539 males and 1,185,131 females. Emigration from Ireland
has gone on steadily increasing from 37,587 in 1876 — the year in
which the smallest number was registered — to 38,503 in 1877,
41,124 in 1878, and 47,065 in 1879. In the decade from 1866 to
1875 the average annual number was 74,667, and in the preceding
decade from 1856 to 1865 the average number of emigrants per
annum amounted to 88,272, Avhile in the four preceding years, from
1852 to 1855, the numbers averaged 148,985 annually. The num-
bers fluctuated from 190,322 in 1852 to 37,587 in 1876.
The Agricultural Statistics of Ireland show the number of acres
under various crops as follows, in each of the years 1877 and
1878 :—
Crops
1877
1878
Acres
Acres
Wheat
139,297
154,011
Oats
1,476,172
1,412,637
Barley
226,216
243,929
Bere and Eye ....
11,124
11.439
Beans and Pease
9.786
9,405
Potatoes
873,291
846.985
Turnips
334,379
329,942
Mangsl and Beet Boot
48,948
45,187
Cabbage
39,307
39,463
Carrots and other Green crops .
34,750
35,161
Vetches and Eape'
24,334
21,022
Flax
123,380
111,808
Meadow and Clover .
1,924,917
1,942,716
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
251
The following is a general summary of cereal and green crops of
Ireland in 1877 and 1878 : —
Cereal crops .
Green crops .
Flax
Meadow and clover
1S77
Acres
1,862,595
1,355,009
123,380
1,924,917
1878
Acre
1,831,421
1,317,760
111,808
1,942,716
Incre£.sc
m 1878.
Acra
17,799
Decrease
iu 1S7S
Acre*
31,174
37.249
11,572
Total decrease in the extent of land under crops iu 1878 . 62,196 acres.
The subjoined table gives the number of indoor and outdoor
paupers, and the total — including others in blind and deaf-and-
dumb asylums — in receipt of relief in iinions in Ireland at the close
of the first week of January in each of the ten years 1871 to 1880 : —
Years
January
Indoor paupers
Outdoor paupers
1
Total
1871
50,815
23,877
74,692
1872
48,738
26.056
74,794
1873
49,856
29,232
79,088
1874
49,193
29,857
79,050
1875
49,805
30,631
80,436
1876
46,214
31,078
77,292
1877
45,762
32,128
77,890
1878
49.365
35,500
84,865
1879
51,764
39,335
91,099
1880
57,455
42.735
100,190
The number of criminal offenders, committed for trial, and con-
victed, in Ireland, was as follows during each of the ten years 1870
to 1879 :—
Tears
Committed for trial
Convicted
1870 .
Men
4,077
Women Total
811 4,888
3,048
1871 .
3,647
838
4,485
2,257
1872 .
i 3,662
814
4,476
2,565
1873 .
3,724
820
4,544
2,542
1874 .
3,293
837
4,130
2,367
1875 .
i 3,392
856 4,248
2,484
1876 .
3,395
751 4,146
2,344
1877 .
3,112
758 3,870
2,303
1878 .
3,424
759 ' 4,183
2,293
1879 .
j 3,573
790 1 4,363
2,207 '
It will be seen that there was a gradual decrease in recent years
in the number of criminal offenders in Ireland.
252
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
4. Islands in the British Seas.
The population of the Islands in the British Seas was found to be
as follows, at the census of April 3, 1871 : —
Islands
Area
in statute
acres
Inhabited
houses
Population
Males
Females
Total
Isle of Man
Channel Islands
Jersey .
Guernsey, &c.
180,000
28,717
17,967
9,413
8,738
5,831
25,914
24,875
15,433
28,128
31,752
18,536
54,042
56,627
33,969
Total
226,684
23,982
66,422
78,416
148,014
The following were the numbers of the population of the Islands
at each of the four censuses of 1841, 1851, 1861, and 1871 : —
Islands
1841 1S51 1S61
1871
Isle of Man .
Jersey
Gruernsey, Herm, &c.
Alderney
Sark ....
47,975
47,544
26,698
1,038
785
52.387
57,020
29,806
3,333
580
52,469
55,613
29,850
4,932
583
54,042
56,627
34,061
2,738
546
Total
124,040
143,126
143,447
148,014
It will be seen that since the census of 1851, there has been but
a slight increase in the total population of the Islands.
Emigration from the United Kingdom.
There was very little emigration from the United Kingdom pre-
vious to 1815, in which year the number of emigrants was no more
than 2,081. It rose gi-adually from 12,510 in 1810, to 34,987 in
1819. In the five years 1820-24 there emigrated 95,030 individuals;
in the next five years 1825-29 the number was 121,084; in 1830-34
it rose to 381,956 ; but sank again to 287,358 in 1835-39. Up to
the year 1834, the main stream of emigration from the United
Kingdom was directed towards the North American Colonies, but a
change occurred in 1835, from which year the chief current set in
towards the United States, continuing so to the present, but with
very great fluctuations.
The following table exhibits the number of persons, natives and
foreigners, emigrating from the United Kingdom to British North
America, the United States, and Australasia, and the total number —
the latter figure including the comparatively small number going to
other than these three destinations — in each of the thirty years from
1850 to 1879 :—
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
253
Years
To British
North America
To the United
States
To Australasia
Total
1850
32,961
223,078
16,037
280,849
1851
42,605
267,357
21,532
335,966 j
1852
32,873
244,261
87,881
368,764 1
1853
34,522
230,885
61,401
329,937
1854
43,761
193,065
83,237
323,429
1855
17.966
103,414
52,309
176,807
1856
16,378
111,837
44,584
176,554
1857
21,001
126,905
61,248
212,875
1858
9,704
59,716
39,295
113,972
1859
6,689
70,303
31,013
120,432
1860
9,786
87,500
24,302
128,469
1861
12.707
49,764
23,738
91,770
1862
15,522
58.706
41.843
121,214
1863
18,083
146,813
53,054
223,758
1864
12,721
147,042
40,942
208,900
1865
17,211
147,258
37,283
209,801
1866
13,255
161,000
24,097
204,882
1867
15,503
159,275
14,466
195,953
1868
21,062
155,532
12,809
196,325
1869
33,891
203.001
14,901
258,027
1870
35,295
196,075
17,065
256,940
1871
32,671
198,843
12,227
252,435
1872
32,205
233,747
15,876
295,213
1873
37,208
233,073
26,428
310,612
1874
25,450
148,161
53,958
241,014
1875
17,378
105,046
35, 525
173,809
1876
12,327
75,533
33,191
138,222
1877
9,289
64,027
31,071
119,971
1878
13,836
81,557
37,214
147,663
1879
22,509
134,590
42,178
217,163
The table shows that the number of emigrants, including fo-
reigners, in 1879 Avas 217,163, as against 147, 6G3 in 1878, being an
increase of 69,500. The increase of emigrants of Irish origin was
greater than that of all others.
The emigrants who lell the United Kingdom in 1879 comprised
164,274 persons of British origin, namely, 104,275 English, 18,703
Scotch, and 41,296 Irish. The remainder consisted of 49,480
foreigners, and 3,409 persons not distinguished. As regards ports
of departure, 176,176 sailed from England and Wales; 20,531
fi-om Scotland; and 20,456 from Ireland.
In the year 1879 there were 53,973 immigrants, British and
foreign, which, deducted from the total of 217,163 emigrants, left
an excess of but 163,190 emigrants. As regards persons of British
origin the immifjrants in 1879 numbered 37,936, which, deducted
from the total of 164,274 British emigrants, left an excess of only
126,338 emigrants of British origin.
254
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1S81.
Commerce and Industry
1. liT.porLs and Exports.
The declared value of the imports and exports of the United King-
dom was as follows dcring the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Total
Exports of
Exports of
Total Imports
Imports
British produce
Colonial proilnce
and Exports
1870
£
303,257,493
199,586,822
£
44,493 755
£
547,338 070
1871
331,015.380
223,066,162
60,508,538
614.590,080
1872
354,693,624
256,257,347
58.331,487
669,282,458
1873
371,287,372
255,164,603
55.840,162
682.292,137
1874
370,082,701
239,558,121
58,092,343
667,733,165
1875
373,939.577
223.465,963
58,146,360
655,551.900
1876
375,154,703
200,639,204
56,137,398
631,931,305
1877
394,419,682
198,893,065
53,452,955
646,765.702
1878
368,770,742
192 848 914
52,634,944
614,254,600
1879
362,991,875
191,531,758
57,251,606
611,775,239
The following table exhibits the average share, per head of popu-
lation of the United Kingdom, in the Imports, the exports of British
produce and the total, during the ten years 1870 to 1879 : — •
Yoar.
Imports
Exports of British
iiroiluoo
Total Imports and
Exports
£ .«. ./.
£ 1. d.
£ .■!. d.
1870
9 16 0
6 9 6
17 10 2
1871
10 10 1
7 1 7
19 10 1
1872
11 2 6
8 1 0
21 0 6
1873
11 11 2
7 IS 10
21 4 9
1874
118 3
7 7 9
20 11 10
1875
118 5
6 16 6
20 0 4
1876
11 6 8
6 1 3
19 1 11
1877
11 15 10
5 IS 11
19 6 9
1878
10 18 3
5 14 1
18 3 6
1879
10 12 7
5 12 2
17 18 3
The following table gives the total value of the imports of
foreign and colonial merchandise, and of the exports of British pro-
duce and manufactures in the year 1879, distinguishing the coimtries
in the order of the total value of their trade with the United
Kingdom : —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
255
Exports of !
Total Imports,
Imports,
Produce of the \
and Exports of
Countries
1879
United Kingdom,
British Prcducr
1879
1879
£
£
£ 1
United States .
91.839,221
20.321,990
112,161,211 1
France ....
38,4,59,096
14,988,857
53,447.953 }
British India .
24,698,213
21,374,404
46,072,617
Gennany ....
21,604,890
18,591,545
40,196,435
Australasia
21,962,823
16,270,736
38,233,-559
Netheriands .
1 21,9.i9,384
9,353,151
31,312,535
Russia ....
15,876,461
7,644,629
23,521,090 I
British North America .
10.44,3,689
,5.44.5,130
15.890,819 !
Belgium ....
10.72,5,739
5.106,479
15,832,218
China ....
11,0.56,93,5
4,649,978
15,706,913
Spain ....
8,739,449
3.113,733
11,853,182 1
Egypt ....
8,890,0,52
2,143,681
11,033,733
Turkey ....
3.473.461
7,208,240
10,681,701
British South Africa
4.610,031
■5,853,037
10,463,068
Brazil ....
4,749,816
5,685,054
10,434.870
British West Indies .
7,294,273
2,762,799
10.057.072
Italy ....
3.233,594
4,983,676
8,217,270
Sweden ....
6,462.810
1,400,085
7,862,895
Denmark ....
4,675,090
1,647.967
6,323,057
Portugal ....
3,240,560
2,010,367
5,2,50,917
Spanish "West Indies .
2,929,826.
1,771.528
4.701,354
Chili ....
3.738,158
950.286
4,688,444
Straits Settlements .
2.56,5,361
2,029,018
4.,594.379
Ceylon ....
3.,568,965
780,918
4,-349,883
Hong Kong
1,327,085
2,947,984
4.275,069
Peru ....
.3,388,532
747,427
4.135.959
Java ....
i 1,784.140
1,643.416
3,427,5,56
Japan ....
450,945
2,638,002
3,088,947
Norway ....
1,917,352
1,086.171
3,003,523
1 Argentine Confederation .
828,365
2,063.254
2,891,619
Greece ....
1,861,196
944,336
2,80-5,532
Austria ....
1,68,5,602
799,085
2,484,687
Roumania
1.373.002
997,078
2,370.080 i
Foreign AVest Africa
1,473.516
836,424
2.309,940
Central America
1,38,5,940
722,628
2,108,,568
j Philipp'ne Islands .
1,480,821
599,024
2.079,845
Colombia ....
926,105
882,190
1,808.295
Channel Islands
737,793
598,835
1.336,628
British West Africa .
580,1,50
744,160
1,324,310
Uruguay ....
( 371,990
922,625
1,294,615
Mexico ....
,582,759
693,123
1.275,882
Mauritius
641,836
341,257
983,093
Malta ....
184,891
768,558
953,449
Ecuador ....
52.3.172
281,985
805,157
Gibraltar ....
35,969
677,687
713,656
East Africa
162,537
534,374
696,911
Algeria . . . .
4,54,246
22,5.572
679,818
Venezuela
114,804
462,037
576,841
256
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
1
CouBtries
Imports,
1879
Exports of
British Produce.
1879
Total Imports
and Exports of
British Produce, 1
1879
£
£
£
Aden . . . .
206,911
326,572
533,483
Tunis and Tripoli
1 408.833
57,393
466,226
Dutch West Indies .
; 215,458
211,658
427,116
1 Morocco ....
154.270
245,037
399,307 ■
Bolivia . . . .
306,123
53,477
359,600 [
French North America
—
354,168
354,168
Islands in the Pacific
138,366
167,388
305,754
Hayti . . . .
104,239
151,000
255,239 :
Danish West Indies .
35,921
200,248
236,169 :
Persia ....
71,921
163,063
234,984 '
1 French West Indies .
11,854
186.911
198,765 ■
! Northern Whale Fisheries.
89,494
150
89,644
1 Falkland Islands
63.420
12,035
75,455 •■
Bermudas
8,648
47,527
56,175 •
j Siam ....
29,666
15,759
45,425
Bourbon (Reunion) .
2.315
27,538
29,853
French India .
6,845
22.760
29,605
Cochin China ...
24,787
4,697
29,484
St. Helena
8,596
18,889
27,485
Madagascar
10,320
15,427
25,747 ;.
Patagonia
19.191
—
19,191 '
Arabia ....
2,038
670
2,708
Ascension
14
2,505
2,519
Indian Sea Islands .
1,373
1,373
Portuguese India
—
943
943
Heligoland
Total
362,991,875
60
191,531,758
60 (
554,523,633 ;
It will be seen from the preceding table that while the commerce
of the United Kingdom extends all over the globe, the bulk of com-
mercial transactions lies Avith but a few countries. More tlian one-
half of the total imports in 1879 came from six countries — the United
States, France, India, Germany, Australasia, and the Netherlands —
and more than one-half of the total exports of British produce and
manufacture also went to six countries — India, Australasia, Germany,,
the United States, France, and the Netherlands. The commerce
with these principal imj)ort and export markets is increasing to a
greater extent than that with the remaining countries, more especially
as regards the imports.
The value of the imports and of the exports of British produce
in the first nine months of 1880, compared with the first nine months
of the precedingyear, is given under the heading o? Comparative Tables
in the Introductory Part of the Statesman's Year Book for 1881.
The immense increase in the imports into the United Kingdom
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
257
in the ten years from 1870 to 1879 — to be traced back for another
ten years — was entirely in articles of food, mainly corn and flour.
In the year 1870, the total imports of grain of all kinds and of flour
amounted to 79,921,936 cwts. ; they rose to 83,957,989 cwts. in
1871 ; to 94,401,347 cwts. in 1873 ; to 107,521,642 cwts. in 1875 ;
to 124,628,193 cwts. in 1877 ; and to 131,291,680 cwts. in 1879.
The increase in quantities of other kinds of food imported was almost
equally great within the same decennial period. In 1869, the im-
ports of bacon and hams amounted to 740,193 cwts., and to
4,295,151 cwts. in 1878. Of eggs the number imported was
442,172,640 in 1869, and 783,714,720 in 1878 ; of fish, 629,449
cwts. in 1869, and 995,923 cwts, in 1878 ; and of refined sugar,
1,068,940 cwts. in 1869, and 3,266,480 cwts. in 1878.
The six principal articles imported at present into the United
Kingdom are, first, corn and flour ; secondly, raw cotton ; third,
wool ; fourth, sugar ; fifth, wood and timber ; and sixth, tea. The
six chief articles of home produce exported are, first, cotton manu-
factures ; secondly, woollen manufactures ; third, iron and steel ;
fourth, coals ; fifth, machinery ; and sixth, linen manufactures.
The subjoined tables exhibit the declared real value of these twelve
great articles of British commerce, imported and exported in each of
the years 1877, 1878, and 1879:—
The Six PRmcrpAL Aktici.es of Impoet.
Principal articles imported
1877
1878
1879
1. Corn and flour
£
63,536,322
£
59,064,875
£
61,261,437
2. Cotton, raw .
35,420,852
33,519,549
36,180,548
3. Wool, sheep and other .
24,567,312
23,128,234
23,564.064
4. Sugar, raw and refined .
27,175,673
20,794,670
22,063,297
5. Wood and timber .
20,628,424
13,974,424
10,750,502
6. Tea
12,480,740
13,048,787
11,262,593
The Six principax Articles of Export.
Principal articles exported
1877
1878
1879
1. Cotton manufacttires :
Piece goods, white or plain .
„ printed or dyed .
„ of other kinds .
Cotton yarn ....
Total of cotton manufactures
£
31,809,747
20,218,715
5,007,567
12,192,954
£
29,168,921
18,577,681
5,171 597
13,017,356
£
29,253,812
17,253,074
5,360,206
12,106,961
69,228,983 ' 65,935,555 63,974,053
258
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The Six principal Articles of Export — continued.
Articles exported
1877
1878
1879
£
6,145,773
806,093
6,921,532
803,223
1,184,535
3,714,230
2. Woollen and worsted manufac-
tures :
Cloths, coatings, &c.
Flannels, blankets, and baizes
Worsted stuffs
Carpets and druggets .
All other sorts
Woollen and worsted yarn .
Total of woollen and 1
worsted manufactures J
3. Iron and steel :
Iron, pig and puddled .
„ bar, angle, bolt, and rod .
„ railroad, of all sorts . ,
„ wire ....
„ tinned plates
„ hoops and plates .
„ wrought, of all sorts
„ old. for re-manufacture .
Steel, wrought and unwi-ought
Total of iron and steel
4. Coals, cinders, and fuel
5. Linen manufactures :
White or plain
Printed, checked, or dyed
Of other sorts
Linen yarn ....
Total of linen manufactures
6. Machinery ....
£
6,567,806
1,176,377
7,725,414
847,763
1,025,843
3,609,456
6,263,107
1,070,269
7,443,203
840,419
1,110,267
3,908,322
20,952,659
20,635,587
19,675,386
2,528,655
1,928,103
3,868,106
752,278
3,033,126
2,732,313
3,645,661
100,788
1,524,885
2,470,162
1,606,213
3,291.335
630,635
2,732,378
2,531,027
3,512,103
123,976
1,495,411
3,150,389
1,536,134
2,876,661
497,057
3,507,977
2,108,326
3,433,532
801,303
1,505,966
20,113,915
18,393,240
19,417,345
7,206,799
8,351,799
7,330,474
4,597,665
471,982
764,796
1,509,153
4,423,879
299,204
811,693
1,394,101
4,414,302
200,396
848,429
1,276,079
7,343,596
6,928,877
6,739,206
6,722,868
7,497,959
7,279,205
In the principal article of imports above enumerated, corn and flour,
there was an immense increase in the thirty-four years from 1846
to 1879. In 1846 the imports of corn and flour amounted to 17
pounds weight per head of population ; in 1855 they had risen to
70 pounds per head; and in 1865 to 93 pounds weight per head
of population. Finally, in 1879, the imports of corn and flour
amounted to 189 pounds weight per head of population of the
United Kingdom.
Subjoined is a statement of the customs receipts for the two years
1878 and 1879, showing the increase or decrease of the gross pro-
duce in the year 1879, as compared with 1878 : — •
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
259
Increase or decrease 1
Gross produce of Customs
of the gross
produce in '
duties
1878, as compared with ,
Articles
18
77 1
1878
1879
Increase
Decrease
£
£
£
£
Chicory ....
63,539
70,391
6,852
—
Cocoa, cocoa husks, and
chocolate
43,426
46,823
3,397
—
Coffee ....
208,789
216,925
8,136
—
Fruit, dried: Currants
314,135
296,644
—
17,491
„ Figs, plums,
and prunes
33,902
31,939
—
1,963
„ Eaisins
162.393
162,887
494
—
Spirits : Rum .
2,516,553
2,465,316
—
51,237
„ Brandy
2,067,193
1,848,790
—
218,403
„ Geneva and other
sorts
831,331
627,765
—
203,566
Tea ....
3,942,305
4,016,319
74,014
—
Tobacco and snuff .
8,470,574
8,596,757
126,183
—
Wine
1,525,231
1,378,508
—
146,723
Other articles .
Total gross receipts
12,155
12,499
344
—
20,191,526
19,771,563
419,963
Deduct drawbacks and
repayments
1
Total net receipts
104,326
89,212
—
15.114
20,087,200
19,682,351
—
404,849 '
The tendency of modern legislation is towards concentration of
customs' duties on a few articles. At present there are virtually
but four great articles of customs' produce, namely tobacco, spirits,
tea, and wine.
The gross receipts of customs were collected as follows in the
years 1878 and 1879 at the chief ports of England, in Scotland, and
in Ireland : —
Ports
1878
1879
Increase
Decrease
London
Liverpool
Other Ports of England
Scotland
Ireland
Total .
Decrease
£
10,095,988
3,096,258
2,782,266
1,588,208
1,792,914
£
10.026,020
2,875,914
2,700,581
1,575,166
1,842,345
£
49,431
£
69,968
220,344
81,685
13,042
19,355,634
19,020,026
49,431
385,039
335,608
It will be seen that the amount of customs receipts collected in
London in each of the years 1878 and 1879 was far more than the
82
26o
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
aggregate of all the ports of Great Britain and Ireland, and five times
that of the whole of Ireland. Besides London and Liverpool, there
is only one port in England, Bristol, the customs receipts of which are
over half a million a-year. It appears from the customs returns of
the last thirty years, that there is an ever-increasing tendency of
concentration of trade within a few great centres of commerce.
2. Shipping.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels of the United
Kingdom engaged in the home trade — the expression ' home trade '
signifying the coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the
limits of the river EJbe and Brest' — with the men employed thereon
— exclusive of masters — was as follows in each of the fourteen
years, from 1866 till 1879 :—
Home
Trade
Sailing Vessels
Home
Trade
Sailing Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
11,212
11,498
11,787
11,576
11,598
11,838
12,240
813,909
839,523
804,749
776,683
766,742
777,185
794,162
37.440
38,526
39,448
39,481
40,265
41,828
42,095
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
11,546
10,827
10,563
10,641
10,642
10,516
10,709
749,345
693,599
715,950
707,343
698,124
696,243
708,082
39,590
36,951
37,401
36,561
35,940
35,997
36,782
The number of steam vessels — exclusive of river steamers — em-
ployed in the home trade during each of the fourteen years, from
1866 to 1879, was as follows : —
Home
Trade
Steam Vessels
Home
Trade
Steam Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
612
657
729
751
1,071
1,191
1,237
147,194
154,244
153,265
161,984
170,746
195,125
208,490
9,005
9.451
9,755
10,049
11,445
12,613
13,238
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1,096
1,128
1.183
1,345
1,323
1,324
1,344
215,263
219,550
231,722
247,255
241,253
243,092
240,070
13,243
13,323
13,479
14,664
14,378
14,447
14,279
The number of saihng vessels engaged partly in the home and
partly in the foreign trade was as follows in each of the |^ fourteen
years, from 1866 to 1879 : —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
261
Partly Home
Partly home
and partly
Sailing Vessels
and partly
Sailing Vessels |
Foreign Trade
ForeignTrade
Years
Number
Tons
Men
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
1 1
1,546 278,167 1 10,055
1873
1,341
204,667
7,521
1867
1,196
199,846
7,339
1874
1,486
251,235
9,089
1868
1,432
240,921
8,688
1875
1,331
205,352
7,510
1869
1,617
288,849
10,265
1876
1,200
184,515
6,767
1870
1,585
283,682
9,988
1877
1,167
178.876
6,511
1871
1,610
286,803 i 10,060
1878
953
143,774
5,234
1872
1,378
245,563 8,580
1879
909
128,027
4,743
The niomber of steam vessels employed alternately in home and
foreign trade, during the years 1866 to 1879, was as follows: —
Partly Home
Partly Home
and partly
Steam Vessels
■ and partly
Steam Vessels
Foreign Trade
[ForeignTrade
Years
Number' Tons
Men
2,050
[ Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
110
47,194
1873
221
97,445
3,817
1867
125
50,201
2,249
I 1874
221
94,264
3,727
1868
134
52,150
2,339
1875
322
145,308
5,582
1869
164
73,964
3,048
1876
287
133,575
4,833
1870
234
108,813
4,221
1877
255
108,825
4,097
1871
300
157,964
5,767
1878
246
105,910
3,913
1872
244
121,337
4,605
1879
209
84,496
3,153
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels engaged in
the foreign trade alone, with the men employed — exclusive of masters
— was as follows during the fourteen years 1866 to 1879 : — '
Employed in the 1
Foreign Trade
Sailing Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
7,454
7,467
7,306
6.963
6,757
6,202
6,091
5,898
5,613
5,327
5,387
5,292
5,235
4,831
3,612,973
3,641,662
3,646,150
3,611,743
3,468,717
3,279,570
3,206,179
3,113,132
3,092,730
3,123,202
3,234,200
3,261,149
3,236,081
3,082,567
109,073
107,364
105,704
102,440
96,954
89,147
86,426
83,766
82,693
81,329
82,483
81,112
78,854
73,652
362
THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The number of steamers employed in the foreign trade dioring the
aame period was as follows : —
Employed in the
Foreign Trade
Steam Vessels
Years
Number
Tons
Men
1866
784
553,425
28,748
1867
834
608,232
31.411
1868
862
619,199
31,568
1869
810
644,080
30,207
1870
935
760.410
33,089
1871
1,066
936,914
40,323
1872
1,364
1,185,877
48,776
1873
1,479
1,368,245
54.302
1874
1,597
1,513,210
57,823
1875
1,465
1,470,158
54,366
1876
1,489
1,489,264
53,330
1877
1,640
1,627,411
54,524
1878
1,820
1,811,024
57,140
1879
2,027
2,006,591
60,939
It will be seen from the preceding six tables that the merchant
aavy is being gradually converted from sailing to steam.
A summary of the total sliipping of the United Kingdom, sailing
and steam, and for both home and foreign trade, during the fourteen
years from 1866 to 1879 is given in the following table : —
Number of
Years
Vessels
Tons
Men
1866
21,718
5,452,862
196,371
1867
21,777
5,493,708
196,340
1868
22,250
5,516,434
197,502
1869
21,881
5,557,303
195,490
1870
22,180
5,559,110
195,962
1871
22,207
5,633,561
199,732
1872
22,554
5,761,608
203,720
1873
21,581
5,748,097
202,239
1874
20,872
5,864,588
203,606
1875
20,191
5,891,692
199,667
1876
20,349
5,996,152
198,638
1877
20,319
6,115,638
196,562
1878
20,094
6,236,124
195,585
1879
20,029
6,249,833
193,548
The above numbers include ve.ssels of the Channel Islands, but
not those of the British possessions.
The total tonnage of British and foreign vessels, both sailing and
steam, which entered and cleared at ports of the United Kingdom,
either with cargoes or in ballast, during the fourteen years 1866 to
1879, is shown in the following table : —
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
26s
Tears
British
Foreign
Total
tons
tons
tons
1866
21,255,726
10,006,724
31,262,450
1867
22,370,070
10,386,042
32,756,112
1868
22,660,424
11,020,555
33,680,979
1869
23,789,167
11,121,114
34,910,281
1870
25,072,180
11,568,002
36,640,182
1871
28,034,748
13,513,130
41,547,878
1872
28,719,090
13,781,935
42,501,025
1873
29,647,344
14,792,642
44,439,986
1874
30,089,683
15,339,274
45,428,957
1875
30,944,744
15,332,094
46,276,838
1876
33,441,979
17,342,923
50,784,902
1877
34,765,907
16,765,170
51,531,077
1878
35,291,483
16,303,596
51,595,079
1879
37,433,991
15,281,459
52,715,450
The number and tonnage of vessels biiilt and first registered in
the United Kingdom, from 1865 to 1879, was as follows: —
Years
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
1866
969
207,678
354
133,511
1867
915
185,771
295
97,219
1868
879
300,477
232
79,096
1869
731
245,373
281
123,203
1870
609
136,286
434
226,591
1871
485
60,260
537
330,798
1872
427
58,757
635
415,961
1873
422
89,626
509
363,917
1874
499
187,313
482
333,890
1875
566
241,646
357
178,905
1876
687
236,890
320
123,475
1877
707
212,364
389
221,330
1878
590
141,221
499
287,080
1879
400
59,153
412
297,720
At the end of the year 1879 there were registered as belonging
to the United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands, 20,538
sailing vessels of 4,068,742 tons, and 5,027 steam vessels, of
2,511,733 tons, making in the whole 25,565 vessels of 6,579,795
tons, being 24,811 tons more than at the end of the year 1878.
The numbers for 1879, compared with those for 1866, show in the
14 years a decline of 5,602 in the number of sailing vessels, and of
834,910 tons in the tonnage ; and in steam vessels, an increase of
2,196 in the number and of 1,635,548 tons in the tonnage. The
total shipping, sailing and steam, showed, in the 14 years, a decline
of 3,406 in the number of vessels, but an increase of 800,638 tons
in the tonnage.
264
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
3. Textile Industry.
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom in
1815 amounted to only 99,000,000 pounds; it rose to 152,000,000
in 1820; to 229,000,000 in 1825; to 264,000,000 in 1830; to
592,000,000 iu 1840; to 663,576,861 pounds in 1850; and to
1,390,938,752 poimds in 1860 ; and fell to 669,583,264 pounds in
1863. The subsequent trade fluctuations are exhibited in the sub-
joined table, giving the total cotton imports, exports, and the home
consumption in the fourteen years from 1866 to 1879 : —
Years
Total imports of
Total exports of
Eetained for home
cotton
cotton
consumption
libs.
lbs.
lbs.
1866
1,377,129,936
388,952,368
988,177,568
1867
1,262,536,912
350,626,416
911,910,496
1868
1,328,084,016
322,620,480
1,005,463,536
1869
1,220,809,856
272,928,544
947,881,312
1870
1,338.305,584
236,630,576
1,101,675.008
1871
1,778,139,776
362,234,160
1,409,905,616
1872
1,408,837,472
273,005,040
1,135,832,382
1873
1,527,596,224
220,000,256
1,307,595,968
1874
1,566,864,432
258,967,632
1,307,896,800
1875
1,492,351,168
262,853,808
1,229,497,360
1876
1,487,858,848
203,305,872
1,284,552,976
1877
1,355,281,200
169,396,304
1,185,884,896
1878
1,340,380,048
147,257,936
1,193,122,112
1879
1,469,358,464
188,201,888
1,281,156,576
The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool — sheep,
lamb, and alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for home con-
sumption during the fourteen years from 1866 to 1879 : —
Total imports
Total exports
Retained for home
of wool
of wool
consumption
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
1866
239,358,689
66.573,488
172,785,201
1867
233.703.184
90,832,584
142,870,600
1868
252,744,155
105,070,311
147,673,844
1869
258,461,689
116,608,305
141,853,384
1870
263,250,499
92,542,384
170,708,115
1871
323,036,299
135,089,794
187,946,505
1872
306,379,664
137,511,247
168,868,417
1873
318,036,779
123,246,172
194,790,607
1874
344,470,897
144,294,663
200,176,234
1875
365.065,578
172,075,439
192,990,139
1876
390,056,759
173,020,372
217,035,387
1877
409,949,198
187,418,627
222,530,571
1878
399,449,435
199,286,544
200,162.891
1879
417.110,099
243,386,008
173,724,091
GEEAT BEITAIN AND IRELAND.
265
The following tabular statement gives the number of textile fac-
tories, and the number of workmen and workwomen employed in
them in each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom, on the
31st of October 1874. The statement is drawn up from official
returns under the Factories and Workshops Inspection Act, laid
before the House of Commons in the session of 1875 : —
■ Cotton Factories —
England and "Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
Number of
Factories
Persons employed
2,542
105
8
Males
180,607
5,830
1,183
Females
259,729
30,274
1,892
Total
440,336
36,104
3,076
2,655
187,620
291,895
479,515
Woollen Factories —
England and "Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom ,
1,483
257
60
54,119
11,816
782
61,252
15,912
724
105,371
27,728
1,.506
1,800
66,717
67,888
134,605
Shoddy Factories —
England and "Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
123
2
1,068
3
1,856
4
3,424
7
125
1,571
1,860
3,431
Worsted Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
648
43
1
53,995
3,052
3
77,836
7,203
9
131,830
10,255
12
692
57,050
85,047
142,097
Flax Factories —
England and "Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
141
159
149
6,856
12,752
18,323
15,471
33,064
41,993
22,327
45,816
60,316
449
37,931
90,528
128,459
Hemp Factories —
England and "Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
45
12
4
1,465
581
221
1,574
1,250
120
3,039
1,831
341
61
2,267
2,944
6,211
266
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Jute Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland .
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
Number of
Factories
Persons employed 1
15
84
11
Males
1,510
9,543
479
Females
3,423
21,350
1,615
Total
4,933
30,893
2,094
110
11,532
26,388
37,920
Hair Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
21
6
464
48
322
377
786
425
27
512
699
1,211
Silk Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
812
4
2
12,772
109
290
31,647
631
110
44,419
740
400
818
13,171
32,388
46,559
Hosier}/ a 7id other Factories—
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom ,
548
8
15,158
535
11,419
585
26,577
1,120
556
15,693
12,004
27,697
The following is a summary of the total number of textile fac-
tories in each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom, and o£
the total number of persons, male and female, employed therein on
the 31st of October 1874 :—
Textile Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....
United Kingdom .
Number of
Factories
Persons employed
6,379
680
235
Males
328,494
44,269
21,281
Females
454,528
110,650
46,463
Total
783,022
154,919
67,744
7,294
394,044
611,641
1,005,685
While the total number of textile factories in the United Kingdom
on the 31st of October 1874, was 7,294 ; that of spinning spindles
was 45,793,107; of doubling spindles, 5,284,136; and of power
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
267
looms, 667,711. Ofthe total number of persons employed, 1,005,685,
there were 61,209 male, and 64,677 female, children under thirteen
years of age ; so that the total numbers of ' half-timers ' employed
■was 125,886. There were 84,486 males between thirteen and
eighteen years of age ; 248,349 adult male workers ; and 546,964
girls over thirteen and adult female operatives, forming a total of
394,044 males and 611,641 females. Of the whole 1,005,685
persons employed in the three kingdoms, the proportion of men was
39 per cent., and of women 61 per cent. In England alone it was,
men, 42 per cent. ; women, 58 per cent. In Scotland — men, 28^
per cent. ; women, 71^ per cent. In Ireland — men, 32^ per cent. ;
women, 68f per cent.
4. Minerals and Metals.
The total quantities and value of the two most important mineral
and metal products of the United Kingdom, namely, coal and pig
iron, were as follows in each of the twelve years 1868 to 1879 : —
Years
Coal
Pig
iron
Quantities
Value
Quantities
Value
tons
£
tons
£
1868
. 103,141,157
25,785,289
4,970,206
12,381,280
1869
107,427,557
26,856,882
5,445,757
13,614.397
1870
110,431,192
27,607,798
6,963,515
14,908,787
1871
117,439,251
35,121,347
6,627,179
16,667,947
1872
123,497,316
46,311,216
6,741,929
18.540,304
1873
127,016,747
47,631,280
6,566,451
18,057,739
1874
125,043,257
46,849,194
4,985,084 ■
14,844,936
1875
131,867,105
46,163,486
6,365,420
15.645.774
1876
133,344,766
46,670,668
6,555,997
16.062,192
1877
134,610,763
47,113,767
6,608,664
16,191,236
1878
132,654,887
46,429,210
6,381,051
16,154,992
1879
133,808,012
46,832,012
5,995,337
14,788,342
Ofthe pig iron produced in 1879 there were 4,880,000 tons made
in England, one-third of it in Yorkshire ; 737,000 tons were made
in Wales and Monmouthshire, and 982,000 tons in Scotland. To the
coal produce of 1879 Durham and Northumberland contributed
31,210,000 tons; Yorkshire, 15,960,000 tons; Lancashire,
17,621,000 tons; Derbyshire, 6,975,000 tons; Staffordshire and
Worcestershire, 13,990,000 tons; Wales and Monmouthshire,
19,464,000 tons; and Scotland, 18,320,000 tons.
The total amoimt of iron ore produced in 1879 in the United
Kingdom was 16,692,802 tons, and the value 6,746,668/. As regards
other minerals, the production was as follows : — Lead ore, 80,850
tons, value 1,123,952/. ; tin ore, 14,142 tons, value 572,763Z. ; copper
ore, 73,141 tons, value 262,271/.; salt, 2,735,001 tons, ofthe value
of 1,504,250/. As to the metals obtained from these ores, the total
268 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
value in 1879 was 18,742,960/. Among the metals produced in the
year 1879 were 50,912 tons of lead, of the value of 850,230/. ; 9,532
tons of tin, of the value of 689,163/. ; and 3,462 tons of copper, of
the value of 222,507/. There were 333,462 oz. of silver obtained,
almost all from lead, of the value of 70,860/., and 447 oz. of gold,
the whole from Merionethshire, of the value of 1,790/. The total value
of minerals and metals obtained from the mines of the United King-
dom in 1879 reached 68,281,406/.— namely, 18,742,960/., the value
of metals, 47,113,767/. coal, and 2,424,679/. minerals and earthy
substances.
The United Kingdom is divided by the Mining Record Office into
14 coal fields, of which the most important are Yorkshire, which is
returned Avith 423 pits ; StaiFordshire and Worcestershire, with 422
pits; Scotland, with 420; Lancashire, with 376; Durham and
Northumberland, with 304; South Wales, with 299; a group com-
prising Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire,
with 187 pits; and Gloucestershire and Somerset, with 101 pita.
Ireland has a comparatively large number of pits, but a small output,
amoimting to only 125,000 tons in 1879.
The exports of coal from the United Kingdom to foreign countries
more than qumtupled within the last twenty-five years. They
amounted to 3,468,545 tons in 1851 ; to 5,789,779 tons in 1856;
to 7,855,115 tons in 1861; to 8,800,420 tons in 1864; to
9,616,244 tons in 1866 ; to 10,967,062 tons in 1868 ; to 11,702,649
tons in 1870; to 12,712,231 tons in 1872; to 13,927,205 tons
in 1874 ; to 16,299,077 tons in 1876; to 14,998,527 tons in 1878;
and to 15,740,082 tons in 1879. The declared value of these
exports was 1,302,473/. in 1851 ; 2,826,582/. in 1856 ; 3,604,790/.
in 1861; 4,165,773/. in 1864; 5,102,805/. in 1866; 5,352,525/.
in 1868; 5,506,890/. in 1870; 9,858,418/. in 1872 ; 12,370,638/.
in 1873; 11,984,621/. in 1874 ; 8,351,799/. in 1876; 7,010,036/.
in 1878 ; and to 6,793,932/. in 1879. Of the coal exports of 1878
the largest amount, 3,317,370 tons, valued 1,364,130/., went to
France, and the next largest amount, 2,055,080 tons, valued
774,710/., to Germany. The rest was distributed, mostly in quan-
tities not exceeding 100,000 tons, to about forty foreign countries
and British Colonial Possessions.
5. Railways.
From the opening of the first railway, in 1825, till the end of
1850, a period of a quarter of a century, 6,621 miles of lines were
constructed in the United Kingdom, being at the rate of 265 miles
per annum. At the end of 1860, the length of lines opened for
traffic was 10,433, showing an increase of construction at the rate of
381 miles per annum. At the end of 1879 there were 17,696 miles
open for traffic, the increase presenting an average of 402 miles per
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
269
annum of the total length. Of the total length of lines open at the
end of 1879, there belonged to England and Wales 12,547 miles, to
Scotland 2,864 miles, and to Ireland 2,285 miles.
The following table gives the length of lines open, the capital
paid up, the number of passengers conveyed, and the traffic receipts
of all the railways of the United Kingdom in each of the ten years
from 1870 to 1880 :—
Length of
Total capital
Number of passengers
lines open
paid up (shares
conveyed (exclusive
Traffic receipts
Teaxs
at the end
and loans) at
the end of each
year
of season-ticket holders)
year
miles
Total
Per mile
Total
Per mile
£
No.
No.
£
£
1870
15,537
529.908,673
330,004,398
21,239
45,078,143
2,794
1871
15,756
552,680,107
375,220,754
23,814
48,892,780
3,063
1872
15,814
569,047,346
422,874,822
26,740
51,304,114
3,244
1873
16,082
588,320,308
455,320,288
28,312
55,675,421
3,462
1874
16,449
609,895,919
478,316,701
29,078
56,901,281
3,459
1875
16,658
630,226,942
507,532,187
30,468
58,982,753
3.541
1876
16,872
658,214,776
538,681,722
31,928
59,917,868
3,551
1877
17,077
674,059,048
551,593,654
32,301
62,973,328
3,687
1878
17,335
698,545,154
565,024,455
32.594
60,486,122
3,485
1879
17,696
717,003,469
562,732,890
31.800
59,395,282
3,356
To the total capital in 1879 England and Wales contributed
593,155,665/., Scotland 90,694,574/., and Ireland 33,153,230/. In
the division of the traffic receipts of 1879, England and Wales took
50,437,796/., Scotland 6,384,551/., and Ireland 2,572,935/. The
working expenditure amounted to 32,045,273/. on all the railways
in 1879, being 55 per cent, of the total traffic receipts.
The following tabular statement gives the total length of railways
open for traffic in the British Empire on the 31st December, 1878 : —
Miles
Miles
United Kingdom . . . ,
17,335
India
8,215
Ceylon .....
92
Dominion of Canada .
5,574
Jamaica .....
25
British Guiana ....
21
New South Wales .
650
Victoria
931
Australasia -
South Australia .
Queensland .
Tasmania
New Zealand
292
298
175
718
Total, Australasia
. 3,064
Cape Colony and Natal
154
Mauritius
66
Total of C
olonial Empire of Great
Britain
17,211
Total, British Empire .
34,546
270
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
There were upwards of 5,000 miles of railways in construction
within the British Empire at the end of 1879.
6. Post and Telegraphs.
The following tabular statement gives the number of letters, in
millions, delivered in each of the three divisions of the United King-
dom, and the average number for each individual of the population,
in the fifteen years from 1869 to 1878 : —
1
Number of Letters delivered (in
Number of Letters per 100 of the 1
MiUions)
Population
Years
Dec. 31
England
England
and
Scotland
Ireland
and
Scotland
Ireland
Wales
Wales
Millions
Millions
Millions
1865
597
67
56
2,831
2,104
1,001
1866
623
70
57
2,919
2,178
1,033
1867
640
76
59
2,962
2,343
1,076
1868
670
78
60
3,062
2,382
1,099
1869
683
79
62
3,081
2,391
1,139
1870
704
79
64
3,135
2,369
1,182
1871
721
80
66
3,168
2,376
1.225
1872
737
82
66
3,195
2,412
1,229
1873
756
84
67
3,237
2,448
1,255
1874
802
90
70
3,377
2,600
1,318
1875
847
91
71
3,529
2,600
1,339
1876
856
91
72
3,520
2,579
1,354
March 31
1878
884
100
74
3,601
2,808
1,386
1879
922
99
76
3,698
2,748
1,419
1880
950
102
76
3,775
2,801
1,417
The number of post-cards delivered in the year ending March
■31, 1880 was 97 millions in England and Wales, 12 millions in
Scotland, and 6 millions in Ireland, or a total of 115 millions for the
United Kingdom.
The number of newspapers and book packets delivered in the year
•ending March 31, 1880 was 281 millions in England and Wales, 37
millions in Scotland, and 27 millions in Ireland, or a total of 345
millions for the United Kingdom. In the preceding financial year
the total was 328 millions.
The number of money orders issued by the Post Office during the
year ended March 31, 1880, in the whole of the United Kingdom,
was 16,889,982, of the aggregate value of 25,032,261^., being at the
rate of 51*1 orders to every 100 of the population In England and
Wales, the number was 14,432,035, and of the value of 21,338,049/.,
being at the rate of 59*1 orders to every 100 persons; in Scotland
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
271
the number was 1,426,098, of the value of 2,320,313/., being at the
rate of 40-2 orders to every 100 persons, and in Ireland the number
was 1,030,949, of the value of 1,373,899/., being at the rate of 21
•orders to every 100 of the population.
The telegraphs were transferred to the State on February 5,
1870.
The following table gives the number of telegraphic messages (ex-
clusive of Press and Service messages) forwarded from Postal Tele-
graph Stations, in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
ended March 31
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom
1870
7,117,666
955,116
533.950
8,606,732
1871
9,654,594
1,305.596
800,328
11,760,518
1872
12,062,725
1,677,203
1,118,092
14,858,020
1873
14,070,993
1,942,610
1,280,731
17,294,334
1874
15,612,409
2,141,030
1,363,195
19,116,634
1875
17.058,816
2,272,465
1,434,996
20,766,277
1876
17,671,518
2,383,820
1,519,869
21,575,207
1877
17,958,330
2,457,350
1,561,404
21,977,084
1878
18,418,673
2,488,189
1,571,282
22.478,144
1879
19,287,999
2,548,471
1,548,946
23,385,416
The following table shows the annual gross revenue, the working
expenses, and the net revenue of the postal telegraph department
in each of the eight years ending March 31, from 1872 to 1879 :
Years
ended March 31
Gross Revenue
Working
Expenses
Net Revenue
£
£
£
1872
751,611
591,776
159,835
1873
989,921
874,946
114,975
1874
1,083,466
967,790
115,676
1875
1,137,079
1,077,347
59,732
1876
1,276,662
1,031,524
245,138
1877
1,313,107
1,123,790
189,317
1878
1,333,542
1,164,131
169,411
1879
1.346,892
1.089,291
257.601
The number of Post Offices in the United Kingdom at the end of
;March 1879 was 13,881 ; there were besides 11,880 road and pillar
letter boxes, 1,981 of them in the London district alone. The staff of
officers forming part of the Post Office department, inclusive of 11,448
•officials engaged solely in telegraph duties, was 45,947 at the end of
March 1879, of whom 10,743 were engaged in the Metropolis.
The total number of post offices open for the transaction of tele-
2/2 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
graph business was 5,254 at the end of 1879, including 1,401 rail-
way telegraph offices. The estimated total length of the postal
telegraph wires at the end of 1879 was 116,100 miles
A Parliamentary paper issued in the session of 1880, states that
on June 30, 1880, there were, in the United Kingdom, 3,680 miles
of street and road tramways open, from which, during the year
1879-80 1,842,933/. had been received, and iipon which 1,113,094L
had been expended. This left a balance of receipts of 729,839/.
The total number of passengers Avho travelled during the year on
the tramways was 173,067,108; the mileage being 23,842,000.
The number of horses was 12,392, of locomotive engines 17, and of
cars 1,619 on June 30, 1880.
Colonial Possessions.
The Colonies and Dependencies of Great Britain embrace about
one-seventh of the land surface of the globe, and nearly a fourth of
its population. The total area of these possessions is estimated at
7,647,000 English square miles, or more than sixty times the ex
tent of the United Kingdom. Of this vast dominion, three millions
square miles are in America, half a million in Africa, a million in
Asia, and more than two millions and a-half in Australasia.
The whole of the Colonial Possessions are, under the latest
arrangements, existing at the end of 1878, grouped in forty admi-
nistrative divisions, some of them embracing a number of formerly
separate colonies. Of these forty colonies, and groups of colonies,
four are in Europe, eleven in or near America, ten in or near
Africa, seven in Asia, and eight in Australasia. In Europe, the Pos-
sessions are, in alphabetical order, first, Cyprus ; second, Gibraltar ;
third, Heligoland ; and, fourth, Malta. In America, or adjoining
the American continent, the possessions are, first, the Bahamas,
a group of some 800 islands and islets, of which twenty are
inhabited ; second, the Bermudas, a group of about 300 islands, of
which fifteen are inhabited ; third, the Dominion of Canada, com-
prising the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, Manitoba, British Columbia, and (since June 26, 1873)
Prince Edward Island ; fourth, the Falkland Islands, a group of
large area, with very few inhabitants ; fifth, Guinea, on the conti-
nent of South America ; sixth, the Honduras, on the continent of
Central America ; seventh, Jamaica, to which are annexed, by an
Act of Parliament, passed in 1873, the Turks and Caicos Islands ;
eighth, the Leeward Islands, comprising the formerly separate
colonies of Antigua, Montserrat, St. Christopher, Nevis, An-
guilla, the Virgin Islands, and Dominica, the Avhole united undei
an Act of Parliament, passed in 1871; ninth, Newfoundland.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 2/3
not yet included in the Dominion of Canada ; tenth, the Island of
Trinidad ; and, eleventh, the Windward Islands, comprising the
formerly separate colonies of Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
Grenada, and Tobago. In Africa, and nearest to the African conti-
nent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Island of Ascension, in
the South Atlantic Ocean ; second, the Cape of Good Hope, includ-
ing British Kaffraria, and other annexations made from 1866 to
1877 ; third, the Gambia settlement, on the Avest coast ; fourth, the
vaguely limited Gold Coast territory, enlarged in 1872, by a cession
of old Dutch settlements ; fifth, the South African settlement of
Griqualand West, proclaimed British territory October 27, 1871 ;
sixth, the Island of Lagos, and territories on the mainland, ceded
under treaty of August 6, 1861 ; seventh, the Island of IVIauritius,
and its dependencies, in the Indian Ocean ; eighth, Natal, separated
from the Cape of Good Hope in 1856 ; ninth, the Island of St.
Helena, in the South Atlantic ; and, tenth, the territory of Sierra
Leone, on the West Coast of Africa. In Asia, the colonial posses-
sions are, first, the town and port of Aden, in Arabia, at the entrance
of the Red Sea ; second, the Island of Ceylon ; third, the Island of
Hong Kong ; fourth, the Empire of India ; fifth, the Island of
Labuan, on the coast of Borneo ; sixth, the Island of Perim, in the
Eed Sea ; and, seventh, the Straits Settlements, comprising the
Islands of Singapore and Penang, with the territory of Malacca, in
the Indian Archipelago. Finally, in Australasia, the colonial pos-
sessions embrace, besides the Fiji Islands east to the mainland of
Australia, ceded to Great Britain in 1874, the seven, at present sepa-
rated but in all probability to be imited, colonies of New South Wales,
New Zealand, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and
Western Australia.
The following table exhibits the date of acquisition, the area, and
the form of government, of the whole of the Colonial Possessions of
Great Britain at the end of 1878. The form of government is stated
after the definition given in the ' Colonial Office List,' under which
the colonies are divided into three classes, namely, first. Crown
Colonies, in which the Crown has the entire control of legislation,
while the administration is carried on by public officers under the
control of the Home Government ; secondly, colonies possessing
Jlepresentative Institutions, in which the Crown has no more than a
veto on legislation, but the Home Government retains the control of
public officers ; and, thirdly, colonies possessing Responsible Govern-
ment in which the Crown has only a veto on legislation, and the
Home Government has no control over any public officer, except its
ow^n representative. The title of this representative. Governor,
President, or Administrator, is added to the description of the form
of government in the last column of the table : —
T
274
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Colonial Possessions
Date of
Acquisition
Area: Eng-
lish square
miles
Form of Government, and title
of chief executive officer
In Europe : — •
Cyprus
1878
4,200
Crown ; Governor.
Gibraltar .
1704
Crown ; Governor.
Heligoland
1814
Crown ; Governor.
Malta
1800
115
Crown; Governor,
In America : —
Bahamas . .
1629
3,021
Representative ; Governor.
Bermudas .
1609
24
Representative ; Governor.
Canada, Dominion of
1623-1760
3,372,290
Responsible; Gov.-General.
Falkland Islands
1833
6,500
Crown ; Governor.
Guiana
1803
76,000
Crown; Governor.
Honduras .
1670
13,500
Crown ; Lieut. -Governor.
Jamaica and Turks
Islands .
1629-55
6,900
Crown ; Captain-General.
Leeward Islands
1626-1763
738
Representative ; Governor.
Newfoundland .
1583
40,200
Responsible ; Governor.
Trinidad .
1797
1,755
Crown; Governor.
Windward Islands
1605-1803
Tib
Representative; Governor.
In Africa : —
Ascension .
1815
34
Crown; Governor.
Cape of Good Hope with
dependencies •
1806-1877
347,855
Responsible ; Governor.
Gambia
1631
21
Crown ; Administrator.
Gold Coast
1660
6,000
Crown; Administrator.
Lagos
1661
5,000
Crown ; Administrator.
Mauritius . .
1810
708
Crown ; Governor.
Natal
1843
18,750
Representative ; Governor.
St. Helena
1650
47
Crown ; Governor.
Sierra Leone
1788
468
Crown; Governor.
In Asia : —
Aden
1838
5
Crown ; Governor.
Ceylon
1796
24,702
Representative ; Governor.
Hong Kong
1843
29
Crown ; Governor.
India
1625-1849
908,350
Crown ; Governor-General.
Labuan
1846
45
Crown ; Governor.
Perim
1855
7
Crown ; Gov. of Aden.
Straits Settlements
1785-1819
1,350
Crown ; Governor.
In Australasia: —
Fiji Islands
1874
7,403
Crown ; Governor.
New South Wales
1787
310,938
Responsible ; Governor.
New Zealand
1814
105,342
Responsible; Governor.
Queensland
1859
669,520
Responsible; Governor.
South Australia .
1836
903,690
Responsible; Governor.
Tasmania .
1803
26,215
Responsible ; Governor.
Victoria
1787
88,198
Responsible; Governor.
Western Australia
1829
1,057,250
Representative ; Governor.
The following table gives the numbers of the population, distin-
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
275
guisliing th'e sexes, of the whole of the colonial possessions, according
to the latest census returns : —
Colonial possessions
Year of
Population
census
Males
Females
Total
In Europe : —
Cyprus ....
1871
—
—
150,000
Gibraltar ....
1871
7,111
7,653
14,764
Heligoland . ,
1871
874
1,039
1,913
Malta ....
1871
76,016
73,068
149,084
In America • —
Bahamas . , , .
1871
19,349
19.813
39,162
Bermudas ....
1871
5,402
6,719
12,121
Canada, Dominion of .
1871
—
—
3,686,013
Falkland Islands .
1871
519
284
803
Guiana ....
1871
108,791
84,700
193,491
Honduras ....
1870
12,603
12,107
24,710
Jamaica and Turks Islands
1871
248,655
261,699
510,354
Leeward Islands .
1871
56,297
64,194
120,491
Newfoundland . .
1869
75,547
70,989
146,536
Trinidad ....
1871
60,405
49,233
109,638
Windward Islands . .
1871
132,391
151,687
284,078
In Africa : —
Ascension ....
1871
16
11
27
Cape of Good Hoj^e and
dependencies .
1875
—
—
1,420,162
Gambia ....
1871
7,306
6,884
14,190
Gold Coast
1871
—
—
408,070
Lagos ....
1871
28,963
33,058
62,021
Mauritius ....
1871
193,575
122,467
316,042
Natal ....
1877
157,929
167,583
325.512
St. Helena
1871
2,999
3,242
6,241
Sierra Leone . . .
1871
19,445
19,491
38,936
In Asia : —
Aden ....
1871
—
—
22,507
Ceylon ....
1876
—
—
2,459,542
Hong Kong . ,
1876
101,232
37,912
139,144
India ....
1872
—
—
237,395,498
Labuan ....
1871
3,027
1,871
4,898
Perira ....
1871
—
211
Straits Settlements ,
1871
200,433
107,664
308,097
In Australasia : —
Fiji Islands . . ,
—
—
142,030
New South Wales
1871
275,551
228,430
503,981
New Zealand . . .
1874
170,981
128,533
299,514
Queensland . , ,
1876
105,009
68,274
173,283
South Australia . ,
1876
117,208
108,469
225,677
Tasmania ....
1870
52,853
46,475
99,328
Victoria ....
1871
401,050
330,478
731,528
Western Australia
1871
15,565
9,788
25,353
T 2
276
THE STATESMANS YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The cost of the Colonial Possessions to Great Britain has not
varied greatly for a number of years. It amounts at present — inchi-
sive of Cyprus, acquired in 1878, the revenue of which for 1879-80
was estimated at 177,233/., with an expenditure of 174,342/. — to
a little over two niillions sterhng per annum. More than one-
half of this amount is paid on account of nine of the Possessions,
classed as general military and naval stations.
The following table gives the abstract of several parliamentary
returns showing the cost of the Colonial Possessions, of the Empire
falling to the charge of the British Exchequer, the first column
giving the actual cost of the financial year 1872-73-, and the other
two columns showing the estimated cost for each of the two financial
years 1878-79 and 1879-80 :—
Colonial Possessions
1872-73
. 187^-79
1879-80
Military and Natal Stations :
£
£
£
Gibraltar . . . ,
300,433
342,500
365,96&
Malta
378,520
470,835
387,242
Cape Colony and Natal .
162.827
428,107
642,162
Mauritius ....
33,r)75
47,832
40,016
Bermuda ....
193,01;)
1 78,71 7
109,973
St. Helena ....
27,6.59
18,030
22,298
Cj'prus
—
—
38,790 1
Hong Kong ....
112,389
95,061
97,847 j
Australasian Colonies :
Western Australia
44,-'i48
9,908 '
9,903
Queensland ....
I
—
—
Victoria ....
10,740
_:.
—
New South Wales .
248
^
—
Tasmania ....
1,335
__
—
New Zealand
1,226
1
—
Fiji Islands ....
—
Io9
—
Other Colonies :
I
Jamaica ....
80,779
02,926 '.
70,698
Bahamas ....
23,308
11,139 .
9,006
Honduras . . . .
10,684
14,246 ,
.15,728
Windward and Leeward Isl. .
lo2,106
99,113
104,546
Canada (Haliflix) .
3,052
132,506
132,676
Nova Scotia ....
149,616
—
—
New Brunswick
3
— -
—
Newfoundland
560
—
—
Vancouver Island.
796
—
—
West Coast of Africa
60,110
45,518
46,795
Ceylon
17,865
92,996
103,160
Labuan
50
—
—
Strait-s Settlements
Total .
68,260
67,819
75,443
1,846,194
2,123,472
2,338,252
GREAT BKITAIN AND IRELAND. 2//
According to the Army Estimates for the year 1879-80, the total
effective strength of the British forces in the colonies, exclusive of
India — for which see p. 685 — wa.s 30,614 men, rank and file. The
number of troops in the various colonies having British garrisons was
as follows : — Malta, 5,600 men ; Gibraltar, 4,995 ; Cape of Good Hope
and Natal, 8,431 ; Ceylon, 1,234 ; Bermuda, 2,141 ; Canada (Hali-
fax), 1,827 ; Hong Kong, 1,207; Jamaica, 881 ; Straits Settlements,
1,024; Mauritius, 451; "Windward and Leeward Islands, 1,180;
West Coast of Africa, 625; Cyprus, 501; Honduras, 196; St.
Helena, 228 ; and the Bahamas, 98 men.
For further details concerning the Constitution and Government,
Revenue and Expenditure, Population, and Trade and Commerce of
the principal Colonies and Dependencies of the United Kingdom,
see Part II. of the Statesman's Year-book.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.
I. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for
tJie twelve naonths ended 31st December 1879. 8. pp.74. London, 1880.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the
Eine months ended 30th Sept. 1880. 8. pp. 66. London, Nov. 1880.
Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1880, with abstract tables for the
United Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries. 8. pp. 164.
London, 1880.
Agricultural Statistics, Ireland: General Abstracts for 1879-1880. 8.
pp. 19. Dublin, 1880.
Annual Statement of the Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom'
m the year 1879. Imp. 4. pp. 333. London, 1880.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries and British Possessions in the year 1879. Imp. 4. pp. 279. London,
J879.
Army Estimates of Effective and Non-Effective Services for 1880-81. FoL
pp. 200. London, 1880.
Army (Colonies). Statement showing the amount included in the army
estimates, 1880-81, for military purposes in the Colonies. Fol. pp. 5. Lon-
don, 1879.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England: 41st Annual Report of the
Ilegistrar-General. 8. pp. 426. London, 1880.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland : 25th annual Report of the
Eegistrar-General. 8. pp. 84. Edinburgh, 1880.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Ireland : 14th Report of Registrar-GeneraL
8. pp. 133. Dublin, 1880.
2/8 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Census of Eagland and "Wales, taken on the 3rd April 1871. Fol. pp.
107. London, 1871.
Census for Ireland for the year 1871. Parts 1-3. Fol. pp. 700. Dublin,
1874-76.
Census of Scotland, 1871. Fol. pp. 366, Edinburgh, 1872.
Civil Service Estimates for the year 1880-81. Fol. pp. 630. London'
1879.
Colonies : Eetum of the Cost of the several Colonies of the British Empire
at the expense of the British Exchequer. Fol. London, 1875 and 1878.
Colonies: See 'Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial Possessions.'
8. pp. 107. London, 1880.
Customs : 24th Report of the Commissioners of H.M.'s Customs. 8. pp.
110. London, 1880.
Duchy of Cornwall : Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year
1879. Fol. pp. 12, London, 1880.
Duchy of Lancaster: Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year
1879. Fol. pp. 8. London, 1880.
Ecclesiastical Commission: 32nd Report, with xVppendix. 8. pp. 104. Lon-
don, 1880.
Education : Elementary Schools in England and Scotland. Return showing
expenditure upon grants, and results of inspection and examination, 8. pp,
62, London, 188C.
Education: Report of Committee of Council on Education for 1879-80. 8.
pp. 1,066. London, 1879.
Electors : Return of the number of Electors on the register of each county
in England and Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Fol. pp. 8. London,
1880.
Emigration : See ' Statistical Tables relating to Emigration and Immigration.'
Fol. pp. 20. London, 1880.
Finance Accounts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for
the financial year ended 31st March 1880. 8. pp. 119. London, 1880.
Income and Property Tax : Return of the Amount of Income and Property
Tax under Schedules A, B, C, D, and E, in England and Wales, Ireland, and
Scotland for the year 1814, and in each of the years 1842 to 1873. Fol. pp. 4.
London, 1875.
Inland Revenue: Report of Commissioners on the Duties under their
Management for the years 1856 to 1869, with some Retrospective History and
complete Tables of Accounts of the duties from their first imposition. 2 vols.
Fol. pp. 168 and 219, London, 1870,
Inland Revenue : 22nd Report of the Commissioners, 8. pp. 123, London,
1880.
Judicial Statistics of England and Wales for 1879. 4. pp. 258, London, 1880
Judicial Statistics of Ireland for 1879. Parts I, and II. Fol, pp. 236,.
London, 1880.
Landowners in England and Wales : Return of the Owners of Land of one
acre and upwards in England and Wales, exclusive of the Metropolis, with
their names, addresses, extent of lands, and estimated gross rental. 2 vols.
Imp. 4, pp. 1600. London, 1876.
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 2/9
Lando'wners in Ireland : Eeturn of the Owners of Land of one acre and
upwards, in Ireland, with their names, addresses, extent of lands, and valua-
tion. Fol. pp. 325. Dublin, 1876.
Landowners in Scotland : Ketxxrn of the Owners of Land of one acre and
upwards, in Scotland, with their names, addresses, extent of lands, and esti-
mated gross rental. Fol. pp. 212. Edinburgh, 1875.
Local Taxation Returns: England. Published annually. 1878-79. Fol.
pp. 373. London, 1879.
Merchant Shipping: Tables showing the Progress of British Merchant
Shipping. Fol. pp. 32. London, 1880.
Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom. Part X, Fol. pp. 512.
London, 1879.
Navy Estimates for the year 1880-81, with Appendix. Fol. pp. 249. London,
1880.
Navy-: Statistical Eeport on the Health of the Navy for 1878. 8. pp. 622.
London, 1879.
Navy: Steamships in H.M.'s Navy on the 1st of January 187-1, and the 1st
of January 1879. 8. pp. 59. London, 1879.
Navy : Tonnage of the Ships and Vessels of the Eoyal Navy. 8. pp. 4.
London, 1879.
Poor Law, England: 9th Eeport of Local Government Board. 8. pp. 491,
London, 1880.
Poor Eelief, Scotland : 34th Eeport of Commissioners. 8. pp. 320. Edin-
burgh, 1880.
Poor Eelief, Ireland : 8th Eeport of Local Government Board for Ireland.
8. pp. 216. Dublin, 1880.
Post Office: 26th Eeport of the Postmaster-General on the Post Office.
8. pp. 68. London, 1880.
Public Accounts: Eeport from the Committee. Fol. pp. 142. London,
1880.
Public Income and Expenditure: Account for year ended 31st March 1880.
Fol. pp. 4. London, 1879.
Public Eecords ; 41st Eeport of the Commissioners. 8. pp. 888. London,
1880.
Eailway Companies of the United Kingdom ; General Eeport to the Board
of Trade in regard to the share and loan capital, the traffic, &c., for the year
1879. Fol. pp. 23. London, 1880.
Eailway Eeturns for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, for the year
1879. Fol. pp. 90. London, 1880.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools : 23rd Eeport of Commissioners. 8.
pp. 372. London, 1879.
Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on the manufac-
tures, commerce, &c. of the countries in which they reside. 6 Parts, 1880.
8. pp. 686, London, 1879.
Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c. of their
Consular Districts. 6 Parts, 1880. 8. pp. 1415. London, 1880.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom in each of the fifteen years
from 1865 to 1879. No. 27. 8. pp. 151. London, 1880.
28o THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1864 to 1878. No. 16. 8, pp. 111. London,
1880.
Stfitistical Abstract for the Principal Foreign Countries, in each year from
1867 to 1877-8. No. 6. 8. pp. 203. London, 1879.
Statistical Tables relating to Emigration and Immiaration from and into
the United Kingdom, in the year 1879. Fol. pp. 20. London, 1880.
Taxation in England and Wales : Ketnrn for the financial year 1814-15, and
for each of the financial years from 1842-43 to 1873-74. Fob pp. 4. London,
1875.
Woods, Forests, and Land Eeveuues : 58th Keport of the Commissioners.
Fol. pp. 183. London, 1880.
2. Nox-Official Publications.
Baxter (Dwdlcy), The Taxation of the United Kingdom. 8. London, 1869.
^Mrrow'A- (Montagu), Constitutional Progress. 8. London, 1869.
Clodc (Charles M.), History of the Administration and Government of the
British Army, from the Revolution of 1688. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869-70.
Creas?/ (Sir Edward), The Imperial and Colonial Constitutions of the Bri-
tannic Empire, including Indian Institutions. 8. London, 1872.
Fairfield (Edward), Colonial Otfice List for 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Freeman (E. A.), The Growth of the English Constitution from the Earliest
Times. New Ed. 8. London, 1873.
Hcarn (AV. E.), The Government of England. 8. London, 1870.
Holms (John), The British Army in 1875. 8. London, 1876.
Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XLII. 8. London, 1879.
Maff (Tiiomas Erskine), Constitutional History of Engband. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1861-63.
Molesworth{Tiex.^\. N.), Historv of England, 1830-74. 5th edit. 3 vols.
8. London, 1874.
iV"oi/c (John), National Finance. 8. London, 1875.
Paget (Jolin C.) Naval Powers and their Policy, with tabular statements of
British and Foreign Navies. 8. London, 1876.
Palgrcve (Ecginald), The House of Commons. 8. London, 1869.
Pal grave (R. H. Inglis), The Local Taxation of Great Britain and Ireland.
8. London, 1871.
Bavcnftein (E. G.), Denominational Statistics of England and Wales. 8.
London, 1870.
Seed (Edward J.), Our Ironclad Ships. 8. London, 1869.
Scott (Sir S.), The British Army. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Stephnis (A. J.), New Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. 8.
London, 1868.
StiiJihs (Professor), A Constitutional History of England, in its Origin and
Development. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877-
Todd {A\.), On Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. 8. London,
1867-69.
Younq (Frederick), Imperial Federation of Great Britain and her Colonies.
8. London, 18:6.
28 1
GREECE.
(Kingdom of the Hellenes.)
Reigning King.
Georgios I., born Dec. 24, 1845, the second son (Wilhelm) of
Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburff,
present King of Denmark ; elected King of the Hellenes by the
National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30), 1863; accepted the
crown, through his father the King of Denmark, acting as his
guardian, June 4, 1863 ; declared of age by decree of the National
Assembly, June 27, 1863 ; landed in Greece, Nov. 2, 1863 ; married,
October 27, 1867, to Queen Olga, born Aug. 22 (Sept. 3), 1851, the
eldest daughter of Grand-duke Constantino of Russia, brother of the
Emperor Alexander II.
Children of the Kiijg.
I. Prince Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, heir-apparent, born Aug.
2, 1868.
IL Prince Georgios, born June 25, 1869.
III. Princess Alexandra, born Augiist 30, 1870.
IV. Prince Nicolass, born February 2, 1872.
V. Princess Marie, born March 4, 1876.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863, a
civil list of 1,125,000 drachmas, or 40,178/., Avas settled on King
Georgios I., to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and
Russia added 4,000/. each, making the total income of the sove-
reign of Greece 52,178/. per anniim.
Greece, a province of the Turkish empire since the commence-
ment of the 16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection
of 1821-9, and by the Protocol of London, of Feb. 3, 1830, was
declared a kingdom, under the protection of Great Britain, France,
and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg having declined the
crown of Greece, on the ground that the boundaries proposed were
insufficient, it was offered to, and accepted by. Prince Otto of
Bavaria, who ascended the throne Jan. 25, 1833, being under the
age of eighteen. He was expelled the kingdom after a reign of 29
years, in October 1862, which event was followed by the election,
under the directing guidance of the three protecting Powers, of the
present sovereign.
282 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864,
attains his majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before
he ascends the throne, he must take the oath to the constitution in
the presence of the ministers, the sacred synod, the deputies then in
the metropolis, and the higher officials of the realm. Within two
months at the most, the King must convoke the Legislature. If the
successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the time of the
King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative
Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within ten days after
the occurrence of that event. The constitutional royal authority
in this case has to be exercised by the ministerial council until the
choice of a Eegent, or the arrival of the successor to the throne.
The present sovereign is allowed, by special exception, to adhere to
the rehgion in which he was educated, the Protestant Lutheran
faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of the Greek
Orthodox Chiirch.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Greece Avas elaborated by a Constituent
Assembly, elected in December 18C3, and adopted Oct. 29, 1864.
It vests the whole legislative power in a single chamber of repre-
sentatives, called the Boule, elected by manhood suffrage for the
term of four years. The elections take place by ballot, and each
candidate must be put in nomination by the requisition of at least
one-thirtieth of the voters of an electoral district. The voting takes
place by means of ballot-boxes, into which balls are dropped,
there being one box for each candidate, and every voter being at
liberty to givehis vote either for or against each, so that the voter has
as many votes as there are candidates in his district. The Boule
must meet annually for not less than three, nor more than six
months. No sitting is valid unless at least one-half of the members
of the Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into law without
an absolute majority of members. Every measure, before being
adopted, must be discussed and voted, article by article, thrice,
and on three separate days. But the Legislative Assembly has no
power to alter the Constitution itself; particular provisions may
be reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the exception of
* fundamental principles.' The Chamber of Deputies, unless spe-
cially convoked at an earlier date, for extraordinary occasions, must
meet on the 1st of November (old style) of every year. The number
of members, dependent upon the number of population, was 188 in
the session of 1879.
The executive is vested in the King and his responsible Ministers,
the heads of eight departments. They are the Presidency of the
GREECE. 283
Council, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Finance, the
[Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Education and Ecclesiastical
AiFairs, the IMinistry of "War, the Ministry of Marine, the Ministry
of Foreign AiFairs. Since the accession of the present sovereign, in
1863, ministerial changes have been exceedingly frequent, the average
duration of ministries being less than a year.
At the side of the executive Council of Ministers stands, by the
terms of the constitution, a deliberative Council of State, which,
however, has not been formed in recent years. If in existence, it is to
the Council of State that aU Bills must be referred fi-om the Chamber
of Deputies, and returned with observations or amendments \\dthin 10
days ; but this term may be prolonged by resolution of the Chamber
to 15 days more. In case the Council of State make no report at
the expiry of the time fixed, the Chamber of Deputies may vote
the law and send it iip to the king.
Churcli and Education.
The great majority of the inhabitants of the kingdom are adhe-
rents of the Greek Orthodox Church. At the census of 1870 there
were 1,441,810 members of the Greek Orthodox Church; 12,585
other Christians, mainly Roman Catholics; 2,582 Jews, and 917
Mahomedans. By the terms of the constitution of 1864, the Greek
Orthodox Church is declared the religion of the state, but complete
toleration and liberty of worship is guaranteed to all other sects, of
whatever form of belief Nominally, the Greek clergy owe allegiance
to the Patriarch of Constantinople, who is elected by the votes of the
bishops and optimates subject to the Sultan, and whose jurisdiction,
extends over Thrace and other countries, in eluding Wallachia and Mol-
davia, as well as the greater part of Asia Minor. But the jurisdiction
of the Patriarch, existing in theory, has frequently been challenged^
while the real ecclesiastical authority, formerly exercised by him,
was anniiUed by the resolutions of a National Synod, held at Naupha,
in 1833, which vested the government of the Orthodox Church, with-
in the limits of the kingdom, in a permanent council, called the
Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, and four arch-
bishops and bishops, who must while in office reside at the seat of
the executive. The Orthodox Church has four archbishops and four
bishops on the continent of Greece ; sis archbishops and six bishops
in the Peloponnesus ; and five archbishops, and as many bishops,
besides the Metropolitan of Corfu, in the Islands of Greece.
The Orthodox Greek Church differs fi-om the Church of Rome as
to the honour given to the later General Councils, the number of
sacraments, the use of both kinds by the laity in the eucharist, the
time of observing Easter, the doctrine of Purgatory, making the.
284
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
sign of the Cross, the celibacy of the clergy, and the use of the
Scriptures by the laitj. While differing from the Chiirch of Rome
on all these points, the Greek Church agrees with it in the doctrine
of Transubstantiation, and in praying to the Virgin and saints.
Public instruction has been much attended to in recent years,
but the educational state of the people is nevertheless very
low. Communal schools were established by law in 1834 on the
German system, that is, on the system of compulsory education. By
the Gth article of the law, all children between the ages of five and
twelve years must attend the communal school. Parents are
liable to a fine for each hour that the child is absent, but the
penalty has fallen into disuse. Children are ordered to be taught some
branches of higher education ; but these are practically ignored, as
it appears that the ability of the teachers is not up to the standard
required by the law. It was found at the census of 1870, that but
33 per cent, of grown-up men, and but 7 per cent, of the grown-up
women, were able to read and write. There were 55 communes in
which, at the census, not a single woman was able to read or write.
In the army the proportion of totally illiterate men Avas 48|^ per
cent., and in the navy it was b3^ per cent, at the census of 1870.
Public schools in Greece are divided into four classes. The
communal schools form the first class, the ancient Greek schools the
second class, the gymnasium the third class, and the university the
fourth class. The last educational returns give the total number of
professors and teachers in the public and private schools at about 500,
with 64,061 pupils, 6,250 of them females.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the kingdom were as
follows in the six years from 1875 to 1880, according to oflficial
returns, the first two years giving the actual receipts and expenses,
and the last four years the budget estimates voted by the Chamber : —
Ecvenue
Expenditure
Drachmas
£
Drachmas
£
1875
39,644,000
1,415,857
39,791,512
1,421,125
1876
38,826,800
1,386,671
39,063,841
1,395,137
1877
39,247,000
1,401,678
41,067,825
1,466,708
1878
42,789,442
1,528,194
44,834,272
1,601,224
1879
45,808,442
1,636,016
60,078,760
2,145,670
1880
47,036,457
1,679,873
52,655,454
1,880,552
The various sources of revenue and branches of expenditure
of the kingdom, according to the official budget estimates, for the
year 1880, sanctioned by the Boule April 29, 1880, were as follows : —
GREECE.
285
Sources of Revenue
Drachmai
£
Direct taxes —
Land tax and usufruct
9.167,000
327.392
Tax on pastures
67.000
2,393
Tax on cattle
1,950,000
69,643
Licences
1,350,000
48,214
House tax
950,000
33,928
Tax on income of Banks ....
150,000
5,357
Indirect taxes —
Customs
14,120,000
504,286
Stamps
5,200,000
185,714
Miscellaneous receipts .....
705,000
25,178
State establishments, receipts —
Post Office
650,000
23,214
Telegraphs .......
700,000
25,000
Printing Office ......
4,200
150
Royalties and rent of State domains
2,659,257
94,973
Sale of State property .....
4,690,000
167,500
Miscellaneous ......
1,961,000
70,036
Ecclesiastical revenues .....
293,000
10,464
Receipts from closed accounts ....
1,2CO,000
42,857
Receipts from fund for roads ....
Total revenue . .
1,220,000
43,571
47,036,457
1,679,873
Branches of Expenditure
Drachmai
£
Interest on foreign debt
„ internal debt
Pensions
Civil list
Salaries of Deputies ......
Ministry for foreign affiiirs .....
„ justice ......
„ interior ......
„ worship and instrxiction .
„ war
„ marine ......
,, finance ......
Administration and collection of revenue
Miscellaneous expenses
Total expenditure
Total revenue ....
Deficit
1,263,000
12,952,070
3,890,030
1,125,000
514,000
1,504,096
3.010,974
4,919,554
2,152,841
11,100,586
2,111,230
1,491,489
2,381,384
4,239,200
45,107
462,574
138,930
40,179
18,357
53,718
107,535
175,698
76,887
396,450
75,401
53,267
85,049
151,400
52,655,454
47,036,457
1,880,552
1,679,873
6,618,997
200,679
Since the establishment of Greece as an independent kingdm
there have been few financial terms without a deficit.
286 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Greece has a very large public debt, consisting in part of iinpaid
arrears of old loans. In the budget estimates for the year 1880, the inte-
rest payable on the foreign debt was set down, as will be seen in the
preceding table, at 1,263,000 drachmai, or 44,107Z.,and that on the in-
ternal debt at 12,952,070 drachmai, or 462,574/., the total being
equal to more than one-fourth of the entire expenditure. Interest is
paid on but a small portion of the foreign debt. The national debt,
foreign and internal, was stated as follows in a report of the minister
of finance, of 1877 : —
Drachmai
Toreigndebt 335,513,422
Internal debt 94,569,480
Tutal . . . 430,082,902
£15,360,103
The following are the divisions of the debt, according to the offi-
cial report of 1877 : —
Drachmai
Foreign loans of 1824 and 1825 . . . • 64,676,000
Unpaid interest on foreign loans of 1824 and 1825,
at 5 per cent, for 60 years .... 161,690,000
Loan of 1862 guaranteed by the three Powers . 105,033,054
Indemnity to Islands 18,000,000
Old claims 7,000,000
Loan of 6,000,000 dr. of 1862, reduced to . . 5,012,600
Exchequer bills 6,000,000
Ionian debt 3,800,000
Loan of 28,000,000 dr. of 1867-68, reduced to . 25,225,280
Miscellaneous and temporary loans . . . 33,645,968^
Total . . . 430,082,902
£15,360,103
To the debt here enumerated were added a foreign loan of
2,400,000/. in 6 per cent, bonds, contracted by the Greek Govern-
ment through the ' Comptoir d'Escompte ' of Paris in April 1879 ;
and another, for 4,285,000/., issued, at the end of 1880, through a
syndicate of French bankers, for the purpose of making military
preparations in a probable war against Turkey.
The principal portion of the old foreign debt of Greece consists of
a five per cent, loan taken in 1824 by Messrs. Andrew Loughnan
and Co. at 59, and of another of 2,000,000/. taken in the fol-
lowing year by Messrs. J. and S. Ricardo and Co. at 56^. On
the former the dividends remained wholly unpaid from July 1826,
and on the latter from January 1827 till 1879.
An ao-reement was signed in October 1878 between the Govern-
ment and the Greek bondholders in England, under which the latter
consented to receive, in exchange for the 100/. bonds of the loans
of 1824 and 1825, new bonds of the value of 31/. 12*. and 30/. 10.^.,
bearing 5 per cent, interest per annum, with a sinking fund attached.
By the terms of the agreement, the Greek Government has to set
GKEECE.
2^7
aside annually 60,000Z. for interest, and 15,000Z. for the redemption
of the new bonds, both sums secured on the public revenue from
stamp duties and the customs of the island of Corfu.
The loan of 1862, guaranteed by England, France, and Russia upon
the elevation of the present King of Greece to the throne, amounting
to 2,343,750/., was contracted through Messrs. Rothschild. Upon
this the dividends have been regularly paid, but only from reserved
funds of the loan itself in the first instance, and since then chiefly from
the treasuries of the guaranteeing Powers, who are now, therefore,
in each case heavy claimants upon the Greek Government. The
guarantee is not by the Powers jointly, but is distinct in each case
for a third of the loan. By the terms of a convention signed in 1866,
it is arranged that the Government of Greece, instead of fulfilling
its original engagement to provide half-yearly for the interest and
sinking fund of the above loan, should pay to the three guaranteeing
Powers not less than 36,000Z. a year — British portion 12,000Z. ; and
by the Act 27 and 28 Vict. c. 40, passed in 1864, a sum of 4,000Z.
sterling a year, out of the amount thus repayable in respect of the
British portion, was relinquished in favour of the present King.
Army and Navy.
The army of the kingdom till recently was raised by conscription,
but in the session of 1879 the Boule passed a law introducing uni-
versal liability to arms, after the model of Germany. The law pro-
vides that all able-bodied males, aged 21 years and upwards, shall
be compelled to serve, and that no substitute shall be allowed. The
term of active service in the regular army is fixed at three years, in
the reserves at six, and the militia at ten years. The new law came
into operation on the 1st January 1880.
The nominal strength of the army was reported as follows in the
budget estimates for the year 1879 : —
1
Non-
1
Officers
commissioneU
Rank and file ,
Total
Staff ....
officers
i
24
5
1
29
Engineers .
41
41
—
82
Artillery
49
172
515
736
Cavalry
23
84
233
340
Infantry
380
1,557
8,414
10,351
Pioneers
i 21
71
400
492
Miscellaneous
99
35
15
149
Military School
17
8
62
87
Gendarmes .
90
266
1,250
1,606
Supernumeraries
—
184
— ■
184
Unattached .
5
—
—
5
Total
749
2,423
10,889
14,061
288
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
By the terms of a law passed by the Boule in the session of 1877,
the numerical strength of the army on the peace footing was fixed
at 24,076 men, comprising 16,136 infantry, 4,877 cavalry, and 3,063
artillerymen and engineers. On the war footing, the strength was
fixed at 35,188. The same law ordered the organisation of the army
in two divisions, each consisting of two brigades, made up each of two
reo-iments of infantry, four companies of cavahy, and two companies
of artillery and engineers.
The navy consisted, at the commencement of 1880, of fourteen
vessels, namely two small ironclads, the King Georgios and Queen
01"-a; each carrying two 12-ton guns in single tuiTets ; six screw
steamers, the Paralos, Salaminia, Plexaura, Suros, Nauplion, and Af-
roessa ; three schooners, the ]\Iethone, SafFo, Aura, and Kuthnos ; two
cutters, the Glaukos and Poludeukes; and the Royal yacht, Amphi-
trite. At the same date the navy was officered and manned by 71
commissioned officers, 198 non-conunissioned officers, and 384 sailors.
The navy is manned by conscription from the people of the sea-coast.
Population.
Greece, at the last census, taken June 1879, had a total
population of 1,679,775— of whom 881,080 were males and 798,695
females — living on an area of 19,941 Engbsh square miles. ^ The
kingdom is divided into 13 Nomos or Nomarchics, and subdivided
into 59 Eparchies. By the return of the census of June 1879, the
area and population of each of the 13 Nomarchics was as follows
Nomarchies
Area, English
square miles.
Population,
1879
NoETHERN Greece : —
Attica and Boeotia
Phocis and Phtliiotis
Acapnia and ^tolia
Peloponnesus : —
Argolis and Corinth
Achaia and Elis .
Arcadia
Messenia
Laconia
Islands : —
Eubcea and Sporades
Cyclades
Corfu .
Zante (Zakynthos)
Cephalonia (Kephalloni
Soldiers and Seamen
A)
2,472
2,044
3,013
1,442
1,901
2,020
1,221
1,679
2,216
923
431
277
302
185,364
128,440
138,444
136,081
181,632
148,905
156,760
121,116
95,136
132,020
106,109
44,522
80,543
25,703
To
tal
19,941
1,679,775
GREECE.
289
At the preceding census, taken May 1870, the total population of
Greece was 1,457,894. Thus there was an increase of population of
221,881 during the nine years from 1870 to 1879.
The following table shows the number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with surplus of births over deaths, in each of the four
years from 1870 to 1873 :—
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of births
over deaths
1870
1871
1872
1873
40,932
41,857
42,997
42,189
31,881
29,640
31.004
36,861
8,987
9,475
8,925
8,985
9,051
12,217
11,993
5,328
About one-half of the total population of Greece is agricultural,
living dispersed in villages. The principal towns are Athens, with
a population of 46,000, or 52,000 including the Piraeus ; Syra, with
25,000 ; and Patras with 25,000.
At the liberation of the country, there were only nine towns
which had partly escaped the total devastation of the rest ; the
principal of them being Lamia, Vonitza, Nauplia, and Chalcis. All
the other towns and villages were in ruins, so that the first neces-
sity of the inhabitants of the new State was to get housed. Since
that time ten new cities have been founded, and twenty-three old
towns, including Athens, Thebes, and Argos, have been rebuilt,
besides many villages.
The nationality of the inhabitants of the kingdom is very mixed.
The Albanian race occupies a considerable portion of the soil of
ancient Greece, both within, as well as without, the frontiers of the
new kingdom. With the exception of the two towns of Athens
and Megara, it monopolises the whole of Attica and Messenia, and is
in possession of the greater part of Boeotia, and a small part of
Laconia. The south of Euboea, the north of Achaia, part of Elis,
and the whole of Salamis, are also peopled by Albanians. In the
Peloponnesus the Albanian element occupies the whole of Corinth
and Argolis, the north of Arcadia, the east of Achaia ; and stretching
into Laconia, down the slopes of Taygetus towards the plain of
Helos, it crosses the Eurotas, and holds possession of a lai-ge district
round IMonemvasia. However, in the kingdom its numerical
strength, amounting to about 250,000 souls, is less notable than its
social and industrial activity. The Albanian race furnishes to the
Greek soil the greatest number of cultivators, and to the maritime
population of Greece its most enterprising element.
Only one-sixth of the area of Greece is under cultivation ; the
rest, though to some extent good for agricultural purposes, lies
waste. The whole superficies of Greece has been estimated at
u
290
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
45,699,248 stremmas, or 15,233,082 acres, and of this total but
7,435,900 stremmas, or 2,478,633 acres, of land are in cultivation.
The ground is chiefly in the hands of a few proprietors ; but
many of the peasants hold little patches of land of their o'wai,
which become smaller from generation to generation^, in consequence
of the existing law of subdivision, which is the same as that in
France. On the whole, agriculture is in a very backward state.
According to an enumeration made at the end of 1877, thei-e were
at that date only 97,176 horses, 279,445 horned cattle, 45,440 mules,
and 97,395 asses in Greece. In contrast to these numbers, there were
2,291,917 sheep and 1,836,663 goats, the latter, roaming aboiit in a
half-wild state, described as causing much destruction.
Trade aud Industry.
The commerce of Greece averaged seven and a half millions
sterling per annum in the five years 1873-77, the imports
amounting to upwards of four millions and a half, and the exports
to over three millions. About one-fourth of the imports come
from, and one-third, in value, of the exports go to, the United
Kingdom. The principal other countries with which conn^iercial
intercourse is carried on are, in order of importance, France, Turkey,
Austria, Italy, and Kiissia. But the value of the imports and exports
interchanged with these States is comparatively unimportant.
The commercial intercourse of Greece with the United Kingdom
is exliibited in the subjoined tabi^lar statement, showing the value of
the total exports from Greece to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Greece, in the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Greece
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Greece
£
£
1870
1.279,325
942,618
1871
2,030,970
776,093
1872
1,998,153
923,649
1873
1,736,643
993,571
1874
1,536,805
1,010,313
1875
1,762,301
938,456
1876
1,799,377
866,643
1877
2,454,001
866.852
1878
1.763,064
982,037
1879
1,861,196
944,336
The staple article of export from Greece to Great Britain is
currants, the value of which, in the year 1879, amounted to
1,461,252Z. At the head of the other articles of export stands
©live oil, shipped to the value of 141,484^. in 1879, lead, of the value
GREECE.
291
of 91,132^., and zinc ore, of the value of 57,609Z., the minerals ex-
ported mainly from the Ionian Islands. Of the imports from the
United Kingdom into Greece, about one-half are manufactured
cotton goods. The declared value of cotton goods imported in the
year 1879 amounted to 618,443^. There were also imported
woollen manufactures valued 45,804/. and iron to the value of 51,284/.
in 1879. It will be seen from the preceding table that the commerce
of Greece with Great Britain has been stationary in recent years.
Greece is mainly an agricultural country, and the existing manu-
factures are few and unimportant. Corn is not produced, however,
in sufficient quantities to serve for the subsistence of the inhabitants,
and a certain amount has to be imported every year, chiefly from
Southern Eussia. The most favoured and best-cidtivated of crops
is that of the cm-rant, or the ' papolina.' Vast districts are planted
with currants along the shores of the Gulf of Corinth, between the
towns of Corinth and Patras, and on the islands of Zante and Cepha-
lonia. Almost all trade is carried on by sea, and there is very little
inland traffic, owing to want of roads. In 1868 the first, and as yet
only railway, a line of seven miles, connecting Athens with the port
of Pir^us, was opened in the kingdom.
The telegraphic lines were of a total length of 1,605 English
miles, at the end of 1876. They carried 244,200 telegrams, of which
192,000 were inland, and 52,000 international, in the year 1876.
Of post-offices there existed 139 at the end of 1876. Durmg the
year the number of private letters carried was 2,807,000, of official
letters 727,300, and of newspapers 2,738,600. The total revenue
of the post-office was for several years less than the expenditure,
the annual deficit averaging 1,500/. %'^f^i
The merchant navy of Greece numbered 5,440 vessels, of an
aggregate burthen of 262,032 tons, at the end of 1877. The mer-
cantile navy is officially divided into three classes, namely, first,
sailing vessels under sixty tons ; secondly, sailing vessels over sixty
tons ; and, thirdly, steamers. The following was the number of the
vessels of each of these classes in 1877 : —
Classes
Number of
vessels
Aggregate
tonnage
1st class (under 60 tons)
2nd class (above 60 tons)
Steamers . , . .
Total .....
4,303
1,107
27
43,712
210,079
8,241
5,437
262,032
A considerable amount of the carrying trade of the Black Sea and
the eastern parts of the Mediterranean is under the Greek flag.
u2
292 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Gheece in Great Britain.
Minister. — Alexander Contostavlos, accredited June 28, 1880.
2. Of Great Britain in Greece.
Envoy ond ^finister. — Edwin Corbett, formerly Minister and Consul-General
to the Central American Republics, 1866-73 ; and Minister resident in Switzer-
land, 1874-78. Appointed January 7, 1878.
Secretaries. — Augustus Henry Mounsey; Christian W. Lawrence.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Greece, and their English
eqixivalcnts, are : —
Money.
„, _, , f M^n 1 J S Average rate of exchange, 8hd., or
The Dracinua, o{ 100 lepta . -.J 28 drachmas =£1 sterling.
Weights and
Measiees.";
The 0/,r
, . =:
2'80 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Ctiiifar .
. =
123-20 „ „
„ Livre
=
105 „
„ Sea-il (wine)
. =
16-33 Imperial gallons.
„ Kilo .
=
0-114 Impprial quarter.
„ Pif^e .
. =
4 of an English yard.
J ,, ,, acre.
„ Stremma
. =
Greece entered, in 1875, the Monetary League of the Continental
States (see page 39), and by a decree of the Government, dated
Auo"Ust 11, 1876, all foreign silver coins, -with the exception of those
of the League, ceased to be legal tender in the kingdom. The chief
medium of circulation at present is an inconvertible paper currency,
consisting chiefly of notes of the National Bank, which were made
legal tender by a royal decree of July 1, 1877.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Greece.
1. Official Publicvtions.
Eeport by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the Financial Position
and the Public Debt of Greece, dated Athens, .Tuly 31, 1870; in 'Reports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1871. 8. London,
1871.
Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the state of educa-
tion and ihe obstacles of material progress in Greece, dated Athens, Jan. 20,
1872 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Spcretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I.
1872. 8. London, 1872.
GREECE. 293
Report by Mr. Edward B. Malet, Secretary of Legation, on the finances,
population, and trade of Greece, dated Athens, March 27, 1875 ; in 'Reports
of Her Majesty's Secretary of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 8. London,
1875.
Report by Mr. Hugh Wyndham, Secretary of Legation, on the finances and
foreign trade of Greece, dated Athens, January 19, 1876; in 'Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London,
1876.
Report by Mr. Hugh Wyndham, Secretary of Legation, on tlie foreign trade
of Greece, dated Athens, December 4, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1877- 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Hugh Wyndham, Secretary of Legation, on the finances of
Greece, dated Athens, July 26, 1877; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Frank C. Lascelles, Secretary of Legation, on the Commerce
and Shipping of Greece, dated Athens, July 10, 1878, in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. Augustus Henry Mounsey, Secretary of Legation, on the
finances of Greece, dated Athens, December 22, 1879, in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.- Part I. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Report by Mr. Augustus Henry Mounsey, Secretary of Legation, on the
budget of Greece for 1880, dated Athens, May 9, 1880, in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation ' Part IV. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Report by Mr. Consul Raby on the commerce of the Cyclades ; by Mr. Consul
Ongley on the trade of Patras ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Blakeney on the com-
merce of Missolonghi, dated January 10-28, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c., of their consular districts.'
Part IL 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Report by Mr. Consul Raby on the trade and commerce of Syra for the year
1873, dated Syra, March 7, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the
manufactures, commerce, &c., of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.
Report by Mr. Consul Binuey on the trade and commerce of Syra. and the
Cyclades, dated Syra, December 16, 1874; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part I. 1875. s/ London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Consul Wood on the trade of the Peloponnesus for the year
1874. dated Patras, January 13, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part IL 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Consul Merlin on the trade of continental Greece during the
year 1874, dated the Piraeus, March 20, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Consul Sir Charles Sebright on the trade and commerce of Corfu,
Dec. 9, 1875 : in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8.
London, 1876.
Reports by 3Ir. Consul Wood, on the trade and commerce of Patras, dated
January 15, 1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8.
London, 1879.
Reports by Consul Sir Charles Sebright on the trade of Corfu, and by Mr.
Aiding-Consul Canale on the trade of Zante, dated March-December, 1876:
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1877. 8. London, 1877-
Reports by Mr. Consul Wood on the trade and commerce of the Morea ; by
Mr. Consul Merlin on the trade of continental Greece ; and by Mr. Consul
Binney on the commerce and shipping of the Cyclades, dated February-July,
1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
294 THE STATESMAN S TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Keports by Mr. Consul Sebright on the Commerce of Corfu ; by Mr. Consul
Wood on the Trade of Patras ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Onofrio on the Trade of
Santa Maura, and by Mr. Consul Stevens on the Commerce of Zante. dated
January 1878 ; in 'Keports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1878. 8. Lon-
don, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Merlin on the trade and commerce of Continental
Greece, dated Piraeus, March 24, 1879; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part III. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Greece •with foreign countries: total imports and exports from 1863
to 1874; in ' Statistical Abstract for the Principal Foreign Countries.' No. III.
8. London, 1877.
Trade of Greece with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the
trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions,
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
BernardaJcis (A. N.) Lo present et I'avenir de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1870.
Bikl'Ias (Demetrius) Statistics of the Kingdom of Greece. In ' Journal of
the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXI. 8. London, 1868.
Brockhmia (Hermann) Griechenland googi-aphisch, geschichtlieh und kultur-
historisch von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart dargestellt. 4.
Leipzig, 1870.
Campbell (Hon. Dudley) Turks and Greeks. 8. London, 1877.
Carnarvon (Earl of) Reminiscences of Athens and the Morea. 8. London,
1870.
Cusani (F.) Meniorie storico-statistiche sulla Dalmazia, sulle isole lonie e
oiOla Grecia. 2 vols. 8. Milano, 1862.
Bigcnis (Basile) Quelques notes statistiques sur la Grece. 8. Marseille,
1878.
Dora d'Istria (Mm'e.) Excursions en Roumelie et en Moree. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1865.
Kirkwall (Viscount) Four Years in tlie Ionian Islands : their Political and
Social Condition, with a History of the British Protectorate. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1864.
Lccontc (C.) Etude economique de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1849.
Mansolas (Alex.) Rapport sur I'etat de la statistique en Grece presente au
Congres International deStatistiquede St. -Petersbourg en 1872. 8. Athenes,
1872.
Manilas (A.) La Grece a I'Exposition universelle de Paris en 1878. 8.
Paris, 1878.
Maurer (G. L. voji) Das Griechischc Volk in ofTentlicher und privatrecht-
lieher Beziehung. 3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.
Schmidt (Dr. Julius) Beitrage zur physicalischen Geographic von Griechen-
land. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864-70.
Sergeant (Lewis) New Greece. 8. London, 1878.
Strickland (Edw.) Greece, its Condition and Resources. London, 1863.
Tuclcerman {C\\z.v\es 'K.) The Greeks of To-day. 8. London, 1873.
Wyse (Sir Thomas) Impressions of Greece. 8. London, 1871.
295
ITALY.
(Regno d' Italia.)
Reigning King.
Umberto I., born March 14, 1844, the eldest son of King Vittorio
Emanuele II. of Italy and of Ai-chduchess Adelaide of Austria.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 9, 1878.
Married, April 22, 1868, to Queen Margarita, born November 20,
1851, the only daughter of the late Prince Ferdinando of Piedmont,
Duke of Genoa.
Son of the King.
Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, born November 11, 1869.
Sisters and Brother of the King.
I. Princess Clotilde, born IMarch 2, 1843 ; married, January 30,
1859, to Prince Napoleon Jerome Bonaparte, born Sept. 9, 1822 ;
offspring of the union are Napoleon Jerome, born July 18, 1862,
Louis Jerome, born July 16, 1864, and Marie, born Dec. 20, 1866.
II. Prince Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, born May 30, 1845 ; elected
King of Spain by the Cortes Constituyentes Nov. 16, 1870 ; abdicated
the crown February 11, 1873; married. May 30, 1867, to Maria,
daughter of Prince Carlo Emanuele del Pozzo della Cisterna,
born August 9, 1847; widower, Nov. 7, 1876. Offspring of the
vmion are three sons : — 1. Prince Emanuele, born Jan. 13, 1869.
2. Prince Vittorio, born Nov. 24, 1870. 3. Prince Lmlovico, born
Jan. 31, 1873.
III. Princess Pi'a, born Oct. 16, 1847; married, Oct. 6, 1862, to
King Luis I. of Portugal. (See page 344.)
Aunt of the King.
Princess Elisahetta, born Feb. 4, 1830, the daughter of King
Johann of Saxony; married, Ajoril 22, 1850, to Prince Ferdinando
of Piedmont, Duke of Genoa; widoAV, Feb. 10, 1855; re-married,
in 1856, to the Marquis of Eapallo. Offspring of the first union
are : — 1. Pvmcess Margai'ita, born Nov. 20, 1851 ; married, April 22,
1868, to King Umberto I. 2. Prince Tommaso, Duke of Genoa,
born Feb. 6, 1854.
The origin of the reigning house is not historically established ;
but most genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, "who,
in the eleventh centiuy, established himself on the western slope of
the Alps, between Mont Blanc and Lake Leman. In 1111 his
descendants were enrolled among the Counts of the Holy Roman Em-
pire. Count Amadeus, in 1383, founded a laAV of primogeniture which
296 THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
gi'eatly strengthened the family, leading to the immediate acquisi-
tion of the territory of Nice. In 1416 the Counts of Savoy adopted
the title of Duke; in 1418 they acquired the principality of Pied-
mont; and in 1713 they obtained the island of Sicily, with the title
of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of Sar-
dinia, to ■which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached.
Genoa and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian
Crown at the peace of 1815. The direct male line of the House of
Savoy died out with King Carlo Felix, in 1831, and the exist-
ing Salic law prohibiting the accession of females, the crown fell
to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the House of Savoy -Carignano, a
branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Cai-lo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto,
the first of the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne,
March 23, 1849, in favoiu- of his son, the late king Vittorio Emanuele
II. By the Treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and the Peace of
Zurich, Nov. 10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained western
Lombardy, part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma and
Modena, while the remaining districts of Lombardy with Venetia
were added to his dominions by the Peace of Prague, of Aug. 23,
1866. Finally, the Papal States, having been taken possession of
by an Italian army, after the retreat of the French garrison, were
annexed to the kingdom by royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870.
The ' Dotazione della Corona,' or civil list of the King, has been
settled at 16,250,000 lire, or 650,000/. The brother of the King,
Prince Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, has an ' Appannaggio,' or State
allowance, of 300,000 lire, or 12,000/.; and his cousin Prince
Tommaso, Duke of Genoa, an allo^vance of 200,000 lire, or 8,000/.
To these sums are added 100,000 lire, or 4,000/., as ' Spese di
rappresentanza.' Extraordinary expenses of the Court, such as
the journeys of the sovereign into the different provinces of Italy,
are paid out of the public exchequer, the same as the cost of
building and repairing the royal residences. The large private
domains of the reigning family were given i;p to the State in 1848.
Constitution and Government.
The present constitution of Italy is an expansion of the ' Statuto
fondamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by King
Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to this charter,
the executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the sove-
reign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers ; while
the legislative authority rests conjointly in the King and Parliament,
the latter consisting of two Chambers — an upper one, the Senate, and
ITALY. 297
a lower one, called the * Camera de' Deputati.' The Senate is com-
posed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an
unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are
nominated by the King for life ; a condition of the nomination being
that the person should either fill a high office, or have acquired
fiime in science, literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit
of the nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of
3,000 lire, or 120/. The number of senators, in the session of 1880,
was 270. The deputies of the lower House are elected, by ballot,
by all citizens who are twenty-five years of age, and pay taxes to
the amount of 40 lire, or 1/. 12s. For this purpose the whole of the
population is divided into electoral colleges, or districts. No deputy
can be returned to Parliament unless at least one-third of the
inscribed electors appear at the poll. At the last general election,
in 1880, there were 571,939 electors on the lists, and the
number that voted was 329,933. A deputy must be thirty
years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral law,
among them a slight property qualification. Incapable of being
elected are all salaried government officials below a certain rank, as
well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and fiUing clerical
charges, or receiving pay from the state. Officers in the army and
navy, ministers, under-secretaries of state, and various other classes
of functionaries high in office, may be elected, but their number
must never be above one-fifth that of the total number of members
of the chamber of deputies. Neither senators nor deputies receive
any salary or other indemnity.
The duration of Parliaments is five years ; but the King
has the power to dissolve the lower House at any time, being
bound only to order new elections, and convoke a new meeting
within four months. It is incumbent upon the executive to call the
Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers has the right
of introducing new bills, the same as the Government ; but all money
bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower
House ; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings
of both Chambers are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an
absolute majority of the members are present. The Camera de'
Deputati, in the session of 1880, numbered 508 members, being the
prescribed rate of one deputy to 40,000 souls. There were 528,932
electors inscribed on the rolls at the last general election.
The executive power is exercised, under the King, by a ministry
divided into the following nine departments: —
1. The Presidency of the Council and Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
— Benedetto Cairoli, born at Pavia, January 28, 1826, the son of a
surgeon; took part, as a volunteer, in the campaign of 1848, and
298 THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
again in the campaign of 1859, and in the expedition of General
Garibaldi into Sicily ; retui-ned to the Chamber of Deputies by the
city of Pavia from 1860 to 1878. President of the Council of Minis-
ters, March 21 to December 19, 1878. Re-appointed President of
the Council of Ministers, and Minister of Foreign Affairs, July 14,
1879.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Agostino Depretis, born at
Stradella, Pavia, 1825 ; Governor of Brescia, 1859-60; Pro-dictator
of Sicily, 1860-Gl ; Minister of Pubhc Works, 1862-63 ; Minister
of Finance and President of the Council of Ministers, 1876-77 ;
Minister of Foreign Affairs, 1878-79. Appointed Minister of the
Interior, November 25, 1879.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Agostino Magliani, born at Laurino,
Naples, in 1824 ; Minister of Finance, 1876-77 and 1878-79. Re-
appointed Minister of Finance, November 25, 1879.
4. The Ministry of Justice. — Antonio Villa, Minister of the In-
terior from July to November 1879. Appointed Minister of Justice,
November 25, 1879.
5. The Ministry of War. — Major-General Benedetto Milon ;
born at Naples in 1818 ; Minister of War, from October 23 to
December 19, 1878. Reappointed Minister of War, July 14, 1879.
6. The Ministry of Marine. — Vice-Admiral Acton, formerly Chief
Secretary in the Ministry of Marine. Appointed Minister, Novem-
ber 25, 1879.
7. The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. — Carlo Miceli,
appointed Minister, November 25, 1879.
8. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Luigi de Sanctis, ap-
pointed Minister, November 25, 1879.
9. The Ministry of Public Works. — Antonio Baccarini, appointed
Minister, December 19, 1878.
In each of the 69 provinces into which the kingdom of Italy
is divided, the executive power of the Government is intrusted to a
prefect appointed by the ministry.
Cliiirch of Rome.
The ' Statuto fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article,
that ' the Catholic, Apostohc, and Roman religion is the sole religion
of the State.' By the terms of the royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870,
which declared that ' Rome and the Roman Provinces shall con-
stitute an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy,' the Pope, or
Pontiff, was constituted supreme head of the Church, preserving
his former dignities as a reigning prince, and all other prerogatives
of absolute and independent sovereignty. Officially the Pope bears
ITALY. 299
the title : 'Bishop of Eome and Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of St.
Peter Prince of the Apostles, Supreme PontiiF of the Universal Church.'
Sx(pr erne- Pontiff. — Leo XIII., born at Carpineto, March 2,
1810, the son of Luigi Pecci ; educated at the college of Jesuits,
Viterbo ; appointed one of the chaplains of Pope Gregorio XVI.,
1837 ; created bishop of Damieta, 184-3 ; Papal Nuncio to Belgium,
1843-46; Archbishop of Perugia 1846; created cardinal, December
19, 1853. Elected Supreme Pontiff, as successor of Pio IX., February
21, 1878.
The Pontiff was originally elected by the priests and people of the
diocese of Eome; but subsequently by the cardinals. In the eleventh
century, Nicola II. confeiTed on the cardinals the right of directing
the election, and, in accordance with his statutes, the cardinals, who
had figured as a body since the eighth century, were bound to demand
of the Eoman people and the Eoman clergy the ratification of their
choice. To legalise the election, it was indispensable that the same
name should obtain two-thirds at least of the votes of the Conclave,
together with the suffrages of the people and the clergy of Eome.
This mode of proceeding, however, was found to give rise to dissen-
sions, and the consequence Avas that both the clergy and the people
were excluded from all participation in the election. This reform
took place in 1227, on the accession of Gregorio IX.
The election of a Pontiff is by scnitiny or ballot. Each cardinal
writes his own name with that of the candidate he proposes on a
ticket. These tickets are deposited in the consecrated chaUce which
stands on the altar of the chapel where they sit; and each one
approaching and leaving the altar kneels and repeats a prayer. After
a pause the tickets are taken from the sacred cup by officers named
ad hoc fi-om their own body ; the tickets are compared with the
number of cardinals present, and when it is found that any one of
them has two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected.
If no one can show the requisite number of votes another proceeding
is gone through. This proceeding is the election by access — so
called because any cardinal has the right to accede to the vote of
another by altering his ticket according to a prescribed form. The
moment the election is declared the tickets are burnt. The present
Pontiff, Leo XIIL, was elected by unanimity. He is the 258th Pope.
The rise of the Pontificate of Eome, as a temporal power, dates from
the year 755, when Pepin, king of the Franks, granted to Pope Stefano
III. the exarchate of Eavenna, to which Charlemagne added the pro-
vinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser Heinrich TIL, in 1053, increased
these possessions of the head of the Chui-ch by the city of Benevento,
with the surroimding ten-itory ; and not long after, in 1102, the Mar-
chioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the pro-
vinces known as the ' Patrimony of St. Peter.' In 1297, Forli and
300
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881,
the rest of the Romagna, and, in 1364, Bologna, became portions of
the Papal dominions ; and, towards the end of the fourteenth century,
the Pontiff acquired full jurisdiction over Eome and Sabina.
From the accession of Stefano III., first temporal sovereign, and
95th in the official list of Pontiffs, to Leo XIII., first modern spiri-
tual sovereign, and 258th in the list, there were 164 Popes, as
foUows : —
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
... Year of
Nationality Election
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
1
Nationality
Year of
Election
95
Stefano III.
Italian
752
137
Donato II.
Italian
974
96
Paolo I.
757
138
Benedetto VII.
?>
975
97
Stefano IV.
768
139
Giovanni XIV.
983
98
Adriano I.
772 ;
140
Giovanni XV.
jj
995
99 Leo III.
795 '
141
Gregorio V.
German
996
100 Stefano V.
816
142
Silvcstro II.
French
999
101
Pasquale
817 ^
143
Giovanni XVI.
Italian
1003
102
Eugenio II.
824
144
Giovanni XVII.
J,
1003
103
Valentino
827
145
Sergius IV.
jj
1009
104
Gregorio IV.
827
146
Benedetto VIII.
jj
1012
105
Sergius II.
844
147
Giovanni XVIII.
,,
1024
106
Leo IV.
847
148
Benedetto IX.
J,
1033
107
Benedetto III.
856 '
149
Gregorio VI.
jj
1044
108
Nicola I.
858
150
Clemen te II.
German
1046
109
Adriano II.
','
867
151
Damaso II.
,j
1048
110
Giovanni VIII.
jj
872
152
Leo VIII.
,,
1049
111
Martino I.
882
153 i Vittore II.
,,
1055
112
Adriano III.
884
154
Stefano X.
,,
1056
113
Stefano VI.
885
155
Nicola II.
French
1058
114
Formosiis
891
156
Alessandro II.
Italian
1061
115
Stefano VII.
896
157
Gregorio VII.
jj
1073
116
Romano
897
158
Vittore III.
,^
1086
117
Teodoro II.
897
159
Urbano II.
French
1088
118
Gioranni IX.
898
160
Pasquale II.
Italian
1099
119
Benedetto IV.
900
161
Gelasius II.
^,
1118
120
LeoV.
903
162
Callisto II.
French
1119
121
Cristofo
903
163
Onorato 11.
Italian
1124
122
Sergius III.
904
164
Innocente II.
ij
1130
123
Anastasio III.
911
165 ' Celestino II.
»i
1143
124
Lando
913
166 Lueio II.
1144
125
Giovanni X.
913
167
Eugenio III.
j^
1145
126
Leo VI.
928
168
Anastasio IV.
,^
1153
127
Stefano VIII.
928
169
Adriano IV.
English
1154
128
Giovanni XL
931
170
Alessandro III.
Italian
1159
129
Leo VII.
936
171
Lueio III.
„
1181
130
Stefano IX. i German
939
172
Urbano III.
,1
1185
131
Martino II.
Italian
943
173
Gregorio VIII.
J,
1187
132
Agapito II.
946
174
Clemente III.
„
1187
133
Giovanni XII.
.
956
175
Celestino III.
jj
1191
134
Benedetto V. | „
964
176
Innocente III.
,,
1198
135
Giovanni XIII.
,,
965
177
Onorato III.
,,
1216
136
Benedetto VI.
>,
972
178
Gregorio IX.
"
1227
ITALY.
301
No in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Nationality
Year of 1
Election;
i
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Xationality
Year of
Election
179
Celestino IV.
Italian
1241
219
Leo X.
Italian
1513
180
Innocente IV.
1,
1243
220
Adriano VI.
Dutch
1522
181
Alessandro IV.
)>
1254 1
221
Clemente VII.
Italian
1523
182
Urbano IV.
French
1261 :
222
Paolo III.
1534
183
Clemente IV.
^^
1265
223
Giulio III.
1550
ISi
Gregorio X.
Italian
1271
224
Marcello II.
" 1555 i
185
Innocente V.
French
1276
225
Paolo IV.
1555
186
Adriano V.
Italian
1276
226
Pio IV.
1559
187
Giovanni XIX.
Prtguese
1276
227
Pio V.
1566
188
Nicola III.
Italian
1277 I
228
Gregorio XIII.
1572
189
Martino IV.
1,
1281
229
Sisto V.
1585
190
Onorato IV.
ij
1285 ;
230
Urbano VII.
1590
191
Nicola IV.
J,
1292
231
Gregorio XIV.
1590
192
Celestino V.
1,
1294 i
232
Innocente IX.
1591
193
Bonifacio VIII.
,1
1294 i
233
Clemente VIII.
1592
19i
Benedetto X.
„
1303
234
Leo XI.
1605
195
Clemente V.
French
1305
235
Paolo V.
1605
196
Giovanni XX.
„
1316
236
Gregorio XV.
1621
197
Benedetto XI.
ji
1334
237
Urbano VIU.
1623
198
Clemente VI.
,j
1342
238
Innocente X.
1644
199
Innocente VI.
,j
1352
239
Alessandro VII.
1655
200
Urbano V.
1,
1362
240
Clemente IX.
1667
201
Gregorio XI.
J,
1370
241
Clemente X.
1670
202
Urbano VI.
Italian
1378 1
242
Innocente XL
1676
203
Bonifacio IX.
1,
1389
243
AlessandroVm.
1689
204
Innocente VU.
,,
1404
244
Innocente XII.
1691
205
Gregorio XII.
„
1406
245
Clemente XL
1700
206
Alessandro V.
Greek
1409
246
Innocente XIII.
1721
207
Giovanni XXI.
Italian
1410
247
Benedetto XIII.
1724
208
Martino V.
u
1417
248
Clemente XII.
1730
209
Eugenio IV.
1431
249
Benedetto XIV.
1740
210
Nicola V.
,,
1447
250
Clemente XIII.
1758
211
CaUisto III.
Spaniard
1455
251
Clemente XIV.
1769
212
Pio II.
Italian
1458
252
Pio VI.
1775
213
Paolo II.
„
1464
, 253
Pio VII.
1800
214
Sisto IV.
!(
1471
j 254
Leo XIL
1823
215
Innocente VIII.
1484
255
Pio VIII.
1829
216
Alessandro VI.
Spaniard
1492
256
Gregorio XVI.
1831
217
Pio in.
Italian
1503
i 257
Pio IX.
1846
218
1 Giulio II.
)t
1503
258
Leo XIII.
1878
The Supreme PontiiF is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of
the Eoman Catholic Church. His judgments are held to be infal-
lible, and there is no appeal against his decrees. The PontiiF may
seek advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting, when
complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinal-bishops, fifty
cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons, but not often com-
prising the full number. In December, 1880, the Sacred College
consisted of six cardinal-bishops, forty-eight cardihal-priests, and
302
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
twelve cardinal-deacons. The following list gives tlie names of these
sixty-six cardinals, together with their office, or dignity, if any,
their nationality, year of birth, and year of nomination : —
Karnes
GflBce or dignity
Nationality
Year of
birtli
Year of
Nomi-
nation
Cardiual-Bishops : —
Camillo di Pietro
Dean of Sacred College
Italian
1806
1853
Carlo Saeconi
Bp. of Porto
,,
1808
1861
Luigi Bilio .
„ Sabina
,,
1826
1866
Antonino de Liica
Preft. of Congregation
„
1805
1863
Giambattista Pitra
Bp. of Frascati
,,
1812
1863
Gustav von Hohenlohe.
„ Albano .
German
1823
1866
Cardinal-Priests : —
F. von Scliwarzenberg
Archbp. of Prague
German
1809
1842
Fran9ois Donnet .
Archbp. of Bordeaux
French
1795
1852
Antonio Panebianco .
Grand Penitentiary
Italian
1808
1861
Gaston de Bonnechose
Archbp. of Eouen
French
1800
1863
Lueien Bonaparte
Italian
1828
1868
Innoeente Ferreira
,,
1810
1868
Juan Moreno
Archbp. of Valladolid
Spanish
1817
1868
Edoardo Borromeo
Prft. of Congregation
Italian
1822
1868
Ea. Monaco La Valletta
Vicar General . ,
jj
1827
1868
Flavio Cliigi
Grand Prior
j^
1810
1873
Kene Fran9ois Eegnier
Archbp. of Cambrai .
French
1807
1873
Johann Simor .
Primate of Hungary .
Hungarian
1813
1873
Jos. Hippolyte Guibert
„ Paris
French
1802
1873
Luigi O.di Santo Stefano
Pref. of Congregation
Italian
1828
1873
I. de N.Moraes Cardosa
Primate of Portugal .
Portgse.
1811
1873
Tommaso Martinelli .
Monk of St. Augustin
Italian
1827
1873
Henry Edw. Planning .
Archbp. of Westminst.
English
1808
1875
John M'Closkey .
,, New York
American
1801
1875
MieasslawLedoehowsky
„ Posen
German
1822
1875
Victor A. J. Dechamps.
„ Malines .
Belgian
1810
1875
Pietro Giannelli .
„ Sardis
Italian
1807
1875
E.Luigi E. Antici-Mattei
„
1811
1875
Giovanni Simeoni
Prefect of Propaganda
,j
1816
1875
Domiuico Bartolini
Pref. of Congregation
jj
1813
1875
Bartolomeo d'Avanzo .
Bp. of Calvi .
II
1811
1876
Giambattista Franzelin
Society of Jesus
1816
1S76
Joseph Mihalovitz
Archbp. ofAgram
Hungarian
1814
1877
Johann B. Kutschker .
„ Vienna
German
1810
1*77
Lucido Parocchi .
„ Bologna .
Italian
1833
1877
Miguel Paya y Eico .
„ Compostella
Spanish
1811
1877
Louis M. Caverot
Archbp of Lyons
French
1806
1877
Francesco Apuzzo
,, Capua
Italian
1807
1877
Edward Howard
,. Neocesarea
English
1829
1877
Emman. Garcia Gil .
Archbp. of Saragossa
Spanish
1802
1877
Benavides y Navarrete
Patr. of the Indies
,1
1810
1877
Luigi di Canossa
Bp. of Verona
Italian
1809
1877
Luigi Serafini . .
„ Viterbo
11
1808
1877
ITALT.
303
1
Year of
Name
OflSoe or dignity
Nationality-
Year of
Birtli
Nomina-
tion
Vincenzo Moretti .
Arclabp, of Kavenna
Italian
1820
1878
Lorenzo Nina
,,
1822
1877
Fried, von Fiirstenberg .
Archbp. of Olmiitz
German
1813
1879
Jules F. Desprez .
„ Toulouse
French
1807
1879
Lud. von Haynald
„ Kolocza
Hungarian
1816
1879
Ferriera dos Santos Silva
Bp. of Oporto
Spanish
1829
1879
Gaetau Alimonda
Italian
1818
1879
Joaquim Cattani .
Archbp, of Eavenna
„
1823
1879
Pier Francesco Meglia .
,,
1810
1879
Ludovico Jacobini
Pontif. Seer, of State
,j
1830
1879
Domenico Sangnigni .
Nuncio to Portugal
,,
1809
1879
Cardinal-Deacons : —
Prospero Caterini
Seer, of Inquisition
,,
1795
1853
Teodulo Mertel .
Pres.Council of Pontiff
,,
1806
1858
Domenico Consolini
Preft. of Propaganda
,,
1807
1866
Lorenzo Eandi
Ap. Vice Chamberlain
,,
1818
1875
Frederic de Falloux
Eeg. Cancelleria Apost.
French
1815
1877
Aeneas Sbarretti
Seer, of Congregations
Italian
1808
1877
Antonio Pellegrini
Auditor of Sacra Eota
„
1818
1878
John Henry Newman .
English
1801
1879
Giuseppe Pecci .
Librarian of Pontiff
Italian
1807
1879
Jos. Hergenrother
German
1824
1879
Tommaso Zigliara
Order of Preachers
Italian
1837
1879
A. Peter Hassoun
Patriarch of Cilicia
Armenian
1825
1880
Of tliese 66 Cardinals, one was nominated by Pope Gregorio XVI.,
48 by Pio IX., and 17 by Leo XIII.
Tlie cardinals are Princes of the Church, with an annual allow-
ance of 30,000 lire, or 1,200/., besides the income from their respec-
tive offices, or dignities. In the early ages the cardinals were the
principal priests of the churches in Eome, or deacons of districts.
In the eleventh centiuy they numbered but twenty- eight ; and
it was in modern times that the number was raised to seventy.
When assembled the cardinals form the Sacred College, compose
the Council of the Pope, preside at special and general congre-
gations, and govern the Chiu-ch so long as the Pontifical throne is
vacant. They received the distinction of the red hat under Inno-
cente III., during the Council of Lyons, in 1245 ; and the purple
from Bonifacio VIIL, in 1294. The great Catholic Powers are
allowed to propose a certain number of prelates to be named by the
Pope, and these are knoAvn as Cardinals of the CroAvn.
The upper Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world comprises
7 Patriarchs of the Latin Rite, and 5 of the Oriental Rite, with
Patriarchal Jurisdiction ; 139 Archbishops of the Latin Rite, and
304
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
26 of the Oriental Rite ; and 66G Bishops of the Latin and 50 of the
Oriental Rite. The list is as follows : —
I. Patriarchates.
Of the Latin Rite:—\. Constantinople, 2. Alexandria, 3. Antioch, 4. Jeru-
salem, 5. Venice, 6. West Indies, 7. Lisbon.
Of the Orkntal Rite, with Patriarchal Jurisdiction : — 1. Antioch, of the Mel-
chite Greeks (Antiochen, Melchitarum) ; 2. Antioch, of the Maronites (Antiochen,
Maronitarinn) ; 3. Antioch, of the Syrians {Antiochen, Syrorum) ; 4. Babylon, of
the Chaldeans (Bahyloncn, Chaldaorum); 5. Cilicia, of the Armenians {Cilicics,
Armenorum).
II. Archbishoprics.
Latin Rite: —
Immediately subject to the Holy See 12
With Ecclesiastical Provinces 127
Oriental Rite: —
With Ecclesiastical Provinces :
Anuenian ......•••
Greco-Roumaic
Greco-Ruthenian
Under Oriental Patriarchs :
Armenian .....••••
Greco-Melchite _ •
Syriac, Syro-Maronite, and Syro-Chaldaic .
1
I
1
5
4
14
165^
III. Bishoprics.
iM'in Rite: — -
Suburban Sees ....
Immediately subject to the Holy See
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical Provinces
Oriental Rite: —
Armenian .
Grcco-Melchite .
Gi-eco-Roumaic .
Greco-Ruthenian
Greco-Bulgarian
Syriae
Syro-Chaldaic
Syro-Maronite .
Total
6
84
572
12
9
3
7
1
8
7
3
Tl2
Besides the above, there are a number of titular dignitaries occu-
pying sees ' in Partibus Infidelium,' as follows : —
Archbishoprics
;f^ft;j. Bishoprics
The summary stands as follows : —
Patriarchates ......
Archbishoprics -^
Bishoprics'and Sees ' in Partibus Infidelium.'
Total
36
128
164
. 12
. 165
. 876
1,063
ITALY.
305
The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is
carried on by a number of permanent ecclesiastical committees
called Sacred Congregations, presided over by cardinals. There
were eighteen regular or fixed Congregations at the end of De-
cember 1878, and besides three special Congregations. At the
head of all the Congregations, embracing large and varied functions,
is a department bearing the title of ' Holy Roman and Universal
Inquisition,' also called ' The Holy Office,' under the immediate
presidency of the Supreme Pontiff.
The apostolical vicariates, the delegations, and prefectures in all
parts of the world stand under the ' Congregatio de Propaganda Fide '
at Rome. The number of vicariates is one hundred and seven, 01
delegations five, and of apostolic prefectures twenty-nine. At the
end of 1878, there were thirteen vicariates in Europe, namely, two
in Germany ; one at Gibraltar ; one in Sweden ; three in Scotland ;
two in Roumania ; and four in European Turkey.
Cliurcli and Education.
The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State reli-
gion of Italy ; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since the
establishment of the Kingdom, and more especially since the sup-
pression of the temporal government of the Supreme PontiiF, have
subordinated the power of the Church and clergy entirely to the
authority of the civil government, and secured perfect religious
freedom to the adherents of all creeds without exception. How-
ever, scarcely any other creeds as yet exist but Roman Catholicism.
At the census of 1871, the total population of the kingdom of Italy
amounted to 26,801,154:. Of this number, 99| per cent, were
returned as Catholics, while the small remainder was made up
chiefiy of Protestants and Jews, the former representing but 0*15,
and the latter O'll per cent, of the total population.
The Roman Catholic hierarchy in Italy consists of 45 archbishops
and 198 bishops. All these dignitaries of the Church are ap-
pointed by the Pope, on the advice of a council of Cardinals, the
congregation ' De Propaganda Fide.' But the royal consent is neces-
sary to the installation of a bishop or archbishop, and this having
been frequently withheld of late years, there was constantly a large
ntunber of vacant sees. On the death or removal of a bishop, the
clergy of the diocese elect a vicar-capitular, who exercises spiritual
jurisdiction during the vacancy. In case of old age or infirmity,
the bishop nominates a coadjutor to discharge the episcopal duties
in his stead. His recommendation is almost invariably attended to
by the Pope, and the bishop-coadjutor is appointed and consecrated,
and takes his title from some oriental diocese not actxially exifltinff,
X
306 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
which he relinquishes on succeeding to a bishopric. As long as he
retains the oriental title, he is styled a bishop ' in partibus infidelium,'
or, as iisnally abridged, a bishop ' in partibus.' Each diocese has
its own independent administration, consisting of the bishop, as pre-
sident, and two canons, who are elected by the chapter of the diocese.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has been greatly re-
duced since the year 1850, when the bill of Siccardi, annihilating
ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the privileges of the clergy, passed the
Sardinian chambers. This law Avas extended, in 1861, over the
whole of the kingdom, and had the effect of rapidly diminishing the
nimibers as well as the incomes of the clergy. But it Avas stated in
the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in May 1869, that at that period
the proportion of priests to the general population was still as high
as seven per thousand, ' the average proj^ortion in all the rest of the
Catholic world being four and a half per thousand.'
It appears from an official return laid before the Chamber of
Deputies in the session of 1865, that there Avere in that year
2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for men, and
876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of whom
14,807 were men, and 14,184 women. The Mendicant order num-
bered 8,229 persons, comprised in the above-mentioned total. A
project of law, brought in by the Government, for the entire suppres-
sion of all religious houses througliout the kingdom, was adopted
by the Chamber of Eepresentatives in the session of 1866. Art. 1
of this law provides that all religious corporations shall cease to exist
from the moment of the promulgation of the laAV, and their property
devolve to the State. Art. 2 grants civil and political rights to all
the members of the corporations thus dissolved. By Art. 3, all
monks and nuns having taken regular vows before the 18th of Janu-
ary 1864, are entitled to a pension of 500 lire, or 20/., each ; lay
brethren and sisters, to 250 lire, or 10/., each ; and servants 60 years
old and upwards, having served at least 10 years in a monastery,
may receive a pension of 120 lire, or a little less than 5/. By Art.
5j several monasteries are set aside for the reception of such monks
or mans as may wish to continixe their monastic life ; but there must
not be fewer than six in one monastery. Mendicant friars may
continue to ask alms under certain restrictions. By Art. 6, all
chapters of collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not
attached to parishes, lay benefices, and all brotherhoods and founda-
tions to which an ecclesiastical service is annexed, are suppressed.
Arts. 7 and 8 regulate the interests of present holders of such bene-
fices. Art. 9 regulates the transfer of ecclesiastical property to the
State. Art. 10 excepts from this transfer all property liable to re-
version to third parties ; also that of lay or ecclesiastical benefices
in the gift of lay patrons, the property of which reverts to the patron
ITALY.
307
on condition of his paying the holder of the benefice the annual
revenue of the property, leaving one-third of the same for the
execution of the ecclesiastical duties attached to the benefice.
Under the new Italian Government, a great part of the property
confiscated from the monastic establishments has been devoted to
the cause of public education, for Avhich, besides, an annual credit
of 15,000,000 lire, or 600,000/., is voted by the Parliament. Since
the commencement of the year 1860, there Avere opened, through-
out the kingdom, thirty-three gi-eat model schools, of which ten in the
Sardinian states, six in Lombardy, four in the Emilia, six in the
Marches and Umbria, two in Tuscany, and five in the Southern
Provinces. But notwithstanding these great aids to instruction,
education stands still very low in the kingdom. According to the
census of 1864, out of a total population of 21,703,710 souls,
there were 16,999,701 who could neither read nor write — 7,889,238
men and 9,110,463 women. Piedmont and Sicily occupied the first
and last place on the register of knowledge. In the Basilicata,
Calabria, and Sicily, more than nine-tenths of the inhabitants could
neither read nor write.
An official return issued by the Italian Government March, 1870,
furnishes detailed tabular information regarding the amount of
education received by the conscripts born in 1847, and called
up for military service in 1868. According to this return, the
percentage of ' analHibeti,' or totally illiterate men, of the age of
twenty-one was as follows, in progressive ratio, in the various
provinces of the kingdom: — Vicenza, 20.37; Sondrio, 25.17;
Turin, 26.18; Novara, 29.39; Bergamo, 33.13 ; Leghorn, 35.40 ;
Cuneo, 35.99; Como, 37.23; Alessandria, 39.61; Pavia, 41.04;
Brescia, 41.18 ; Porto Maurizio, 43.27 ; Cremona, 44.25 ; Milan,
49.93 ; Belluno, 50.92 ; Verona, 53.54 ; Genoa, 54.61 ; Lucca,
55.34; Treviso, 55.34; Pisa, 56.72; Mantua, 58.06; Udine, 59.96;
Eeggio (Emilia), 61.34; Padua, 62.66; Venice, 63.84; Florence,
64.13; Eovigo, 64.90; Grosseto, 66.16; Modena, 66.61; Massa
Carrara, 66.67; Bologna, 67.03; Piacenza, 68.24; Ferrara, 68.80;
Abruzzo Ulteriore II., 70.43; Parma, 70.66; Siena, 70.91;
Macerata, 71.19; Molise, 71.36; Capitanata, 71.86; Principato
Citeriore, 72.25; Naples, 73.58; Arezzo, 76.45; Terra d'Otranto,
76.67; Ravenna, 77.49; Forli, 77.69; Ancona, 77.71; Sassari,
77.91; Umbria, 78.19; Terra di Bari, 78.56; Abruzzo Citeriore,
78.80; Syracuse, 78.91; Messina, 79.12; Abruzzo Ult. I., 79.60;
Cagliari, 79.74; Terra di Lavoro, 80.00; Calabria Ult. IL, 80.04;
Caltanisetta, 80.34; Principato Ult., 80.55; Pesaro, 81.41-
Catania, 81.59 ; Palermo, 81.91 ; Calabria Cit., 82.16 ; Basilicata',
82.23; Benevento, 82.36; Ascoli Piceno, 82.49; Calabria Cit.',
82.99 ; Trapani, 83.58 ; Girgenti, 85.82. These statistics show a'
X 2
3o8
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
general average of 64.27 persons without the rutllments of education
in every hiuidred members of the adult male population.
There are twenty-two luiiversities in Italy, many of them of
ancient foundation. The oldest are Bologna, Ibunded in the year
1119; Naples, lounded in 1244; Padua, in 1228; Kome, in 1244;
Perugia, in 1320; Pisa, in 1329; Siena, in 1349; Pavia, in 1390;
Turin, in 1412; Parma, in 1422; and Florence, in 1443. The
other universities are, in alphabetical order, Cagliavi, Camerino,
Catanca, Ferrara, Genoa, INfacerata, Messina, Modena, Palermo,
Sassari, and Urbino. The number of students at all the universities
was returned at 12,580 in 1878 ; sixteen years previous, in 1SG2, the
number given was 15,688, of whom 9,459 were reported to be at
the university of Naples; 1,173 at Pavia; and 889 at Tm-in. By
a decree of the Minister of Public Instruction, issued in 1871, six
high schools — Naples, Pavia, Turin, Bologna, Florence, and Parma
— were declared first-class universities of the kinirdom.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Since the establishment of the kingdom, in 1861, there have been
annual deficits, rising in one year to the amount of 617 millions lire^
or 24,680,000/. During tlie same time, the public revenue nearly
trebled, but the expenditure did not increase to the same amount,
and, during the latter half of the period, the annual deficits showed a
tendency to decrease. The following table exhibits the total revenue
and expenditure of the kingdom, together with the annual deficits, in
each of the sixteen years from 1864 to 1879, the first twelve years, up
to 1875 inclusive, representing actual receipts and disbursements, and
the following ibur years, from 1876 to 1879, the budget estimates: —
Years
Total Revenue
Total Expenditure
Deficits
Lire
Lire
Lire
1864
56r),310.610
1,033,139,152
467,828,542
1865
637,176,089
1,066,459,285
429,283,196 j
1866
639,612, '269
1,256,822,008
617,209,739
1867
784,2.50,797
1,117,588,023
333,337.226
1868
726,486,54.)
1,187,351,948
460,86.5,403 '
1869
901,573,731
1,151,480,294
249,906,563 !
1870
800,649,014
1,021,925,930
221,276,916 |
1871
1,046,003,551
1,277,780,785
231,777,234 !
1872
1,295,336,212
1,548,335,022
252,998.810 !
1873
1,317,286,731
1,552,060,918
234,774,187 i
1874
1,314.147.325
1,540,862,261
226,714936 j
1875
1,336,307,886
l,494,l.i)2.530
157,844,614 i
1876
1,344,710,190
1,472,941,860
128,231,670 '
1877
1,389,109,906
1,422,877,431
33,767,525 I
1878
1.425,.')83,965
1,412,683,266
+ 12,900,699
1879
1,435,828,569
1,468,212,943
32,384,374 j
ITALY.
309
In the financial estimates of recent years the total revenue calcu-
lated upon almost invariably showed a deficiency in the actual
receipts, while the estimated expenditvu-e was exceeded by the actual
disbursements, the latter caused mainly by the comparatively large
expenditure for the army.
The following table gives an abstract of the official budget estimates
for the year 1878, showing the principal sovirces of revenue and
chief branches of expenditure :• —
1 Sources of Eevenue Lire
1 . Ordinary revenue : —
Direct taxes, including house duty .
Indirect taxes and monopolies
State lottery
Post, state railways, and telegraphs . .
i Ecclesiastical and State domains .
j Miscellaneous receipts
Total, ordinary revenue
j 2. Extraordinary revenue
3. Special revenue, including loans
Total revenue ....
447,247,806
529,663,948
72,100,000
90,083,000
28,811,425
20,634,192
1,188,540,371
16,526,245
220,517,349
1,425,583,965
£57,023,358
Branches of Expenditure
Lire
' Consolidated fund ......
789,187,926
Ministry
of finance
justice and worship
115,473,610
27,744,866
1
,
foreign affairs .
6,194,261
,
public instruction
27,283,649
,
the interior
58,524,975
,
public works
140,998,189
'
,
war .
202,923,379
,
the navy .
44,351,411
Total expenditure
1,412,682,266 |
1 £56,607,290 |
According to these financial estimates, there was to be a surplus
of 12,900,699 lire, or 516,028Z., in the year 1878, but the actual
results showed a deficit, as in former financial periods, the amount
of which, however, was not made pubUc in 1879.
The interest of the national debt, and its management, as well as
the civil list, and pensions, are summarised under the heading of
Consolidated Fund, administered by the ' Governo del tesoro.' In-
cluded in this great branch of expenditure is likev^ise the annual
dotation of the Supreme Pontiff", amounting to 3,225,000 lire, or
129,000/. The late and present Pontiff have not consented, how-
no
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
ever, to accept this annual allowance, which is therefore paid over
to the ' Asse Ecclesiastica.'
The ever-recurring deficits of recent years necessitated large
loans, foreign and internal, in consequence of which the public debt
of Italy, which stood at 2,439 millions of lire, or 97,480,000/., in
186(», the year before the establishment of the kingdom, had in-
creased to 9,750 millions of hre, or 390,000,000/., at the end of
1878. The debt was made up of the following liabilities : —
Funded debt inscribed in the ' Libro
Grande'
Eedeemable debt in the ' Eentes ' of 3
and 5 per cent
Treasury Bonds . . , .
Paper Currency ....
Total ....
Lire
£
7,091,829,661
1,642,773,107
183,010,500
840,000,000
283,673,186
65.710,924
7,320,420
33,600,000
9,757,613,268
390,304,530
As a guarantee for the issued Treasury Bonds and of paper
currency, which has a forced circulation, the Government has depo-
sits of certificates of the fimded debt, bearing no interest, in the
National Bank of Italy. The total amount of these deposits was
calculated at 1,150,000,000 lire, or 46,000,000/., at the end of
1878.
Nearly all the cities and communes of Italy have their own bud-
gets and debts, the latter, like the national liabilities, tending to
constant increase. The total revenue of the communes of Italy in
1877 amounted, according to official reports, to 466,100,000 lire, or
18,644,000/., exclusive of those of the provinces of Rome. The
amount was 316,800,000 hre, or 12,672,000/., in 1867, the first
year in which Venice appeared as in Italy. There was thus an
increase of 149,300,000 lire, or 5,972,000/., in the revenue during
the ten years. The burden of the revenue per head of the popula-
tion rose during the time in question from 12 lire, or 10^., to 18 lire,
or 15s. In the ui'ban communes — that is, in towns containing over
5,000 inhabitants — and the chief towns of provinces, the burden per
head of the population was 34 lire, or 11. 8s., against 10 lire
80c., or 8s. 6d., in the rural communes. The revenue of the
province of Rome amounted to 36,000,000 lire, or 1,440,000/., in
1877, against 13,200,000 lire, or 528,000/., in 1871. In 1871 the
deficit was considerable, but in 1877 the revenue and expenditure
of the capital were very nearly balanced. The burden per head of
the iirban population of Italy was in 1877 in the province of Rome
71 lire 62c., or 21. 17s. 6d., and of the rural jwpulation of the king-
dom, 19 lire 25c., or 15s. 6(/.
ITALY.
II
Army and Navy.
The German law of universal liability to arms forms the basis of
the present military organisation of the Kingdom of Italy. Accord-
ing to it, a certain portion of all the young men of the age of twenty-
one, the nimiber varying from 65,000 to 75,000, is levied annually
for the standing army, Avhile the rest are entered in the army of
reserve, in which they have to practise annually for forty days, and
are then sent on unlimited furlough, but can be called permanently
under arms at the outbreak of a war.
By the law of military organisation passed September 30, 1873,
the standing army of Italy is divided into seven general commands,
or corps d'armee, each consisting of three divisions, and each
division of two brigades ; foiu- or six battalions of ' bersaglieri,' or
riflemen, two regiments of cavalry, and from six to nine companies
of artillery. The actual strength of the rank and file of the army,
at the end of December 1878, was as folloAvs, according to official
returns : —
Number of Men
Description of Troops under arms
(Peace-footing)
1
Number of Men
on Ulimited
fm-lougli
Total
(War-footing)
Infantry of the Line
Bersaglieri .
Cavalry
Artillery
Corp of Engineers
Military Train
Carabiuieri .
Administrative troops
Military Instruction
118,850
14,727
16,165
17,202
3,104
2,454
19,628
4,463
2,964
184,272
21,448
9,604
18,162
563
7,151
3,752
303,122
36,175
25,769
35,364
3,667
9,605
19,628
8,215
2,964
Total
•
199,557
244,952
444,509
The army was commanded, in 1878, by 15,110 officers, not
included in the above returns. Of these, 870 formed the staff,
while 11,015 were attached to the Infantry of the Line, 995 to the
Bersaglieri, 1,080 to the Cavalry, and 1,150 to the Artillery.
The organisation of the Italian army, under the law of 1873,
which came into operation in 1874, prescribes the division of the king-
dom into sixteen territorial military districts, each under the command
of a general. The formation of the standing army comprises,
besides infantry, cavalry, and artiUery, sanitary, commissariat, and
educational departments, the latter organised to raise the educational
standard of the armed forces of the kingdom higher than that of the
general population. The national militia is composed of 232 battalions
of infantry, each of lour companies ; of fifteen battalions of ' ber-
saglieri ' cavalry ; of sixty batteries of artillery ; and of ten com-
panies of engineers.
312
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The nominal organisation of the standing army is as follows under
the law of 1873 : —
Infantry of the line (80 regi-
Peace Footing
War Footing
ments, 8 of which are gi-ena-
Men
Horses
Men
Horses
diers) . . . . •
128,020
245,680
Bersaglieri (40 battalions)
16,165
—
26,495
—
Cavalry (4 regiments of the
line, 7 of lancers, 7 light
horse, and 1 of guides = 115
squadrons) ....
18,167
13,569
19,000
11,102
Artillery (1 regiment of ponton-
niers, 3 foot, 5 mounted, with
80 batteries)
9,64G
4,260
16,086
11,234
Six artisan companies, also at-
tached to the artillery
1,174
—
1,589
—
Two regiments of sappers of
the engineers (36 companies) .
4,132
48
6,793
396
Three regiments of train corps
(24 companies)
2,460
960
9,240
11,340
One administrative corps (7 com-
panies) ....
Total
3,173
—
182,937
18,837
324,883
37,072
The time of service in the standing army is three years in the in-
ilmtry and five years in the cavalry. A certain number, distinguished
as ' soldati d'ordinanza,' to which class belong the Carabinieri and
some of the Administrative troops, have the option to serve eight
years complete, and are then liberated without further liability
to arms. In the army of reserve, the time of service is nine years.
Every native of the kingdom is liable to the military service, to be
enrolled either in the standing army or the reserve. An exemption
in favour of young men able to pass an examination is allowed, they
having to remain only one year in the service, the same as in Ger-
many. (See page 124.)
The distribution of the standing army over the kingdom was as
follows in the middle of 1878 :— There were S battahons of infantry
at and near the capital, 5 at Genoa, 5 at Turin, 9 at Alessandria,
12 in Tuscany, and 120 in the valley of the Po, from Milan to
Ancona. At Naples there Avere 18 battalions of the line,
2 oi" marines, and o of bersaglieri ; in the Neapolitan provinces, 39
battali(,ns of the line, 20 of bersaglieri, and 32 squadrons of cavalry.
There were, finally, 32 battalions of the line in Sicily. ,
The navy of the kingdom of Italy consisted, at the end of De-
cember 1880, of 88 steamers, afloat or building, armed with 684
guns. They were classed as follows : —
ITALY.
313
Steamers : —
Ironclad ships
Frigates ....
Corvettes of the 1st class
Corvettes of the 2nd class
Corvettes of the 3rd class
Gunboats
Ti'ansports
Total .
Total horse-power
Ironclads
Screw steamers
Paddle steamers
Number
Guns
Number
Guns
Number
Guns
18
128
9
5
3
12
9
280
74
18
47
20
3
5
4
20
30
30
15
38
18 128
38
439
32
113
46,150
12,256
6,810
The following is a tabular list of the 18 armour-clad ships of the
Italian navy. The columns of the table exhibit, after the name of each
ship, first, the thickness of armoiu- at the water-line ; secondly, the
number and weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated or nominal horse-
power of engines ; and fourthly, the tonnage, that is, the displacement
in tons. The ironclads marked with an asterisk (*) before their name
were not completed at the end of 1880 : —
Armour
(
Gruns
Indicated
Displace-
Names of Ironclads
thickness at
horse-
ment, or
water-line
Nimiber
Weight
power
tonnage
First-class : —
Inches
Tons
*Italia .
3G
4
100-ton
12,000
14,000
*Lepanto .
30
4
100-ton
12,000
14,000
Duiiio
22
4
100-ton
7,500
10,650
Dandolo .
22
4
100-ton
7,500
10,650
1 Second-class : —
Venezia .
9 J
{a
25-ton ~l
18-ton/
1,800
6,500
Palestro .
9?
f 1
1 6
25-ton 1
18-ton/
1,800
6,500
Principe Amedeo
9|
r 1
1 6
25-ton"!
18-ton/
1,800
6,500
Koma
9'y
f 1
1 6
25-ton "»
18-ton J
1,800
6,500
Third-class : —
Affondatore
6
2
12-toa
1,500
4,070
Varcse
5^
6
12-ton
1,000
2,900
Terril)ile .
5i
6
12-ton
1,000
2,900 !
Formidabile
5^
6
12-ton
1.000
2,900
Conte Verde
5i
6
12 -ton
1,000
2,900
Castelfidardo .
5
14
6^-ton
950
2,500
Ancona .
5
14
6^-ton
950
2,500
Maria Pia
5
14
6|-ton
950
2,500
Messina .
5
10
6i-tou
900
2,000
San Martino
6
10
6j-ton
900
2,000
314 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The two most remarkable completed ironclads of the Italian navy —
reputed also to be the most powerful types of men-of-war yet constructed
are the double-turret ships, the Duilio, launched at Castellamave
on the 8th of May 1876, and the sister ship, the Dandolo, launched at
La Spezzia towards the end of 1877. The length of the Duilio is 339
feet, the breadth 65 feet, and the displacement 10,600. The armour
of the Duilio is of the immense thickness of 22 inches throughout,
of plates rolled by C. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. As unsurpassed
in size as the armour, is the armament of the Duilio, which consists
of four 100-ton Armstrong guns, 33 feet long, firing projectiles
2,500 lbs. in weight, with powder charges of 350 lbs. The hull of
the Duilio is altogether of iron and steel. It consists of a central
ironclad compartment, 167 feet in length and 54 feet in breadth,
which descends to 5 feet under the water-line, encloses the machinery
and boilers, the powder magazines, and a portion of the mechanism
used in working the turrets and the cannon. At the bow and stem
of this compartment the deck passage, which lies about 4^ feet
below the water-line, is defended by horizontal armour, so that
neither a projectile nor water can enter it. The part of the hull
above this ironclad deck is constructed in a peculiar way, in con-
sideration of the probability of its being seriously damaged in a
fight. A second central ironclad compartment is built over the
first, and encloses the bases of the turrets and the remaining portion
of the mechanism employed in loading and working the cannon.
Above this second compartment rise the two turrets, which have
each two 100-ton Armstrong guns, and are arranged Avith their
centres at the distance of 8 feet from the longitudinal plane of the
vessel, which renders it possible to discharge three cannon contempora-
neously in a parallel direction with the keel. Besides its gigantic
armament, the Duilio has a powerful ram, and at the stern, in a tunnel
closed by a grated door, a very rapid torpedo beat, which can be
launched forth from its resting-place to carry its torpedoes. ^ As
means of propulsion, the Duilio has two screws, driven by engines
of 7,500 horse-power, and is calculated to run 14 miles an hour.
The i^hip will carry 1,200 tons of coal, being sufficient for a run of
1,000 miles with full force, and 4,000 miles at a moderate rate. The
Dandolo is absolutely similar in construction to the Duilio, and the
two nominally represent the strength of whole navies, though different
opinions are entertained as to their actual power in naval warfare.
The two ironclads still larger than the Duilio and the Dandolo,
named the Italia and the Lepanto, each of 14,000 tens, and covered
throughout Avith armour of the enormous thickness of 36 inches,
or three feet, were little advanced in construction at the end ol
1880.
The other ironclads of the Italian navy are of old construction,
ITALY.
315
and much less power. The Venezia was built in England, in 1871,
and the Palestro, Principe Amedeo, and Roma, sister ships, at the
dockyard of Castellamare, near Naples, where they were launched in
the years 1872 to 1874. All four cany armour 9^ inches in thick-
ness, and are armed each with sis cannons of 18 tons and one of 25
tons. The remaining ironclads are similar in design and construction.
The navy was manned, in 1879, by 11,200 sailors, and 660
engineers and working men, with 1,271 officers, the chief of them one
admiral, one vice-admiral, 10 rear-admirals, and 83 captains. The
marines consisted of two regiments, comprising 205 officers and
2,700 soldiers.
Area and Population.
The first general census of the kingdom of Italy, inclusive of the
Pontifical States, annexed by Eoyal decree of October 9, 1870, was
taken by the Government on the 31st December 1871. On this
date, the population numbered 26,792,354 souls — 13,472,262 males
and 13,328,892 females — living on an area of 296, 013 square chilos,
or 114,296 EngKsh square miles, being 235 per square mile.
The kingdom of Italy is administratively divided into sixty-nine
provinces, the names of which, in alphabetical order, with area in
EngHsh square miles, and number of population on the 31st De-
cember, 1871, are given in the subjoined table: —
Area :
Eng. square miles I
Population,
Dec. 31, 1871
Alessandria
Ancona ....
Aqiiila (Abruzzo Ulteriore II.)
Arezzo ....
Ascoli Piceno .
Avellino (Principato Ulteriore)
Bari (Terra di Bari) .
Belluno .
Beuevento
Bergamo .
Bologna .
Brescia
Cagliari .
Caltanisetta
Campobasso (Molise)
Caserta (Terra di Lavoro)
Catania ....
Catanzaro (Calabria Ulteriore
Chieti (Abruzzo Citeriore)
Como ....
Cosenza (Calabria Citeriore)
Cremona ....
II.)
1,952
740
2,509
1,276
809
1,409
2,293
1,263
676
1,027
1,392
1,784
5,224
1,455
1,778
2,307
1,970
2,307
1,105
1,049
2,841
670
683,361
262,349
332,784
234,645
203,004
375,691
604,540
175,282
232,008
368,152
439,232
456,023
393,208
230,066
364,208
697,403
495,415
412.226
339,986
477,642
440,468
300,595
3i6
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Pta vi Tl pPq
Area:
Population,
A lUY iiiutrs
Bng. square miles
Dec. a 1, 1871
Cuneo
2,756
618,232
Ferrara
1,010
215,369
Firenze ....
2,263
766,824
Foggia (Capitanata) .
2,955
322,758
Forii ....
716
234,090
Genova
1,588
716,759
Girgenti ....
1,491
289,018
Grosseto ....
1,712
107,457
Lecce (Terra d'Otranto) .
3,293
493,594
Livorno (including Elba) .
126
118,851
Lucca ....
677
280,399
Macerata ....
1,057
236,994
Mantua ....
856
288,942
Massa Carrara .
680
161,944
Messina ....
1,768
420,649
Milano ....
1,155
1,009,794
Modena ....
966
273,231
Napoli ....
429
907,752
Novara ....
2,527
624,985
Padova ....
805
364,430
Palermo ....
1,964
617,678
Parma ....
1,251
264,381
Pavia ....
1.286
448,435
Perugia ....
3,719
649,601
Pesaro Urbino .
1,145
213,072
Pisa
1,180
265,959
Piacenza ....
965
225,775
Porto Mauri zio .
467
127,053
Potenza ....
4,122
501,543
Eavenna ....
742
221,115
Reggio Calabria (Calabria Ult.
I)
1,515
353,608
Eeggio Emilia .
884
240,635
Eoma (Latin) .
4,553
836,704
Eovigo ....
652
200,835
Salerno (Principato Citeriore)
2,116
541,738
Sassari ....
4,139
243,452
Siena ....
1,465
206,446
Siracusa ....
1,428
294,885
Sondrio ....
1,259
111,241
Teramo (Abruzzo U Iteriore I.)
1,284
246,004
Trapani ....
1,214
236,388
Treviso ....
939
352,538
Torino ....
3,965
972,986
Udine ....
2,483
481,786
Venezia ....
850
337,538
Verona ....
1,102
367,437
Vicenza . ...
1,041
114,296
363,161
Total .
•
26,792,354
ITALY.
317
It was calculated, on the returns of births and deaths, that the
population of the kingdom had increased to 27,769,475 on the 1st
January 1877.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five
years from 1873 to 1877 : —
Years
Births
Deaths iJIarriages
Surphis of Births
over Deaths
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
985,188
951,658
1,035,377
1,083,721
1,029,037
813,973
827,253
843,161
796,420
787,817
214,906
207,997
230,486
225,453
214,972
171,215
124,405
192,216
287,301
241,220
The great mass of the people of Italy are devoted to agricultural
pursuits, and the town population is comparatively small. The
number of inhabitants of the principal cities and tOAvns was as
follows, at the census of December 1871 : —
Towas
Population
Towns
Population
Naples
448,743
Genoa
130,269
Milan
261,976
Venice
128,901
Rome
244,484
Bologna
115,957
Palermo
219,938
1 Messina
111,854
Turin
207.770
Leghorn
97,096
Florence
167,093
Catania
84,397
The capital, the city of Rome, had an estimated population of
290,500 on the 1st of January 1879.
The number of emigrants from Italy, very small previous to tlie
establishment of the kingdom, has been assuming some proportions
in recent years. In 1869, the number was 23,040, and it rose to
81,500 in 1870, to 100,170 in 1871, and to 115,272 in 1872. In
1873 the number of emigrants fell to 80,716; in 1874 to 51,200;
and in 1875 to 26,872, but rose again to 108,807 in 1876. The
emigration is partly European, directed to France, Austria, and
Switzerland, and besides to the Argentine Confederation, Brazil, and
other South American states.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourse of Italy is chiefly with four countries,,
France, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Switzerland. The im-
ports from France average eight millions sterling per annum, and
the exports very nearly the same. Next in order of importance are
the commercial transactions with the United Kingdom, and after that,
but far below, those of Austria and Switzerland.
3i8
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The following table shows the total imports and exports of the
kingdom in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Lire
&
Lire
&
1870
842,773,754
33,710,948
572,921,044
22,916,840
1871
880,126,810
35.205,072
756,614,822
30,264,592
1872
1,139,233,528
45,569,340
1,108,834,842
44,353,392
1873
1,287,829,774
51,513,188
1,133,543,863
45,341,752
1874
1,304,994,328
52,199,772
985,458,532
39.418,340
1875
1,215,051,015
48.602,040
1,057,161,050
42,286,440
1876
1,330,147,820
53,205,913
1,216,921,205
48,676,848
1877
1,154,303,039
46,172,121
966,523,543
38,660,941
1878
1,070.802,615
42.832,104
1,040,789,434
41,631,577
1879
1,262,044,668
50,480,786
1,100,961,109
44.038,444
It will be seen that there has been a marked increase in the value
of both imports and exports in the course of the ten years. The
large falling off in the exports of 1877 and of 1878 was qauscd by a
deficiency in the harvest produce.
Corn and cotton manufactures form the chief imports into Italy.
The principal exports are silk, raAv and manTiflictured, and spirits
and oils, the first of which averages 7,000,000/. and the second
4,000,000/. sterling per annum. The commercial intercourse is chiefly
with France, and next to it with Austria.
The value of the commercial intercourse of Italy with the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the value of the exports from Italy to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Italy, in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
E.^ports from Italy I^P^l^^I^^^.^f
to Great Britain ^°°^^ P[°^^j^<=*^ '^^^^
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
3,843,605
4,624,278
4,159,161
3,831,091
3,634,360
4,632,619
4,152,201
4,100,812
3,252,459
3,233,594
£
5,272,074
6,294,737
6,557,538
7,444,195
6,369,609
6,766,698
6,689,402
6,218,612
5,363,838
4,983,676
The two principal articles of export from Italy to Great Britain in
ITALY.
319
the year 1879 were hemp, of the value of 404,475?., aud olive oil, of
the value of 763,450?, The next important articles shipped to
Great Britain were oranges and lemons, of the value of 252,940Z.;
brimstone, of the value of 194,770/.; chemical products, of the value
of 182,822?.; shumac, of the value of 161,638?. ; and Avine, of the
value of 104,714?. No other articles exported to Great Britain in
1879 reached the value of 100,000?. The staple articles of British
produce imported into Italy are cotton fabrics, iron, coals, and woollen
manufactures. The value of the most important article, cotton
manufactmres, imported from Great Britain in the year 1879,
amounted to 1,566,739?. Next in importance to cotton manufac-
tures stood iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 636,249?. ;
coals, of the value of 569,020?. ; and woollen manufactures, of the
value of 591,787?., imported in the year 1879 from the United
Kingdom.
The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to the
kingdom, on January 1, 1879, was as follows : —
Tonnage of Vessels
Sailing Vessels Steamers
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
From 1,000 to 1,500 tons
„ 800 „ 1,000 „
„ 500 „ 800 „
300 „ 500 „
100 ,, 300 „
50 „ 100 „
Under 50 tons
Total .
19
95
532
698
702
1,774
6,922
21,297
83,499
327,485
286,405
132,183
93,156
66,105
16
15
16
26
22
22
34
19,134
13,495
9,883
9,789
3,660
1,561
797
10,742
1,010,130
151
58,319
On the 1st of January 1879, the total number of sailing A'es.sels
and steamers making long voyages was 10,893, of 1,068,449 tons,
the tonnage of steamers alone being 58,319 tons. There were, at
the same date, 150,938 men engaged as sailors on board ships of
the mercantile navy, while 58,086 men were employed in ' marine
arts and industries,' According to an official return, the kingdom of
Italy had a registered seafaring population, that is individuals whose
names were inserted in the ' Inscription Maritime,' of 209,024 at
the commencement of 1879.
The total length of railways opened for traffic on the 1st of
•January 1879, was 8,210 chilometri, or 5,098 English miles, of
which 2,126 chilometri, or 1,321 English miles, belonged to the
State, and 6,084 chilometri, or 3,778 English miles, to private com-
panies. The whole of the lines are divided into five systems, of
the following extent in January 1878 : —
320
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Railways
Length 1
Cliilometri
English miles
Aha. Italia ....
Eoman (Romane) .
Southern (Meridionali) .
Sardinian (Sarde) .
Sicilian (Calabro-Sicule)
Various lines ....
Total .
3,379
1,673
1,454
198
949
557
2,099
1,039
903
123
589
345
8,210
5,098
1
The first line of railway was opened in 1839, and the progress of
construction was slow till 18G1, irom the beginning of which year
till the end of 1866 the length opened for traffic rose to 2,902
chilometri, or 1,803 English miles. In the following six years, till
the end of 1872, the length opened for traffic was 1,663 chilometri,
or 1,033 English miles, and in the next three years, till the end of
1875, it was 932 chilometri, or 579 English miles. The construc-
tion of railways by the State was begun in recent years, in order to
extend, more rapidly than private enterprise was willing to do, the
existing network of lines. In October 1875, the government pur-
chased from the South-Austrian and Lombardo-Venetian railway
company the Italian portion of the system, or the ' Alta Italia '
lines, of a length of 1,444 chilometri, or 897 English miles.
In the sessions of 1878 and 1879 the Italian Parliament passed bills
for the construction of additional 6,020 chilometros, of 3,739 miles of
railway, to complete the existing system. The new lines are to be
built within a period of fifteen years, at a total cost of 1,000,000,000
lire, or 40,000,000/., with a State contribution of 650,000,000 lire,
or 26,000,000/., paid in annual instalments of 50,000,000 lire, or
2,000,000/.
The number of post-offices in the kingdom at the commencement
of 1878, was 3,120. In the year 1877 the post conveyed 170,848,672
letters and postcards, 61,713,852 parcels, and 83,314,302 news-
papers. The revenue in 1^77 did not fully cover the expenditure.
The length of telegraph lines, at the commencement of 1878, was
23,738 chilometri, or 14,742 English miles, nearly two-thirds of
the whole belonging to the Government. There were, at the same
date, 1,795 telegraph offices. The number of telegrams forwarded
in the year 1877 throughout the kingdom was 5,580,402, including
235,681 official telegrams. The revenue in 1877 amounted to
9,470,937 lire, or 378,837/., and the exi^enditure to 6,513,023 lire,
or 260,521/.
HALT.
321
Diplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of Italy in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Lieut. -General Count Menabrea, Marquis of Val-Dora,
accredited May 8, 1876.
Councillor of Embassy. — Chevalier C. Eessmann.
Secretaries. — Chevalier Tomaso Catalani ; Jo. Silvestrelli ; Count Menabrea.
Military Attache. — Major Leitniky.
Naval Attache. — Capt. Labrano.
2. Of Great Britain in Italy.
Ambassador. — Sir Augustus Berkeley Paget, born in 1821 ; envoy to the
Netherlands, 1854-56; to Portugal, 1857-58; to Prussia, 1858-59; to Den-
mark, 1859-66; and to Portugal, 1866-67. Appointed envoy and minister to
Italy, July 6, 1867 ; raised to the rank of ambassador March 24, 1876.
Secretaries. — Hugh Guion Macdonell ; Frank Lascelles ; John G. Kennedy ;
W. G-. S. Compton.
Naval Attache.— Ca,])t. Nicholson.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those
of France, the names only being altered, the Franc changing into
the Lira, divided into 100 centesimi, the Kilogramme into the
Chilogramma, the Metre into the Metro, the Hectare into the Ettaro,
and so on. The British equivalents are : —
Money.
The Lira, of 100 Centesijni = Average rate of exchange (gold), 25 to 1^. starling.
Weights and Measuees.
= 15'434 grains troy.
= 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 220 „
= 2200
= 0"22 Imperial gallon.
22
= 2'75 Imperial bushels.
3-28 feet or 39-37 inches.
= 1093 yards.
= 35-31 cubic feet.
= 2-47 acres.
= 0-386 square mile.
(2-59 sq. chilo — 1 eq. mile)
The common currency of the kingdom in recent years has been
paper money of various denomination, gold standing at a premium
of from 10 to 12 per cent.
The Gramma
„ Chilogramma
„ Quintal Metrici ,
„ Tonnelata .
,, Litre, Liquid Measure
„ Metro
The Chilo metro .
„ Metro Cube 1
,, Stero J
„ Ettaro, or Hectare
,, Square Chilo7netro '
322 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official Publications.
Annali del Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, 1878. 8.
Eoma, 1880.
Aiinuario Generale dell' Industria e Commercio del Regno d'ltalia pel-
I'Anno 1879. 8. Firenze, 1880.
Annuario del Ministero delle Finanze del Regno d'ltalia pel 1879. Anno
XVII. 8. Roma, 1880.
Annnario della Instruzione Pubblica del Regno d'ltalia pel 1878-79. 8.
Roma, 1880.
Annuario Pontificio. 8. Roma, 1880.
L'ltalia economica nel 1879. Publicazione ufficiale. 8. Roma. 1880.
Movimento della Navigazione Italiana e Straniera nei Porti del Regno.
Anno XVIII. 8. Roma, 1880.
Statistica Amministrativa del Regno d'lt^dia. Riveduta edampliata per cura
del Ministero dell' Interno. 4, Roma, 1880.
Statistica dei Bilanei Coramunali per gli anni 1878-79. 8. Roma, 1880.
Statistica della Popolazione. Censimenlo generale (31 die. 1871) per cura
della direzione della statistica generale del Regno. 8. Firenze, 1872.
Statistica elettorale politica. Elezioni generali degli anni 1861, 1865-66,
1867. 1870 e 1874. 8. Roma, 1876.
Statistica del Commercio speciale di Importazione e di Esportazione. Fol.
Roma, 1880.
Report by Mr. Edw. Herries, Secretary of Legation, on the financial con-
dition of Italy, dated Rome, February 3, 1875 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II., 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Edw. Herries, Secretary of Legation, on the foreign trade of
I-t;ily in 1874, dated Rome, March 1875 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Edward Malet, Secretary of Legation, on the trade between
Great Britain and Italy, dated Rome. March 12, 1877 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1877- 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mi". Consul Lowe, on the trade of Civita Vecchia ; and by Mr.
Consul Colnaghi, en the industry of Florence and the yield of cocoons in Italy ;
dited October 1877; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part 1.1878. 8.
London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Calvert on the trade and commerce of Naples ; by
Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Briudisi ; by Mr. Consul Pernis on the trade
of Cagliari ; and by Mr. Consul Smallwood on the commerce and shipping of
Venice dated March-June, 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part
V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Tomassini on the trade and commerce of Aneona ;
by Mr. Consul Colnaghi on the silk industry, fisheries, and mineral products
of Italy; and by Mr. Acting-Consul Barff on the trade and commerce of Naples,
dated September-November, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I.
1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul
Colnaghi on the industry of Florence and the pro%'ince of Forli ; by Mr. Consul
Yeats Brown on the trade and shipping of Genoa ; and by Mr. Consul Small-
■wood on the commerce of Venice, dated January 1877 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part II. 1877. 8. London, 1877-
Reports by Mr. Consul Pernis on the trade and industry of the island of
ITALY. 323
Sardinia ; and by Mr. Consul Colnaghi on the industrial condition of Northern
Italy, dated March 1877; in 'Commercial Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part III. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Grant on the commerce of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul
Colnaghi, Florence, on the decrease of the English iron trade in Italy ; and by
Mr. Consul Smallwood on the commerce of Venice, dated May-June 1877 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consids.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Tomassini on the trade of Ancona ; by Mr. Con-
sul Yates-Brown on the commerce of Genoa ; and by Mr. Consul Smallwood on
the commerce of Venice, dated January 1878 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Joel on the commerce of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul
Grant on the trade and commerce of Naples ; and by Mr. Consul Smallwood on
the commerce of Venice, dated February-May 1878 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Yates-Brown on the commerce of Genoa, and by
Consular-Agent De Zuccato on the trade and commerce of Venice, dated
January-February 1879 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part 11. 1879,
8. London, 1879.
Trade of Italy with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. NoN- Official Publications.
Annuario Industriale Italiano pel 1880, ossia Dizionario statistico-storico-
eommerciale d'ltalia. 8. Napoli, 1880.
Bodio (Luigi), Sui document! statistici del Regno d' Italia, cenni bibliografici,
presentati al VI Congress© internazionale di statistica. 8. Firenze, 1868.
Cesare (Carlo de), II Passato, il Presente e I'Avvenire della Pubblica Am-
ministrazione nel Regno d'ltalia. 8. Firenze, 1865.
Correnti e Maestri (N.), Annuario Statistico Italiano. 8. Torino, 1880.
Fornelli (Marchese Giov.), Miscellanea geografico-storico-politica su I'ltalia.
8. Napoli, 1869.
Gallenga (A.), Italy revisited. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
G^M^wi (Ferdinando), Dizionario del Comuni del Regno d'ltalia. 2 vols. 8.
Firenze, 1870-72.
Guida Generale del Commercio e dell' Industria Italiana per il 1880. 4.
Milano, 1880.
Lossa (Augusto), Annuario del commercio ed industria del Regno d'ltalia.
8. Firenze, 1880.
Morpiirgo (Emilio), La Finanza Italiana della Fondazione del Regno fino a
questi Giorni. 8. Roma, 1874.
Muzzi (Prof. S.), Vocabolario geografico-storico-statistico dell' Italia. 2 vole.
Bologna, 1873-74.
Stii'ierii^.), Geografia e statistica commerciale del Regno d'ltalia. 4. Venezia,
1879.
t2
324
MONTENEGRO.
(TCHERNAGORA — KaRA-DAGH.)
Reigning Prince.
Nicholas I., Petrovic Njego?, born September 13 (September 25),
1841; educated at Paris; jiroclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as
successor of his uncle, Danilo I., August 13, 1860. Married,
Norember 8, 1860, to Milena Pe'trovna Vucoticova, born April 22,
1847, daughter of Peter Vucotic, senator, and commander of the
lifeguard. Offspring of the union are five daughters and one son,
Danilo Alexander^ heir-apparent, born June 30, 1871.
The reigning prince is descended from Peti'ovic Njegos, pro-
claimed Vladika, or prince -bishop, of Montenegro, in 1697, who
liberated the coimtry from the Turks, and, having established liim-
self as both spiritual and temporal ruler, entered into a religious and
political alliance with Russia. His successors retained the theocratic
power till the death of Peter Petrovic, October 31, 1851, last
Vladika of Montenegro, a n;lcr of great wisdom, as well as a widely-
celebrated \)oei. He was succeeded by his nephew, Danilo I., who
abandoned the title of Vladika, together with the spiritual functions
attached to it, and substituted that of Hospodar, or Prince. At the
same time Danilo I., to throw off a remnant of nominal dependency
from Turkey, acknowledged by his predecessors, obtained the in-
vestiture and formal sanction of his new title from Russia. Danilo
I., assassinated August 13, 1860, was succeeded by his nephew,
second Hospodar of Montenegro.
Former rulers of Montenegro possessed the whole of the revenues
of the country, but a general assembly of representatives of the
inhabitants of the principality, which met April 10, 1868, decided
to separate from the public the private income of the Hospodar,
granting him an annual civil list of 2,000 ducats, or 350/. To this
small allowance the Emperor of Russia added 8,000 ducats, or 1 ,400/.,
and the Austrian Government 20,000 florins, or 2,000/., raising the
annual income of the Hospodar to 3,750/.
Government and Population.
The constitution of the country, dating from 1852, with changes
effected in 1855 and 1879, is that of a limited monarchy, resting on
a patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests with the
reigning Prince, while the legislative power is vested, according to
an 'Administrative Statute' proclaimed March 21, 1879, in a State
MONTENEGKO. 325
CoTincil of eight members, one-half of them nominated by the
Prince, and the other elected by the male inhabitants who are bear-
ing, or have borne, arms. The inhabitants are divided into 40
tribes, each governed by elected ' elders,' and a chief called Knjas,
who acts as magistrate in peace and as commander in war. By
the 'Administrative Statute' of 1879, the country was divided into
80 districts and four military commands.
No official returns are published regarding the public revenue
and expenditure. Reliable estimates state the former at oOO,COO
Austrian florins, or 30,000/., and the latter at 180,000 florins, or
18,000Z. per annum, leaving a yearly sury)lus of 12,000 florins, or
1,200/. There exists no public debt at present, a loan raised in
1876 having been paid off by the Eussian Government.
The area of Montenegro is estimated to embrace 3,550 Engli.'^ii
square miles, inclusive of the annexations effected by the Congress if
Berlin in 1878, including the town and district of Dulcigno on the
Adriatic. The latter, however, was not actually suriendered by
Turkey to Montenegro till the end of November 1880, under pre s-
sure of the great European Powers. The total population was
stated in official returns to number 250,000 in 1879.
The number of men capable of bearing arms, between the agts
of 20 and 50, is calculated at 21,850. There exists no standing
army, except a lifeguard of the Hospodar, numbering 100 men ;
but all the inhabitants, not physically unfitted, are trained as
soldiers, and liable to be called under arms. The Montenegrii s
belong entirely to the Servian branch of the Slavonian race, and in
religion adhere to the Greek Church, governed, since 1852, by a
bishop nominated by the Holy Synod of liussia.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro.
NoN-OFFiciAi Publications.
Andric (M.) Geschichte des Fiirstenthums Montenegro. 8. Wien, 1853.
Belarue (H.) Le Montenegro. 8. Paris, 1862.
Denton (Eev. William), Montenegro : its People and their History. 8.
London, 1877.
Kohl (J. Geo.) Keise nach Montenegro. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1851.
KovalevsJcy (Egor Petrovieh) Montenegro and the Slavonic Countries.
(Russia.) 8. St. Petersburg, 1872.
Krasinski (Walerjan Skorobohaty) Montenegro and the Slavonians of
Turkey. 8. London, 1853.
iVe;^e6at«r (H.) Die Siidslawen und deren Lander. 8. Leipzig, 1851.
Sestak (J. F.) and Schcrhs (F.) Militarische Beschreibiing des Paschaliks
Herzegovina und des Fiirstenthums Cernagora. 8. Wien, 1862.
Strangford (Viscountess) The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic in 1863, -with
a visit to Montenegro. 8. London, 1864.
326
NETHERLANDS.
(KONINGRIJK DER NeDERLANDEN.)
Reigning King.
Willem III., born February 19, 1817, the eldest son of King
Willem n., and of Princess Anna Paulowna, daughter of Emperor
Paul I. of Russia ; educated by private tutors, and at the University
of Leydcn ; succeeded to the throne, at the death of his father,
March 17, 1849. Married, June 18, 1839, to Princess Sophie, born
June 17, 1818, the second daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wlirttem-
berg; widower June 3, 1877. Married, in second nuptials, Jan. 7,
1879, to Queen Emma, born August 2, 1858, daughter of Prince
George Victor of Waldeck. (See page 167.)
Son and daughter of the King.
Alexander, Prince of Orange, heir-apparent, born August 25,
1851; captain in the navy of the Netherlands; Princess Wil-
helmina, bom August 31, 1880.
Sister of the King.
Princess Sophie, born April 8, 1824 ; married, Oct. 8, 1842, to
Grand-Duke Karl Alexander of Saxe-Weimar, born June 24, 1818.
Uncle and Aunt of the King.
I. Prince Frederik, born February 28, 1797, second son of King
"Willem I. of the Netherlands ; field-marshal in the Dutch army ;
married. May 21, 1825, to Princess Louise, daughter of King
Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia ; widower, Dec. 6, 1870. Sur-
viving issue of the union is a daughter, Marie, born July 5, 1841,
married July 18, 1871, to Prince Wilhelm Von Wied, born Aug. 22,
1845, Lieut. -Colonel in the army of Prussia.
II. Frincesfi Marian7ie, horn. May 9, 1810, sister of the preceding;
married, September 14, 1830, to the late Prince Albert of Prussia ;
divorced March 28, 1849.
The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of
Orange, descend from a German Count Walram, who lived in the
eleventh century. Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of
the branch of Otto of Walram, with Joan of Polanen, in 1404, the
family acquired the barony of Breda, and thereby became settled
in the Netherlands. The alliance with another heiress, only sister
of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of Chalon, brought to
the house a rich province in the south of France; and a third
matrimonial union, that of Prince Willem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II., transferred the crown of Great Britain
NETHERLANDS. 12";
for a time to the family. Previous to this period, the members had
acqxiired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands, and,
imder the name of ' stadtholders,' or governors, became the sovereign
rulers of the State. The dignity was formally declared to be heredi-
tary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V., had to
fly to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican
army. The family did not return till November 1813, when the
fate of the rejaubUc, released from French supremacy, was under
discussion at the Congi-ess of Vienna. After various diplomatic
negotiations, the Belgian provinces, subject before the French revo-
lution to the House of Austria, were ordered by the Congress to be
annexed to the territory of the repubhc, and the whole to be erected
into a kingdom with the son of the last Stadth older, Willem V., as
hereditary sovereign. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed
King of the Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815,
and recognised as sovereign by all the powers of Europe. The
established vmion between the northern and southern provinces of
the Netherlands was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 1830,
and their political relations were not readjusted vmtil the signing of
the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which constituted Belgium
an independent kingdom. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840,
making over the crown to his son Willem II., who, after a reign of
nine years, left it to his heir, the present sovereign of the Nether-
lands.
King WiUem II. had a civil hst of 1,000,000 guilders, or 83,333i.;
but the amoimt was reduced to 600,000 guilders, or 50,000/., at the
commencement of the reign of the present king. There is in addi-
tion an allowance of 150,000 guilders, or 12,500Z., for the members
of the royal family and the maintenance of the Court. The latter
sum is divided at present in the manner that the heir-apparent lias
100,000 guilders, or 8,333/. ; and the remaining 50,000 guilders, or
4,166/., are given as a subsidy for the maintenance of the royal
palaces. The family of Orange are, besides, in the possession of a
very large private forttme, acqitired, in greater part by King Willem
I., in the prosecution of vast enterprises, tending to raise the com-
merce of the Netherlands.
The House of Orange has given the following Sovereigns to the
Netherlands, since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the Corgress
of Vienna : —
Willem 1 1815
Willem II 1840
WiUem III 1849
The average reign of the three Sovereigns, inclusive of that of
the present king, amounted to 1 9 years.
328 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Government,
The present constitution — grondwet — of the. Netherlands received
the royal sanction October 14, 1848, and was solemnly proclaimed
Nov. 3, 1848. It vests the whole legislative authority in a Parlia-
ment composed of two Chambers, called the States-General. The
Upper House, or first Chamber, consists of 39 members, elected by
the provincial States from among the most highly assessed inhabitants
of the various counties. The second Chamber of the States-General,
elected by ballot, at the rate of one deputy to every 45,000 souls,
nimibered 86 members in 1878. All citizens, natives of the
Netherlands, not deprived of civil rights, and paying assessed taxes
to the amount of not less than 20 guilders, or 1/. 13s., are voters.
Clergymen, judges of the Hooge Raad, or High Court of Justice,
and Governors of Provinces are debarred fi-om being elected. The
members of the second Chamber receive an annual allowance of 2,000
guilders, or 166/., besides travelling expenses. Every two years one-
half of the members of the second Chamber, and every three years
one-third of the members of the Upper House, retire by rotation. The
Sovereign has the right to dissolve either of the Chambers separately,
or both together, at any time, but new elections must take place
within forty days. The second Chamber alone has the initiative of
new laws, together with the government, and the functions of the
Upper House are restricted to either approving or rejecting them,
without the right of inserting amendments. The constitutional
advisers of the King, having a seat in the Cabinet, must attend at
the meetings of both Houses, and have a deliberative voice, but
they cannot take an active part in the debate. The King has full
veto power, but it is seldom, if ever, brought into practice. Altera-
tions in the Constitution can only be made by the vote of two-thirds
of the members of both Houses, followed by a general election, and
a second confirmation, by two-third vote, of the new States-GeneraL
The executive authority is, under the Sovereign, exercised by
a responsible Council of Ministers. There are eight heads of depart-
ments in the Ministerial Council, namely : —
1. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Baron Van Lijnden van
Sandenhvrg ; appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, and President
of the Coimcil of Ministers, August 19, 1879.
2. The Minister of Finance. — Dr. J. Vissering, formerly Pro-
fessor of Political Economy; appointed August 19, 1879.
3. The Minister of Justice. — Dr. J. Modderman, formerly Pro-
fessor of Criminal Law; appointed August 19, 1879.
4. The Minister of the Colonies.— Baron Willem van Goltstein ;
appointed Augi;st 19, 1879.
NETHERLANDS.
329
5. The Minister of the Interior. — Dr. Willem Six, formerly Com-
missary for the Province of Zealand ; appointed Aiagust 19, 1879.
6. The Minister of Marine. — Jonker H. van Taalmankip ; ap-
pointed August 19, 1879.
7. The Minister of War. — Colonel Renter^ K.A. ; appointed
August 19, 1879.
8. The Ministry of Public Works and Commerce (Waterstaat). —
Dr. N. van Klerch; appointed August 19, 1879.
Each of the above ministers has a salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,000Z. per annum. Whenever the sovereign presides over the
deliberations of the ministry, the meeting is called a Cabinet
Council, and the privilege to be present at it is given to princes
of the royal family nominated for the purpose. There is also a
State Council — Eaad van State — of 14 members, which the sovereign
may consult on extraordinary occasions.
Clmrch and Education.
According to the terms of the Constitution, entire liberty of con-
science and complete social equality is granted to the members of all
religious confessions. The royal family, and a majority of the inhabit-
ants, belong to the Reformed Church; but the Roman Catholics are not
far inferior in numbers. In the last census returns the number of
Calvinists, or members of the Reformed Church, is given at 2,074,734 ;
of Lutherans, 68,067 ; of Roman Catholics, 1,313,052 ; of Greek
CathoHcs, 32 ; of divers other Christian denominations, 55,725 ; and
of Jews, 68,003. The government of the Reformed Church is Presby-
terian ; while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, of
Utrecht, and four bishops, of Haarlem, Breda, Roermond, and Herto-
genbosch. The salaries of several British Presbyterian ministers,
settled in the Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with
the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of the pubKc fimds.
Education is spreading throughout the kingdom, though as yet it
has not reached the lower classes of the population. Official returns
state that in 25,137 marriages that took place in North Holland —
province containing the capital — between the years 1868-72, there
were 609 in which the man, 2,021 in which the woman, and 503 in
which neither the man nor the woman could wi-ite. It is calculated
that among the strictly rural population of the kingdom, one-fourth
of the groMTi-up men, and one-third of the women, can neither
read nor write. However, the education of the rising generation
is provided for by a non-denominational Primary Instruction Law,
passed in 1857, svipplemented, with important alterations, tending
to make education absolutely compulsory, by another law, passed
August 18, 1878. Under the regulations of the latter Act, the cost
of primary instruction is borne jointly by the State and the com-
330
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
munes, the State being responsible for 30 per cent., and the communes
for 70 per cent, of the total expenditure. According to recent
government returns, there are 2,608 public schools, with 6,538
schoolmasters, and 477 schoolmistresses, and 1,119 private schools,
with 2,332 schoolmasters, and 1,565 schoolmistresses. At the same
date, the pupils in the public schools numbered 390,129, among
them 217,827 boys, and the pupils in the private schools 111,762,
among them 50,388 boys. A fuller education than the schools for
primary instruction impart 81 schools of middle instruction, with
7,047 pupils, and 55 additional 'Latin schools,' with 1,128 pupils
in 1871. There are foui- universities at Ley den, Groningen, Am-
sterdam, and Utrecht, Avith 1,800 students in the summer of 1878,
and a polytechnical institution at Delft, with 180 pupils. The eccle-
siastical training schools comprise five Roman Catholic and three
Protestant seminaries. The proportion of attendance in the schools
for primary instruction is one in eight of the entire population of
the kingdom.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national revenue is derived mainly from excise duties, chief
among them those on spirits, from direct taxes, on land and assessed,
and fi-om stamps. Interest upon the public debt forms the principal
branch of expenditure. The following tables exhibit the actual
revenue and expenditure of the kingdom in each of the five years
1873 to 1877, and the estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
vears 1878 and 1879 :—
Years
Bevenue
Guilders
£
1873
109,507,189
9,125,599
1874
105,269,637
8,772,470
1875
119,837,573
9,986,464
1876
109,680,253
9,140,021
1877
106,392,323
8,866,027
1878
102,474,363
8,539,530
1879
115,822,697
9,651,892
Years
Expenditure
Guilders
£
1873
108,033,523
9,002,794
1874
99,352,355
8,279,363
1876
118,911,247
9,909,270
1876
113,396.805
9,449,734
1877
117,927,685
9,827,307
1878
118,199,296
9,849,941
1879
115,811,801
9,650,983
NETHERLANDS.
331
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the two
years 1878 and 1879 were as follows : —
Sources of Kevenue
1878
1879
Guilders
Guilders
Direct taxes
23,712,023
24,306,057
Excise duties ....
37,931,000
38,595,000
Indirect taxes, including stamps
20,355,000
21,834,000
Customs duties on imports
4,611,040
4,611,040
Tax on gold and silver wares .
366,200
366,200
State domains ....
1,740,000
1,695,000
Post Office ....
3,400,000
3,600,000
Telegraph service
800,000
800,000
State lottery ....
430,000
430,000
Shooting and fishing licenses .
140,000
143,000
Pilot dues ....
900,000
900,000
Dues on mines.
3,565
2,265
State railways
1,622,000
1,626,000
Miscellaneous receipts.
6,463,535
16,914,135
Total revenue
102,474,363
115,822,697
£8,539,530
£9,651,892
Branches of Expenditure
1878
1879
Guilders
Guilders
Civil list
950,000
750,000
Legislative body and council of state
615,772
615,339
Department for foreign affairs .
639,290
635,990
Department of justice
4,410,473
4,488,578
Department of the interior
6,369,536
6,837,701
Department of marine
13,768,384
13,139.863
Public debt
27,178,018
23,435,920
Department of finance
17,336,922
17,880,659
Department of war .
22,660,000
18,867,000
Department for the colonies
1,701,465
1,589,.359
Public Works and Commerce
22,669,436
22,571,392
Total expenditure ....
118,199,296
115,811,801
£9,849,941
£9,650,983
In the budget estimates for the year 1880, the revenue Avas calcu-
lated at 108,000,000 guilders, or 9,000,000/., and the expenditure
at 114,000,000 guilders, or 9,500,000/., leaving a deficit of 6,000,000
gilders, or 500,000/. In the budget estimates for the year 1881 the
revenue was calculated at 105,000,000 guilders, or 8,750,000/., and
the expenditure at 126,333,000 guilders, or 10,527,750/., leaving a
deficit o£ 21,333 guilders or 1,777,750/.
The expenditure of the * Department for the Colonies,' entered in
332
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the budget estimates, only refers to the West Indies and Surinam.
There is a separate budget for the great colonial possessions in the
East Indies, voted as such by the States-General. The financial
estimates for the year 1879 calculated the total revenue at
144,005,729 guilders, or 12,000,477/., with an expenditure to the
same amount. The expenditure of 1879 was distributed between
the colonies and the mother country in the following proportions : —
Administrative eind other expenses in the colonies.
Home government expenditure . . . .
Total expenditure . .'
Guilders
117,344,832
26,660,897
144,005,729
£12,000,477
Particulars of the revenue and expenditure, together with the
budget of the East India possessions, are given under Java, in
Part II. of the Statesman's Year-book.
It will be seen from the preceding budget estimates for the king-
dom of the Netherlands, that the largest branch of expenditure is
that for the national debt. At the commencement of the year 1879,
the national debt was represented by a capital of 954,571,852
guilders, or 79,547,054/., bearing an aimual interest of 28,435,920
guilders, or 2,369,660/. The following table gives the divisions of
the debt, with the annual interest : —
Funded Debt.
Nominal Capital
Annual Interest
Guilders
Guilders
2^ per cent. Debt ....
632,099,402
15,802,485
3 per cent, ditto ....
91,322,950
2,739,688
3^ per cent. Redeemable ditto
11,250,000
391,125
Old 4 per cent. . . ...
176,899,500
7,075,980
4 per cent. Debt of 1878 . . - .
Total . . ■ . .
43,000.000
2,426.642
954,571,852
28,435,920
£79,547,654
£2,369,660
In the session of 1873, the States-General passed an Act to
increase the annual sum set aside as a sinking fimd lor the redemp-
tion of the debt, namely, 1,900,000 florins, by 7,000,000 florins,
and thus redeem a total amount of 8,900,000 florins, or 741,666/.
Another Act, passed in the session of 1875 by the States- General,
increased the sum to 10,000,000 guilders, or 833,333/., to be set aside
for the redemption of the national debt. — (Official Communication.)
Army and Navy.
The army of the Netherlands is formed partly by conscription and
partly by enlistment, in such a manner that the volunteers form the
NETHERLANDS.
333
stock, but not the majority of tlie troops. The men drawn by con-
scription, at the age of twenty, have to serve, nominally, five years ;
but practically, all that is required of them is to drill for twelve
months, and, returning home on furlough, meet for six weeks
annually for practice, during a period of four years. Besides the
regular army, there exists a militia — ' schuttery ' — divided into two
classes. To the first, the ' active miHtia,' belong all men from the
twenty-fifth to the thirty-fourth year of age ; and to the second, the
' resting (rustende) militia,' all persons from thirty -five to fifly-
five. The first class, numbering about 40,000 men, is again
subdivided into two distinct parts, the one comprising the unmarried
men and widowers without children, and the other the remaining
married soldiers. The 'resting militia,' to the number of 71,000
men, is organised in fifty-four full and nine half battalions. About
one-third of the militia is made up of men who have previously
served in the regular army.
The regular army stationed in the Netherlands was composed as
follows on the 1st January 1879 : —
General Staff and Military Administration .
Infantry : —
Staff ....
1 regiment of guards
8 regiments of the line .
1 battalion of instruction
Depot of discipline
Hospital corps
Cavalry: —
Staff ....
4 regiments of huesars .
Engineers : — ...
Staff ....
1 battalion of sappers and miners
Artillery : —
Staff
1 regiment of field artillery, with train
3 regiments of heavy (fortress) artillery
1 regiment of light-horse artillery .
2 companies of pontonniers
Total
Officers
Bank and File
172
38
108
848
31
12
2
7
94
77
26
63
58
221
32
12
1,801
4,232
38,504
625
44
240
4,318
40
1,013
54
2,030
6,378
636
317
58,431
The colonial army of the Netherlands on the 1st January 1879
numbered 39,413 men, composed of the following rank arid file : —
334
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Colonial Army
Officers
Rank and file
Total
Staffs and special services
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery
Sappers and miners
Total
522
831
34
89
6
2,187
30,188
1,095
3,588
873
2,709
31,019
1,129
3,677
879
1,482
37,931 i 39,413
Of the rank and file 15,513 were Europeans, 398 Africans, and
22,120 natives.
The navy of the Netherlands was composed, at the end of 1879,
of 85 steamers, including 17 ironclads, and 20 sailing vessels.
The following is a tabular list of the seventeen armourclad ships,
the columns of the table exhibiting, after the name of each ship, first,
the armour thickness at the water-line ; secondly, the number and
weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated horse-power of the engines ;
and fourthly, the tonnage, that is, the displacement in tons. Those
ironclads marked with an asterisk (*) before their names were not
completed at the end of 1880 : —
Armour
Guns
Indicated
Displace-
Names of Ironclads
thickness at
water-line
horse-
power
ment, or
tonnage
Number
Weight
First-class : —
Inches
Tons
KoninederNederlanden
H
4
35-ton
2,200
3,500
*Schorpioen .
8
2
18-ton
1,800
2,113
*Guineij.
8
2
18-ton
1,800
2,113
Buffel ....
6
{I
12-ton\
32-pdrs. /
1,800
2,113
Sticr ....
6
{I
12-ton \
32-pdrs./
1,800
2,113
De Ruyter .
6
4
12-ton
1,750
2,300
Prins Hendrik der
Nederlanden .
H
4
12-ton
2,426
2,800
Second-class : —
Adder
H
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Bloedhond
H
2
12 -ton
400
1,650
Cerberus
,
5h
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Haak.
.
5h
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Heiligerlee
.
5i
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Hyena
H
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Krokodill .
5A
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Panter
H
2
12-ton
400
1,650
Ti.jger
51
2
1 2 -ton
400
1,650
Wesp.
54
2
12-ton
400
1,650
NETHEKLANDS. 335
The largest ironclad of the navy, the Koning der Nederlanden,
was built at the Government dockyard at Amsterdam, and laimched
in August 1876. It is a double-turret ship, 245 feet in length, and
48 feet in breadth, and armed with four 35-ton Armstrong guns.
The next armour-clad vessel in the preceding list, the Schorpioen,
constructed by the ' Societe des Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee/
at Marseilles, France, is 194 feet long, and 36 feet in extreme
breadth, and has its armament of two 18-ton guns in a single turret.
The Guinea is a sister-ship of the Schorpioen, and also built on the
same plan are the Buffel and the Stier, all of them with single turrets
and ram bows. The De Ruyter, built at the dockyard of Flushing,
has its fourteen gims in a central battery ; while the Prince Hendrik
der Nederlanden, constructed at Birkenhead, is a double-turret ship,
designed for great speed.
The ten iron armour-clad ships of the second class are all constructed
on the same model, six of them at Amsterdam, two at Birkenhead
and two at Glasgow. They are each 187 feet in length, and 44 feet
in breadth, with their two 12-ton guns in a single turret. They are
intended only for coast defence, their maximum not being greater
than seven knots per hour.
The unarmoured ships of the navy of the Netherlands comprise 7
frigates and 9 corvettes, while the rest are avisos and gunboats, all
of them screw steamers. There are also seven paddle .steamers, used
as despatch boats. The whole of the sailing vessels, as well as many
of the smaller steamers, are employed in the colonial service.
The navy was officered, at the commencement of August 1876, by
1 admiral, 1 'admiral-lieutenant,' 2 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals
('schouten-bij-nacht'), 20 captains, 43 commanders, 312 first and
second lieutenants, 52 midshipmen ('adelborsten '), 123 adminis-
trative and 69 medical officers. The marine infantry, at the same
date, consisted of 42 officers and 2,121 non-commissioned officers
and privates. Both sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment
conscription being allowed, but not actvially in force. — (Official
Communication.)
Area and Population.
The Netherlands, since the separation of Belgium, consists of
eleven provinces. Connected with the kingdom in the person of
the sovereign, though possessed of a separate administration, is the
Grand-duchy of Luxemburg, included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation.
A census of the Netherlands is taken every ten years. The last
decennial census of December 1, 1869, gave the area at 32,972
square kilometer, or 20,527 English square miles, Avith a population
of 3,579,529, comprising 1,764,118 males and 1,815,411 females.
336
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The following table shows the area and population of each of the
eleven provinces of the kingdom at the census of December 1,
1869, and the official estimate of the population, based on the
returns of births and deaths, on the 1st of January 1877 : —
Area :
Population
square miles
Dec. 1,1869,
Jan. 1, 1877
North Brabant
3,205
428,872
457,709
Guelderland .
3.154
432,693
453,624
South Holland
1,869
688,204
763,636
North Holland
1,706
577,436
642,073
Zealand
1,101
177,569
187,046
Utrecht
865
173,556
186,164
Friesland
2,047
292,354
317,405
Overyssel
2,076
254,051
267,826
Groningen
1,432
225,336
242,065
Drenthe
1,689
105,637
113,773
Limburg .
1,353
223,821
235,135
Total . . } 20,497
3,579,529
3,866,456
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five
years from 1873 to 1877 :—
Tears
Births Deaths
Marriaees ! Surplus of births
Mainages over deaths
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
133,796
136,072
138,469
142.209
142,618
89,287
85,069
96,834
90, '86
82,289
31,671 44,509
31,353 51,003
31,553 41,635
31,699 62,023
31,470 60,329
The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, connected with the kingdom
in the person of the Grand Duke, had a population of 197,528 at
the last census, with an area of 1,592 English square miles.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively large town population.
On the 1st of January 1877, there were eight towns in the kingdom
with a population of above 30,000 inhabitants, namely: —
Amsterdam . . . 296,200
Kotterdam . . . 136,230
The Hague ('s Gravenhage) 104,095
Utrecht . ... . 66,106
Leiden
Groningen
Arnhem .
Haarlem .
41,298
40,589
38,017
34,797
In the provinces of North and South Holland the population of the
towns is considerably larger than that of the country districts.
NETHERLANDS.
337
Trade and Industry,
The foreign commerce of the Netherlands, classified, like that of
Belgium and France, into ' general and special,' is chiefly carried
on with two countries, Germany and Great Britain, the former
standing first in the list as export, and the latter first as import
market. No official returns are kept of the value of the general
commerce, but only of the weight of the goods, but there are annual
estimates publi-shed by the customs authorities of the approximate
value of the total general imports and exports. These estimates were
as follows for each of the three years from 1876 to 1878 ; —
Years
Tot;il Imports
Total Exports
1876
1877
1878
GuUders £
713,440.549 59,453,379
750,934,425 62,577,869
713,440,549 59,453,379
Guilders
533,084,813
541,387,066
533.084,813
£
44,423,734
45,115,589
44,423,734
To the imports for home consumption of 1878, Great Britain
contributed 35, and Germany 23 per cent. From Java came 12,
from Belgium 10, fi-om Russia 5, from America 4, and from France
3 per cent, of the imports of the same year. Of the exports of
home produce of 1878, there went 44 per cent, to Germany, and
2G per cent, to Great Britain, while Belgium had 10, Java 6,
France 2, and Russia 1 per cent. The trade with both Germany
and Great Britain has largely increased in recent years.
The total value of the exports from the Netherlands to Great
Britain, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into the
Netherlands, in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879, is shown in the
.subjoined table : —
Years
Expoits from the Netherlands
Imports of British Home Produce
to Great Britain
into the Netherlands
1870
£
14.315,717
£
11,220,784
1871
13,970,036
14,104,157
1872
13,108,473
16,211,775
1873
13,272,444
16,745,850
1874
14,464,158
14,427,113
1875
14,836,336
13,118,691
1876
16.602,154
11,777,192
1877
19,861,254
9,614,387
1878
21,465,591
9,303,090
1879
21,959,384
9,353,151
The principal articles of export from the Netherlands to the United
Kingdom in the year 1879 were butter, of the value of 3,331,149/. ;
z
338
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
live animals, principally cows and sheep, of the value of 1,216,551/. ;
and cheese, of the value of 743,107/. Enumerated also as ex-
ports from the Netherlands to Great Britain, in the official returns,
are silk manufactures of various kinds, chiefly stulFs and ribbons, of
the value of 3,049,263/., in 1879, but these must be considered as
principally goods in transit, coming from the Rhenish provinces of
Prussia, seat of the German silk industry. (Seep. 182.) The prin-
cipal articles of British home produce imported into the Netherlands
in the year 1879 were cotton goods, including yarn, of the value of
2,775,695/.; iron, wrought and i;nwrought, of the value of 995,596/.;
and woollen manufactures, of the value of 1,834,670/. A consider-
able amount of these British imports are not for consumption in
the Netherlands, but pass in transit to Germany.
The following table shows the number and tonnage of the vessels
belonging to the mercantile navy on the 1st of January 1878 : —
Descriptiou of Vessels
Number
Tons
Ships (Fregatten") ....
Barques (Barken)
Brigs (Brikken) ....
Sehooner-Lrigs (Schoener-Brikken)
Schooners (Schooners) .
Galliots (Galjooten)
Koff boats (koffen) .
Flogs (Fjalken) ....
Smacks (Smakken)
All other vessels (andere Zeilschepen)
Steamboats (Stoomsehepen) .
179
206
79
170
310
203
275
221
8
158
86
152,497
119,509
22,997
27,010
50,915
23,265
32,272
14,044
627
6,561
76,827
Total .
1,895
526,524
At the close of 1858 the aggregate tonnage of the trading fleet
amounted to 310,653 lasts, or 528,420 tons, and after a lapse of seven
years, at the end of 1865, the total had fallen to 269,338 lasts, or
457,674 tons. At the end of 1870 there were 1,985 vessels of 264,289
lasts, or 449,291 tons; and at the end of 1874 the mercantile navy
numbered 1,827 vessels, of 511,982 tons. In the year 1878, as will
be seen from the preceding table, there was a considerable increase.
On the 1st of January 1878, there were railways of a total length
of 1,668 kilometers, or 1,035 English miles, open for traffic in the
kingdom. The State owned 815 kilometers, or 506 English miles,
and private companies 853 kilometers, or 529 English miles. The
following table gives total length of railways opened for traffic at the
commencement of 1877, and the amount of capital spent in the
construction of some of the private lines, and of the whole of the
Slate railways : —
NETHERLANDS.
339
Railways
Length j
1
Capital 1
Private companies: —
Kilometers
Guilders
Dutch-Rhenisch
210
38,687,596 |
Rotterdam-Antwerp .
118
—
Maestricht-Aachen
37
— ■
Amsterdam-Rotterdam
102
—
Utrecht-Kampen.
101
—
Maestrieht-Liittich
29
4,413,580
Almelo-Salzbergen
55
—
1 Eindhoven-Hasselt
57
—
1 Tilburg-Turnhout
31
—
1 Nymegen-Kleef .
27
—
Neuzen-Gent and Mechelen
i
86
—
1
Total, private companies . . . .
853
—
State railways ......
Total
815
113,710,161
1,668
Knglish miles
1,035
j —
The following table gives the number of letters, inland and
foreign, — exclusive of post cards and newspapers — conveyed by the
Pcst-office in each of the five years, from 1874 to 1878 : —
Years Inland letters
Foreign letters
Total
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
34,607,250
35,881,594
37,904,459
39,457,097
40,704,846
9,789,080
10,345,846
10,630,120
10,624.842
11,698.212
44,396.330
46.227,440
48,534,579
50,081,939
52,403,058
The number of Post-offices at the commencement of 1879 wa.-^
1,489. The total income of the Post office in the year 1878
amounted to 3,501,790 guilders, or 291,81fi/., and the expenditm-e
to 2,514,517 guilders, or 209,543^.
The length of telegraph lines on the 1st January 1878 was 3,550
kilometers, or 2,205 English miles, the length of wires 12,343 kilo-
meters, or 7,665 English miles, and the number of offices 345. In
the year 1877 there were 2,405,240 telegrams carried, including
42,928 in transit through the kingdom.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands embrace an area of
31,752 geographical square miles, or 666,700 English square miles.
340
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The total population, according to the last returns, was 24,386,991,
or more than six times as large as that of the mother countiy.
The following table gives the area and population of the various
colonial possessions, divided into three groups ; first, the possessions
in Asia or the East Indies; secondly, the West India islands; and
thirdly, the colony of Surinam, in South America.
Area:
1
Colonial Possessions
English
Square Miles
Population
1. East Indies: —
Java and Madura ....
51,324
18,125,269
Sumatra, "West Coast
46,200
961,187
Benkulen . . . . .
i 9,576
135,482
Lampongs
! 9.975
117,370
Palembang
! 61,152
508,668
Riau
1 17,325
61,060
Banca ......
4,977
64,267
Billiton
2,500
27,297
Borneo, West Coast
! 58,926
365,630
Borneo, South and East Districts
! 137,928
898,875
Celebes ......
1 4,5,150
360,627
Menado
; 26,600
217,377
Molucca Islands ....
42,420
198,011
Timor and Sumba ....
1 21,840
900,000
Bali and Lombok ....
i 3,990
69,148
New Guinea .....
67,410
200,000
Total. East Indies .
607,293
1
23,210,258
2. West India Islands : —
(
Curac^-ao ......
160
23,972
Aruba .....
69
6,670
St. Martin
I 13
3,101 [
Bonaire ......
i 95
4,470 1
12
1,809
Saba ......
7
1
2,002
Total, West Indies .
356
41,024
.3. Surinam . . . . . •
59,051
69,329
Total Possessions .
666,700
23,320,611
The population of the West India Islands is after a census taken
at the end of 1874, .ind that nf the other colonial possessions — with
the exception of Timor and Sumba, Bali and Lombok, and New
Guinea, which are only estimates— after enumerations of 1872-75.
Of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands, the East Indian
island of Java, with the adjoining Madura, is by far the most im-
NETHERLANDS. 34 1
portant. Administered as dependencies of Java, are the whole ol'
the other possessions of the Netherlands in the East Indies.
The kingdom derives a considerable revenue fi-om its colonial
possessions, arising from the sale of colonial produce, chiefly coffee
and tin. The sales are effected on Avhat is called the Consignation
system, can-ied out through the medium of the ' Netherlands Trading
Company,' acting as agents of the Government. (See Java,
p. 715.)
Slavery ceased in the West Indian colonies on July 1, 1863.
There were at this period 44,645 slaves, for all of whom the
owners received compensation, the same amounting to 300 guilders, or
25/., per individual, in Surinam, and to 200 guilders, or 16/. 13s.,
in the rest of the colonies.
For a detailed account of the principal colonial possession, Java
with Madura, see Part II. of the Statesman's Year-book.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the Netherlands in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Count C. M. E. George de Bylandt, accredited June 23,
1871.
Councillor of Legation. — Jonkheer van Tets.
2. Of Great Britain in the Netheeeands.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. William Stuart, C.B., Lorn in 1885; Envoy to
tlie Argentine Confederation, 1861-71 ; Envoy to Greece, 1872-77 ; appointed
Envoy and Minister to the Netherlands October 31, 1877.
Secretaries. — Henry Philip Fenton ; Hon. Hugh Gough ; Francis Henry
Carew.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Netherlands, and the
British equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Guilder, or Florin, of 100 Cents = Is. 8d., or 12 guilders to £1 sterling.
The money in general circulation is chiefly silver ; but a bill which
passed the States-General in the session of 1875, ordered an unre-
stricted coinage of ten guilder pieces in gold.
Weights and Measures.
The Netherlands adopted the French metric system of weights and
measures in 1820, retaining, however, old designations for the same.
Much conflision having arisen therefrom, an Act was passed April 7,
1809, establishing fi-om January 1, 1870, a series of new inter-
national names of weights and measures, with facultative use, during
342 THE STATESMANS YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
the first ten yeai-s, of the old denominations. The principal new
names, together with the old designations, are : —
The Kilogram (Pond)
Meter (El)
Kilometer (JMyl)
Are (Vierkante Roede)
Hektare (Bunder)
Stere (Wisse)
Liter (Kan)
Hektoliter (Vat)
2 '20 5 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 3-281 imperial feet.
= 1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs.
= 119'6 sq. yards, or 024'6 sq. acre,
= 2-47 acres.
= 3.5-31 cubic feet.
= 1-76 imperial pints.
= 22 imperial gallons.
All the other French metric denominations are adopted with
trifling changes in the new code of names.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands.
1, Official Publications.
Bijdragen tot de xVlgemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Jaargang 1879. 8.
>, Gravenhage, 1880.
Bijdragen tot de geneeskundige plaatsljeschi-ijving van Nederland. Uitge-
gfven door het departement van Binnenlandsehe Zaken. 1" Stuk. Natuur-
kundige plaatsbescbrijving van de provincie Zeeland. 8. 's Gravenhage,
1870. Idem van Friesland. 2" Stuk. 8. 1872. 3« Stuk. Geneeskundige
plaatsbescbrijving van Gooiland. 1875. 4'^ Stuk, Natuurk, plaatsbescbrij-
ving van Overijssel. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1875.
Geregtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 4. 's Graven-
hage, 1880.
Staats-Almanak voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1880. Met magtiging
van de regering uitoffieiele opgaven zamengesteld. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Statistiek van den Handel en de Scheepvaart van het Koningrijk der Neder-
landen. Uitg. d. h. departement van Financien. Fol. 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Verzameling van Consulaire en andereBerigten en Verslagen over Nijverheid,
Handel en Scheepvaart. Uitgegeven door het Ministerie van Buitenlandsehe
Zaken. Jaargang 1880. 4. 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Yerslag van den Staat der Nederlandsehe Zeevisscherijen over 1879. 4.
's Gravenhage, 1880.
Verslag van den Landbouw in Nederland over 1878, opgemaakt op last van
den Minister van Binnenlandsehe Zaken. 8. 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Verslag aan den Koning van de bevindingen en handelingen van het
veeartsenijkundig Staatstoezigt in 1879. 4, 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Verslag aan den Koning van de bevindingen en handelingen van het
geneeskundig Staatstoezigt in 1878. 4. 's Gravenhage, 1880.
Report by Mr. Sidney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on Land Laws and
Landed Property, dated The Hague, December 20, 1869; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Representatives respiecting the Tenure of Land in the several
Countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol. London, 1870.
Report by Mr. Sidney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on the trade of
the Netherlands with Great Britain, during the five years ending Decemlier
31, 1871, dated The Hague, July 1872 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1872, 8. London, 1872.
NETHERLANDS. 343
Beport by Mr. H. P. Feuton, on the commerce and shipping and on the
finances of the Netherlands, dated The Hague, February 1874; in 'Keports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1874. 8. London,
1874.
Eeport by JNIr. H. P. Fenton, on the imports and exports of the Netherlands,
dated The Hague, January 1876; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. H. P. Fenton on the Finances of the Netherlands, dated
The Hague, January 30, 1878 ; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. H. P. Fenton on the commerce and shipping of the Nether-
lands, dated The Hague, November 1878 ; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Turing on the trade and commerce of Eotterdam, dated
December 31, 1873 ; in ' Keports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, com-
merce, &e., of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Eeports by Mr. Vice-Cousul Cohen on the trade of Surinam, dated Surinam,
December 3, 1874; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Newnham on the trade and navigation of the
Netherlands ; by Mr. Consul Turing on the trade of Eotterdam, and the Shipping
of the Netherlands ; and by Mr. Consul Cohen on tlie commerce of Surinam,
dated May-June 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M 's Consuls.' Part VI. 1876.
8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Newnham on the imports and exports of the
Netherlands ; and by Mr. Consul Cohen on the trade of Surinam, dated July
1877; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877-
Eeport by Mr. Consul Newnham on the trade and commerce of Amsterdam,
dated August 9, 1879 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls ' Part V. 1879. 8.
London, 1879.
Trade of the United Kingdom with the Netherlands; in 'Annual Statement
of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1879.' 4. Imp. 4. Lontlon, 1880.
2. Non-0fficl4^l Publicatioxs.
Allgemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Uitgegeven door de Yereeniging voor
de statistiek in Nederland. 8. Leiden, 1869-80.
Beerstecher (Jj. 'R.') De staatsiurigting in Nederland. 8. Kampen, 187L
Fontpertuis (Ad. F. de) La G-uyano hoUandaise. in 'L'Economiste Fran^ais,'
Dec. 30, 1876. 8. Paris, 1876.
Heusden (A. Van), Handboek der aardrykskunde, staatsiurigting, staatshuis-
houding en statistiek van het koningrijk der Nederlanden. 8. Harlem, 1877.
Palgrave (W. G.) Dutch Guiana. 8. London, 1876.
Staatkundig en staathuishoudkundig, .Taarboekjc voor 1879. Uitgegeven door
de vereeniging voor de statistiek in Nederland. 8. Amsterdam, 1880.
Verslag van den handel, scheepvaart en nijverheid van Amsterdam, over het
jaar 1879. 8. Amsterdam, 1880.
Wood (C. W.) Through Holland, 8. London, 1877.
344
PORTUGAL.
(Reino de Portugal e Algarves.)
Reigning King.
Luis I., born Oct. 31, 1838, the son of Queen Maria II. and of
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; succeeded his brother, King-
Pedro v., Nov. 11, 1861 ; married, Oct. 6, 1862, to Queen Pz'a, born
Oct. 16, 1847, the youngest daughter of K.ing Vittorio Emanuele
of Italy.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Carlos, Duke of Braganza, bom September 28, 1863.
II. Prince Ajfonso, Duke of Oporto, born July 31, 1865.
Sisters and Brother of the King.
I. Princess il/ana, born July 21, 1843; married, May 11, 1859,
to Prince Georg, son of the King of Saxony. (See p. 143.)
II. Princess .4 «to?a'a, born Feb. 17, 1845 ; married, Sept. 12, 1861,
to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, born Sept. 22, 1835.
Offspring of the union are three sons : — 1. Prince Wilhelm, horn
March 7, 1864. 2. Prince Ferdinand, born Aug. 24, 1865. 3.
Prince Karl, born September 1, 1868.
II. Piince Augustus, born November 4, 1847.
Father of the King.
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, titular King of Portugal, born
Oct. 29, 1816, the eldest son of the late Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-
Coburg; married, April 9, 1836, to Queen Maria II. of Portugal;
widower, Nov. 15, 1853; Regent of Portugal during the minority
of his »on, the late King Pedro V., Nov. 15, 1853, to Sept. 16,
1855 ; married, June 10, 1869, to Elise, Countess Edla.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Adelaide, born April 3, 1831 ; man-ied Sept. 24, 1851,
to Don Miguel, son of King Joao VI. of Portugal and of Princess
Charlotte of Spain; widow, Nov. 14, 1866. Offspring of the union
ai-esix daughters and one son, Prince Miguel, born Sept. 19, 1853;
married, Oct. 17, 1877, to Princess EHsabeth of Thurn und Taxis,
born May 28, 1860.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of
Braganza, which dates from the commencement of tlie fifteenth
century, at which period Affonso, an illegitimate son of King Joao
or John I., was created by his father Duke of Braganza and Lord of
Guimaraens. When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the House
of Avis, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his
PORTUGAL.
345
nominal successor, Henrique ' tlie Cardinal,' Philip II. of Spain took
possession of the country, claiming it in virtue of his descent from a
Portuguese princess; but in disregard of the fundamental law of the
kingdom, passed by the Cortes of Laniego in 1139, which excluded
all foreign princes from the succession. After bearing the Spanish
rule for more than half a century, the people of Portugal revolted,
and proclaimed Don Joao, the then Duke of Bragaiiza, as their king,
he being the nearest heir to the throne, though of an illegitimate
issue. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of Joao IV., to
which Portuguese historians appended the title ' the Fortunate.'
From this Joao, through many vicissitudes of family, the present
rulers of Portugal are descended. For two centuries the members
of the line of Braganza kept up the ancient blood alliances with the
reigning house of Spain ; but the custom was broken through by the
late Queen Maria II., who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg,
-entered the great family of Teutonic Sovereigns. Luis I. is the
second Sovereign of Portugal of the line of Braganza- Coburg.
Luis I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis, or about 82,000/. ; while
his consort, Queen Pia, has a grant of 60,000 milreis, or 13,300/.,
and King Ferdinand 100,000 milreis, or 22,200/. The whole grants
to the royal family — dotacjao da familia real — amount to 591,000
milreis, or nearly 132,000/.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns of Portugal since its
conquest from the Moors : —
I. House of Burgundy. a.b.
Henri of Burgundy . . 1095
AfFonso I. ' the Conqueror ' . 1112
Sancho I. ' the Dexterous ' . 1185
Affonso II., 'the Fat' . . 1211
Sancho II., ' Capel' . . 1223
Affonso III 1248
Diniz, ' the Farmer ' , . 1279
Affonso IV. ' the Brave ' . . 1325
Pedro, 'the Severe' . . 1357
Ferdinando I. 'the Handsome ' 1367
II. House of Avis.
Joan I., ' the Great '
Eduardo
' the African '
' the Perfect ' .
1385
1433
1438
1481
1495
1521
1557
1578
Affonso v.,
Joan II.,
Manoel .
•Joan III.
Sebastian ' the Desired'
Enrique ' the Cardinal '
III. Interval of Submission to Spain.
PhHipII 1580
The average reign of the thirty-five sovereigns of Portugal, fiom
the ascension of the House of Burgundy, was twenty-two years.
A.D.
Philip III
1590
Philip IV
1623
IV. House of Braganza.
Joan IV., 'the Fortunate '
1G4U
Affonso VI
1656
Pedro II.
1683
Joan V. .
1706
Jose
1750
Maria I. and Pedi-o III.
1777
Maria I.
1786
Joan Jose, Regent .
1796
Joan VI.
1816
Pedro IV.
1826
Maria II.
1826
Miguel I.
1828
Maria II., restored .
1834
V. House of Bbaganza-Coburg.
Pedro V
1853
Luis I
1861
346 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Constitution and Government,
The fandamental law of the kingdom is the ' Carta constitutional '
granted by King Pedro IV., April 29, 1826, and altered by an
additional act, dated July 5, 1852. The crown is hereditary in the
female as well as male line ; but with preference of the male in case
of equal birthright. The constitution recognises four powers in
the State, the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the
'moderating' authority, the last of which is vested in the Sovereign.
There are two legislative Chambers, the ' Camara dos Pares," or
House of Peers, and the ' Camara dos Deputados,' or House of
Commons, which are conjunctively called the Cortes Geraes. The
peers, unlimited in number, but actually comprising 133, are named
for life by the Sovereign, by whom also the president and vice-
president of the first Chamber are nominated. The peerage was for-
merly hereditary in certain famihes; but on May 27, 18G4, the
Cortes passed si law partly abolishing hereditary succession, it
being made dependent on the possession of an annual income of
500/., together with an academical degree. The members of
the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by all citizens
possessing a clear annual income of 133 milreis, or 22Z. The deputies
must have an income of at least 390 milreis, or 89/., per annum ;
but laAvyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the
learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental
Portugal is divided into ninety-four electoral districts, returning
as many deputies, to Avhich Madeira and the Azores add five.
Each depiity has a remuneration of about 10s. a day diu-ing the
se.ssion. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections
must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolu-
tion, a new Parliament must be called together immediately. _ Tlie
General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law
passed twice by both Houses. All laws relating to the army and
general taxation must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a respon-
sible Cabinet, divided into seven departments, namely : —
1. Presidency of the Council and IVIinistry for Foreign Affiiirs. —
Don Antonio Jose Braamcamp; member of the Privy Council since
1860. Appointed President of the Council and Minister for Foreign
Affairs, June 1, 1879.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Count Luciano de Castro;
member of the. Privy Council since 1865. Appointed Minister of
the Interior, June 1, 1879.
3. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Don
Adriano Machado. Appointed June 1, 1879.
PORTUGAL.
347
4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Don Augiisto Saraiva de
Corvalho. Appointed June 1, 1871*.
5. The Ministry of Marine and of the Colonies. — Viscount de
San Januario. Appointed August 7, 1880.
6. The Ministiy of Finance. — Don Enrique de Barros Gomes ;
formerly Governor of Lisbon. Appointed June 1, 1879.
7. The Ministry of War. — General Antonio de Soitsa Pinto.
Appointed June 1, 1879.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice
of a CouncU of State, or Privy Coimcil, consisting, when full,
of thirteen ordinary and three extraordinary members, nominated
for life. The leading ministers, past and present, generally form
part of the Privy Council, Avliich in 1879 numbered twelve members.
Church and Education.
The Eoman Catholic faith is the State religion ; but all other
forms of woi'ship are tolerated. The Portuguese Church is under
the special jurisdiction of a ' Patriarch,' with extensive powers, two
archbishops, and fourteen bishops. The Patriarch of Lisbon is
always a cardinal, and, to some extent, independent of the Holy See
of Rome. Under the Patriarch are five continental and five colonial
bishops; under the Archbishop of Braga, who has the title of
Primate, are six ; and under the Archbishop of Evora three bishops.
The total income of the iipper hierarchy of the Church is calcizlated
to amount to 300,000 milreis, or 66,GG6/. There are o,769 parishes,
each under the charge of a presbitero, or incumbent. All the
conventual establishments of Portugal were sujipressed by decree of
May 28, 1834, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the
State. At that period there existed in the country 632 monasteries
and 118 nunneries, with above 18,000 monks and nuns, and an
annual income of nearly a million sterling. This revenue was
applied to the redemption of the national debt ; while a library of
30,000 volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco,
at Lisbon, from the collections of books and manuscripts at the
various monasteries. A few religious establishments are still per-
mitted to exist; but their inmates are in a state of great poverty,
and the buildings are gradually falling to ruin. The lower ranks of
tlie priesthood are poorly educated, and their income scarcely
removes them from the social sphere of the peasants and labouring
classes. The number of Protestants in Portugal, mostly foreisrners.
does not exceed 500. They have chapels at Lisbon and Oporto.
The superintendence of public instruction is under the manage-
ment of a superior council of education, at the head of which is the
Minister of the Interior. Public education is entirely fi-( e from the
supervision and control of the Church. By a law enacted in 1844.
348 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
it is compulsory on parents to send their children to a place of
public instruction ; but this prescription is far fi-oni being enforced,
and only a very small fraction of the children of the middle and
lower classes really attend school. In 1854 there were 1,136 schools
devoted to primary instruction, attended by 33,500 pupils of both
sexes, of whom, however, only 1,570 were females. From the year
1854 to 1862 the Government founded 588 new schools, of which for
boys 452, for girls 136. Portugal had in 1854, 1,200 public schools,
with 55,192 scholars. At the close of 1861 there were 1,788 public
schools, with 79,172 scholars, showing an increase of 23,980 scholars.
In 1862, there Avas one scholar to every 36 inhabitants. There is
only one university in the kingdom, that of Coimbra, founded in
1290. It has five faculties, and 46 professors and lecturers, who are
attended by between 800 and 900 students. The lyceums, which
impart secondary instruction, number 182, with, on the average,
3,000 scholars. The clergy are educated in six seminaries and
eight training schools, where most of them receive gratuitous in-
struction. In the building of the extinct monastery at Belem,
about 900 orphan and abandoned children of both sexes are sup-
ported, educated, and taught various usefiil trades.
The expenditure on public education by the government aver-
aged 9,000 milreis, or 2,000/., in the years 1875-79.
Eevenue and Expenditure.
The annual revenue of Portugal amounted, on the average of the
last ten years, to nearly 5,000,000/. sterling, while the average expen-
diture during the same period was about 750,000/. more. The budget
estimates of revenue for the year 1880-81 amounted to 6,366,000/,,
and the estimates of expenditure for the same period to 7,511,000/.,
leaving a deficit of 1,145,000/.
The following were the estimated sources of revenue and branches
of expenditure of the budget, approved by the General Cortes,
for the financial year ending June 30, 1881 : —
Branches of Bevenue, 1880-81
£
Direct taxes
Stamp and Register duties ....
Indirect taxes and customs ....
National domains and miscellaneous receipts
Repayments and sundries .....
Extraordinary receipts (loans) . . . .
Total revenue.
1,360,000
503,000
3,160,000 ■
616,000
285,000
5,824,000
542,000
6,366,000
PORTUGAL.
349
Branches of Expenditure, 1880-81
Public debt
Treasury .
Home Office
Justice
War.
Marine and Colonies
Foreign affairs .
Public works, ordinary
,, ., extraordinar
/ 383,000
I. 542,000
Total expenditure
2,622,000
1,406,000
490,000
140,000
963,000
359,000
63,000
543,000
925,000
7,511,000
The estimated deficit was consequently 1,145,000/. The un-
satisfactory state of the finances the minister of finance ascribed in
the budget speech of 1880, to the following causes : " That no
effective control over the public purse can be exercised by the
Cortes, in the absence of any authoritative statement of the actual as
compared with the estimated expenditure of each completed
financial year ; that for the last six years the balances, as represented
in the Budget, have been fictitious, the sums voted at the beginning
of each Session having always been exceeded, sometimes even
without the authorisation of a special law; that from 1874-79, in-
clusive, over 9,000,000/. had been obtained from loans."
There has been no budget for the last thirty years Avithout a
deficit. The deficit for the year 1867-68 amounted to 5,811,560
milreis, or 1,291,457/., and it rose to 6,133,627 milreis, or 1,363,028/.
in 1868-69, but fell to 1,156,000 milreis, or 256,888/., in the
estimates of 1879-80. The revenue of the kingdom during the
thirty years 1850-80 increased by about sixty per cent.
The public debt of Portugal dates from the year 1796, when the
first loan of 4,000,000 milreis, or about 900,000/., was raised. In-
creasing very slowly at first, it was not till the year 1826 that
another large sum was raised, namely, 35 millions of milreis, or
7,777,777/. The total debt rose gradually in the next thirty years,
and at the end of 1856 had come to amount to 20,974,000/., requir-
ing an annual interest of 629,000/. The debt more than doubled
in the next ten years, and at the end of 1866 amounted to
43,255,000/., the annual interest being 1,297,000/. At the end of
1871 the debt had risen to 64,333,000/., the annual interest
amounting to 1,927,000/. ; and at the end of 1880 the debt was
78,833,000/., the annual interest being 2,216,000/.
350 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
According to a report of the Minister of Finance, laid before the
Cortes in the session of 1879, the total funded debt of Portugal
amounted to 374,122 contos of reis, or 83,137,702/., on the 30th of
June 1878. Of this total, the home debt was represented by
220,264 contos of reis, or 48,947,248/., and the foreign debt by
153,858 contos of reis, or 34,190,452/. The funded debt of
Portugal, per head of population, is, by this statement, nearly as
large as that of the United Kingdom, the quota of debt for each in-
habitant amounting to 22/. lOs., and the annual share of interest,
at 3 per cent., to 13s. 6'/. Besides the funded debt there is a large
floating debt, estimated variovisly at from 2,500,000/. to 4,000,000/.
sterling.
The largest j)oi-tion of the foreign debt of Portugal consists of three
loans raised in 1877, in 1878, and in 1880. The first of these, a
foreign loan of 6,500,000/. nominal, at three per cent., Avas issued
at 50. Only 3,000,000/. of this loan was subscribed at the time.
This was followed by the issvie of another foreign loan of
2,500,000/., on the same terms, in July 1878, and, finally, by a
foreign loan of 4,000,00(V., issued in December 1880.
The floating debt of Portugal has been increasing in recent years,
although its gradual extinction was decreed in 1873, when tlie
Government raised a loan for this .special object. This loan, issued
ui September 1873, was in bonds for the nominal amoimt of
8,500,000/. at 3 per cent,, the issue-price being 43^ per cent.
The interest on the public debt has remained fi-equently unpaid.
Portions of the national debt have also been repudiated at various
periods ; among others the loan contracted Ijy Don Miguel in 1832.
At times, as in the year 1837, the interest on the home debt has been
paid, but not that on the foreign debt. By a royal decree of Dec. 1 8,
1852, the interest on tlie whole fundinl debt, internal and foreign,
was reduced to 3 per cent. Many of the creditors protested against
this act, but without effect. On the 19th of June 1867, the Chamber
of Deputies appi'oved a bill presented by the government for raising
37,000,000 milreis to fund the floating debt and to negotiate 3 per
Cent. External Bonds at such a price that the interest shall not
exceed | per cent, above the rate of the actual stock.
Army and Navy.
The army of the kingdom is formed partly by conscription, and
partly by voluntary enlistment. Freedom from conscription may
be purchased by a fixed sum, amounting to about 80/., payable to
the Government. The time of service is eight years, of which five
have to be spent in the regular army, and three in the militia. More
PORTUGAL. 351
xhan one-half of the standing amiy consists of men procured by en-
listment, or who have made the military service their profession.
By a law of military organisation passed June 23, 1864, tlie
strength of the army was fixed at 30,128 men on the peace-footing,
and 08,450 on the war-footing. The state of the finances of the
kingdom, however, has hitherto prevented the carrying out of the
plan of organisation, and scarcely more than half the number of men
fixed by law are kept under arms. The actual strength of the
army in 1879 was rejDorted to consist of 18,185 rank and file,
chiefly infantry, the cavalry numbering 2,497, and the artillery
1,385 officers and men.
The number of troops in tlie Portuguese colonies amount to
<S,500 infantry and artillery, besides a reserve of 9,500 men.
The navy of Portugal was composed, at the end of 1879, of 24
steamers and 18 sailing vessels, most of the latter laid up in
harbour. The steamers comprise —
9 corvettes, with a total of 114 guns and of 3,606 horse-power.
8 sloops, ,, „ 35 „ ,, 960
7 gun-boats, „ „ 21 ,, „ 340 ,,
Total 24 steamers, . . with 170 guns and of 4,906 horse-power.
The largest war-ship of the Portuguese navy is the ironclad cor-
vette Vasco do Gama, built at the Thames Ironworks^ Blackwall,
and laimched in January 187G. The Vasco do Gama has an im-
usually sharp prow for ' ramming,' with engines of 450 horse-power,
although her burden is only 1,497 tons. The ship is plated Avith
iu-mour to the depth of 10 inches, and carries two 18-ton guns, one
O^-ton, and two 40-pounder guns. The length of the Vasco do
Gama is 200 feet, the depth 25 feet, and the breadth, 40 feet. The
only other two notable vessels of the navy are the screw-corvettes
Hainha de Poi'tiigal and Mindello, both built at Blackwall, and
launched in October 1875. They are sister vessels, 170 feet long,
imd 36 feet in breadth, with engines of 900 horse-power, each
having an armament of 8 guns, two of 90 cwt. and six 40-poimd
Armstrong cannon.
The navy is officered by 1 vice-admiral, 5 rear-admirals, and 31
captains ; and manned liy 3,493 sailors and marines.
Area and Population.
Portugal is divided into six provinces, the area of which and
yjopiilation, according to the two last censuses, taken in December
1868, and on the 1st of January, 1878, is given in the subjoined
table : —
352
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
-'
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
Population i
Provinces
Dec. 1869 1 Jan 1, 1878 |
Minlio ....
Tras-os-Montes .
Beira
Estremadura
Alemtejo ....
Algarve ....
2.671
4,065
8,586
8,834
10,255
2,099
988,995
370,144
1,288,994
837,451
333,237
177.342
1,015,394
410,461
1,390,747
951,545
374,503
205,901
Total .
36,510 3,996,163
4,048,551
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and mar-
ria"-es, with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the three
years from 1873 to 1875 :—
Years
1873
1874
1875
Births
147,933
152,715
153,597
Deaths
116,061
117,431
106,673
Marriages
Sui-plus of Birtlis
over Deaths
32,146
33.323
33,095
31,872
35,284
46,924
To the kingdom belong likeAvise the Azores, or Western Islands,
containing an area of 966 Engl, square miles, with a population, of
261,746 inhabitants ; and Madeira and Porto Santo, with 317
square miles and a population of 121,753 ut the end of 1877.
Portugal had in 1878 two towns with a population of above 50,000
Oporto, with 89,321 ; and Lisbon, with 253,496 inhabitants.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial relations of Portugal are chiefly with Great
Britain, and there is very little trade, either by land or sea, with
other countries. The subjoined table gives the total value of the
exports from Portugal to Great Britain, and of the imports of
British produce into Portugal in the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Portugal to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Portugal
£
£
1870
3.022,508
1,931,786
1871
3,840,869
1,750,555
1872
4,119,363
2,310,202
1873
4,329,8(16
2,934,393
1874
4,265,032
2,706.990
1875
4,444,071
2,563,067
1876
3,361,071
2,231,191
1877
3,776,795
2,253,352
1878
3,319,968
•2.116.094 ''
1879
3.025,228
1,899,039 [
1
roilIUGAL.
353
Wine is the staple article of export from Portugal to the United
Kingdom, the average annual value amounting to over 1,000,000/.
(see below). The imports of British home produce into Portugal
embrace cotton goods, of the value of G71,598Z. in 1879 ; iron,
wrought and imwrought, valued at 209,347/. ; and woollen fabrics,
of the value of 108,044/. in 1879.
The subjoined table shows the quantity and declared value of
wine exported from Portugal to the United Kingdom in each of the
ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Gallons
£,
1870
3,457,645
952,184
1871
3,645,385
1,296,746
1872
4,043,195
1,429,642
1873
4,037,594
1,358,241
1874
3,747,815
1,258,608
1875
4,478,097
1,487,518
1876
3,978,615
1,273,971
1877
4,069,555
1,338,552
1878
2,920,285
931.011
1879
2,888,288
904,479
The total imports of wine, from all countries, into the United
Kingdom, amounted to 19,660,127 gallons in 1872, to 21,682,356
gallons in 1873, to 18,234,972 gallons in 1874, to 18,429,305
gallons in 1875, to 19,950,723 gallons in 1876, to 19,568,807 gallons
in 1877, to 16,452,538 gallons in 1878, and to 15,162,857 gdlons in
1879. Consequently, the average amount contributed by Portugal was
about one-fifth of the total quantity. It was about one-sixth of the
average value of the total imports, Avhich latter amounted to
7,718,848/. in 1872, to 8,267,326/. in 1873, to 6,863,465/. in 1874,
to 6,801,015/. in 1875, to 6,993,399/. in 1876, to 7,138,966/. in
1877, to 5,988,685/. in 1878, and to 5,365,250/. in 1879. (See
Spain, page 417.)
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted, on the 1st of January
1878, of 810 vessels, including 39 steamers, of an aggregate burthen
of 88,200 tons.
The total length of railways open for traffic in July 1879 was
1,151 kilometros, or 714 English miles, with 455 kilometres, or 282
English miles more, in course of construction. The two principal
lines are from Lisbon to Badajoz, and from Lisbon to Oporto. AH
the railways receive subventions from the state.
The number of post-offices in the kingdom at the end of 1878
was 660. There were 13,076,820 letters and postcards, and 6,972,300
packets and newspapers carried in the year 1878. The number of
telegraph offices, at the end of 1878, was 185. There were, at the
A A
354
THE STATESMANS YEAK-BOOK, ISSl.
same date, 3,530 kiloraetros, or 2,192 English miles of telegraph lines
and 7,656 kilometres or 4,754: English miles, o£ telegraph wires.
The number of telegrams de.spatched in the year 1877 was 686,518,
comprising 412,692 inland despatches, and 373,826 on international
service, :
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Portiigal, situated in Africa and Asia,
embrace a total area of 709,469 English square miles. The total
population, according to the last official returns, referring to 1866-73,
numbered 3,258,141, These returns state the area and population
of the varioiis possessions as follows : —
Colonial Possessions,
Are.a :
English square
miles
Population
1, Possessiocs in Africa :
Cape Verde Islands (1872) .
In Senegai^bia, Bissao, &e. .
Prince's and St. Thomas' Islands (1873)
Ajuda
Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, nnd Mos-
samcdes .,...,
Mozambique and dependency
Total, Africa .
2, Possessions in Asia :
In India — Goa, Salsette, Bardes, &c.
(1866)
Daman, Dlu
Indian Arcliipelago , , , .
China: Macao (1871)
Total, A.sia
Total Colonies
1.650
26
454
13
312.500
382,683
697,335
76,003
8,500
23,681
700
3,000,000
300,000
2,408,884
1,447
158
5,527
28
474,234
53.283
250,000
71,739
7,160
849,256
709,495
3,258,140
The statements of the area and population of the possessions in
Angola, &c., in Mozambique, and in the Indian Ai'chipelago, are
drawn from esdmates.
Although of small extent, the Cape Verde Islands are estimated
the most important colonial possession of Portugal, politically and
commercially. There are nine principal or inhabited islands that
form the Archipelago of the Cape de Verdes. Five of these' islands,
viz., St. Nicholas, Bona Vista, San Antonio, St. Vincent, and Sal,
compose the windward, and the four remaining islands, St. Jago,
Fogo, Brava, and Maio, the leeward group. Placed as these islands
are, in the direct route of steamers bound to the coast of Brazil, the
Eiver Plate, and the Avest coast of South America, they are of great
value as affording a convenient resting-place for coaling and reneAV-
PORTUGAL. 355
ing provisions aud water. The island of St. Vincent, 70 English
square miles in extent, but with not more than 1,700 inhabitants,
is possessed of a deep and excellent harbour, affording a secure
anchorage at all seasons for vessels of the largest size.
By the terms of a law passed by the Cortes Geraes of Portugal
in 1858, domestic slavery came to an end in all the Portuguese
colonies and settlements on the 29th of April 1878.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Portugal ix Geeat Beitain.
Envoy and Minister — -Don Antonio d'Aguilar, accredited Envoy and Minister
to Great Britain, June 30, 1880.
Secretaries — H. Teixeira de Sampayo; Liiiz de Quillinan.
2. Of Geeat Britain in Portugax,
Eivjoy and Minister — Hon. Koljert Burnett David Morier, C.B., born in
1830; I)ritish Charge d'Aifaires in Wiirttemberg, 1871-72; aud in Bavaria,
1872-76. Appointed Envoy and Minister to Portugal, March 1, 1876.
Secretaries — Dudley Edward Saurin ; Hon. "W. J. G-. Napier.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Portugal, mth the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Milreis, or 1,000 Beis MYi''^'i ""^^'l °SiT^'^°^'' ^'^ ^'^■' "^^ ''^°''^
|_ 4i milreis to il sterling.
Large sums are calculated in Confos of Reis, or 1,000,000 Eeis, value
£222 4s. 5d.
Weights and Measures.
The French metric system of weights and measures was introduced
in Portugal between the years 1860 and 18Go, measures of length
being first adopted, and Aveights afterwards, and it became com-
pulsory from the 1st of October 1868. The chief old measures
still in use are : —
The Libra . . . =1-012 lbs. avoirdupois.
,7 , J of Lisbon = 37 imperial gallons.
" ' I » Oporto = 5*6 „ ,,
„ Alquicre . . . = 0"36 imperial bushel.
„ Moio . . . =2-78 imperial quarters.^
Statistical and other Books of Reference relating- to Portugal.
1. Official Putslications.
Boletin Official. Lisboa. Imprensa Nacional, 1880.
Eeport by Mr. K. G. Watson, British Secretary of Legation, on the finan-
cial condition of Portugal, dated Lisbon, April 27, 1876 ; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by jVIt. Dudley Edward Saurin, Secretary of Legation, on the financial
condition of Portugal, dated January 1880 ; in Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation. Part I. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
A A 2
356
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, ISSl.
Report by Mr. R. P>. D. Morier, British Envoy, on tlie finances of Portugal,
dated Lisbon, March 1, 1880; in Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation. Part I L 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Report by Mr. Consul Brackenbury on tlio finances of Portugal and the
commerce of Lisbon, dated Lisbon, February lo. Ih76 ; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part VL 1876. S. London, 1S7C,
Reports by Mr. Consul Brackenbury on the trade and commerce of Lisbon ;
by Mr. Consul Hayward on the commerce and shipping of the island of
Maderia ; and by Mr. Acting-Consul Road on tlie commerce of the Azores,
dated February-April 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part UL
1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Consul Hopkins on the trade of Loanda, dated May 26,
1877 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Brackenbury on the commerce and shipping of Lis-
bon ; by Mr. Consul Hayward on the trade and agriculture of the Island of
Madeira; and by Mr. Acting-Consul Read on the commerce of the Azores,
dated May-July 1878; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1878.
8 London, 1878.
Report by Mr. Consul Cra^rfurd on the trade of Oporto, dated Feb. 28, 1879 ;
in ' Reports from H M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8. Loudon, 1879.
Reports by Mr. Consul Brackenbury on the trade and commerce of Lisbon ;
by Mr. Consul Read on the trade of the Azores ; and by Mr. Consul Hayward
on the trade of Madeira, dated !March-April 1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part III. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Portugal with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
'2. Non-Official Pcblications.
Aldama-Aj/ola (G. dc), Compendio Geograpliico-estadistico de Portugal e sus
Posesiones Ultraniarinas. 8. Madrid, 1870.
i?fl/i« (A.),Essai statistique surle Royauniede Portugal. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1862.
Barros c Cunha (J. G. de), Histuria da Liberdade em Portugal. Vol. I. 8.
Lisboa, 1869
Barros c Cunha (J. G. de), Hoje : on tlie present situation, financial am}
political, of the Kingdom of Portugal. 8. London, 1868.
BrandTio e Albuquerque (J. da C), Censo de 1865. 8. Lisboa, 1866.
CmM)/'//rtZ (Oswald), Portugal : Old and New. 8. London, 1880.
Diccionario Abreviado de chorographia, topographia etc. de Portugal. 3 vols.
8. Lisboa, 1867.
Esehuvfje (Wilhelm L. von), Portugal : ein Staats und Sittengemiilde, nach
dreissigjiihrigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.
Lavignc (Germond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1867.
La Tcillais (C. de) Etude historique, economique et politique sur les colonies
portugaises, leur passe, leur avenir. 8. Paris, 1872.
Pi-rj/ (Gerardo A.), Geographia e Estatistica Geral de Portugal e Colonias.
8. Lisboa. 187-5.
I\rl)cIIo da Sdva (L. A.), Compendio de Economia Industrial. 8. Lisboa, 1868
Vogel (Ch.), Le Portugal et ses Colonies ; Tableau politique et commercial de
la monarchic portugaise. 8. Paris, 1866.
357
ROUMANIA.
(Prixcipatul EomAniei.)
Reigning Prince.
Karl I., 'Domnu' of Ptoumania, born April 20, 1839, sou of
the late Prince Karl of Hohcnzollern-Sigmaringen; accepted liis
election as Prince of Koumania, May 10, 18G6; as.^umed the govern-
ment at Bucharest, May 21, 1866. Married, November 15, 1869,
to Princess Elizabeth von Neuivied, born December 29, 1843.
The Prince has an annual allowance of 900,000 lei, or 36,000/.
The succession to the throne of Eovimania, in the event of the
Prince remaining childless, was settled upon Prince Ferdinand of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, by vote of the Senate of October 10,
1880.
The union of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
was publicly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy, on December
23, 1861, the present name being given to the united provinces.
The first ruler of Roumania was Colonel Couza, who had been
elected ' liospodar,' or Lord, of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1859,
and who assumed the government under the title of Prince
Alexander John I. A revolution which broke out in February
1866, forced Prince Alexander John to abdicate, and led to the
election of Prince Karl I. The representiitives of the people,
assembled at Bucharest, proclaimed Roumania's independence from
Turkey, May 21, 1877, which was confirmed by Art. 43 of the
Congress of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution now in force in Koumania was voted by a.
Constituent Assembly, elected by itniversal suffrage, in the summer
of 1866. The charter vests the legislative power in a parliament
of two houses, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
consists of 76 members, and the other house of 157 deputies, of
whom 82 are for Wallachia and 75 for Moldavia. The members
of both houses are chosen by indirect election, the first voters
nominating electors, and these, in their turn, the deputies.
Voters are all citizens, aged twenty-five years, who can read and
write; and eligible as deputies are all Roumans aged thirty, possess-
ing a small yearly income. The Prince has a suspensive veto over
all laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The
executive is vested in a council of seven ministers.
Wallachia is divided into eighteen, and IMoldavia into tiiirteen
35^ THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
districts, each of which has a prefect or governor, a receiver-general
of taxes, and a civil tribunal, consisting of a president and two
other judges. Nearly the whole population belongs to the Greek
Church, and every village has a small church or chapel, with one or
more priests, who act as curates. The government of the Church
rests with two archbishops, the first of them styled the Primate
of Eoumania, and the second the Archbishop of IMoldavia. There
are, besides, six bishops of the Greek Church, and one Eoman
Catholic bishop.
Revenue and Army.
The chief source of revenue of the government is a capitation-tax
of nine lei, or francs, being about seven shillings per head on the
riu-al population, with a higher scale for tradesmen and merchants.
Some other direct taxes, the profit from State property, and the
tobacco monopoly, produce nearly the whole of the national income.
The financial accounts for the year 1877 gave the total revenue
as 80,437,172 lei, or 3,217,487/., and the total expenditure as
86,291,617 lei, or 3,451,664/., leaving a deficit of 5,854,445 lei, or
234,177/. In the budget for the year 1878, the revenue was cal-
culated at 121,372,451 lei, or 4,854,898/., and the expenditure at
93,372,451 lei, or 3,734,898/.,. leaving a surplus of 28,000,000 lei,
or 1,120,000/, But this surplus was created by the emission of
'billets hypothecaires ' to the same amount, under a law passed
June 10, 1877. In the budget estimates for the year 1880, the
receipts were given at 117,545,944 lei, or 4,701,838/., and the
expenses at 117,245,944 lei, or 4,689,838/., leaving a surplus of
300,000 lei, or 12,000/. More than two-thirds of the expenditure
is for two branches, the first the payment of interest of the public
debt, and the second the maintenance of the army.
The public debt of Roumania amounted, according to an official
report of the minister of finance, to 609,959,500 lei, or 24,398,380/.,
on the 1st of January 1879. The debt consists mainly of three
foreign loans contracted in 1864, in 1866, and in 1868. The loan
of 1864 was contracted Avith the Imperial Ottoman Bank and
Messrs. Stern Brothers of London ; and the loan of 1866 with
Messrs. Oppenheim and Co. The loan of 1868 consists of annuities
due for the construction of the Bucharest and Giurgevo State Rail-
way to Messrs. Staniforth and Barkley of London. Other liabilities
are due for the construction of tAventy-three iron bridges con-
tracted for by Messrs. Staniforth and Barkley in 1864, and of
Bonds issued in London for the balance by Messrs. Devaux and Co.
bearing 7 per cent, interest. All the loans have sinking funds
attached, providing for their extinction at periods from 1880 to 1961.
The military forces of Roumania are divided into four classes,
Ilou-MA^-IA. 359
namely, the permanent army witli its reserves ; the territorial army
and its reserves ; the militia ; and the national guard in the towns,
and the masses in the rural districts. The permanent army consists
of 8 regiments of inflmtry, -i battalions of riflemen, 1 battaliou of
pompiers for the capital, 2 companies of pompiers for Jassy, 2 com-
panies of foot gendarmes, and 1 company of discipline. The
cavalry includes "2 regiments of hussars, 1 squadron of instruction,
and 5 squadrons of horse gendarmes. The artillery consists oi
2 regiments of 7 batteries, 1 company of pontonniers, 1 company of
armourers, and 1 section of transport service. The territorial
army consists of 8 regiments of infantry, called ' Dorobanzi,' 8 regi-
ments of cavalry, called ' Calarashi,' and 1 battery of artillery
for each of the 33 districts into Avhich the Principalities are di-
vided. The effective force of the territorial army in 1879 Avas
22,463 infantry, and 12,184 cavalry with 12,192_ horses. The
conscription for the standing army and the territorial army takes
place simultaneously, the smaller numbers drawn being taken for
the permanent army, but those Avho are Avilling to find their own
horses pass into the ' Calarashi,' whatever number they may have
drawn. The territorial is subject to be mobilised, and concentrated
for manoeuvres or other ser\ace. The militia is composed of two
classes. The first class consists of all those from 21 to 29 years ot
age Avho have not been drawn for the permanent or territorial
armies ; and the second class consists of all those fi-om 29 to 37 years
of age who have served in either the pennanent or territorial armies,
Area and Population.
The area and population of Roumania are only known l)y esti-
mates. According to official returns made in 1876 and 1877, the
total area embraced 45,642 English square miles, of which 27,500
square miles came to the former "Wallachia, and 18,142 to Moldavia^
including the new Bessarabian provinces annexed to the Principality
by the treaty of Paris. The total population of Roumania was es-
timated in the same returns at 5,073,000, comprising 2,618,136
males, and 2,454,864 females.
By articles 42 and 43 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13,
1878, the area of Eoumania underwent considerable alterations,
defined as follows : — ' The Principality of Roumania gives back to
his Majesty the Emperor of Russia that portion of the territory of
Bessarabia taken from Russia imder the Treaty of Paris of 1856,
bounded on 'the west by the Thalweg of the Pruth, and on the south
by the Thalweg of the Kilia branch and tlie mouth of the Stary
Stamboul. The islands forming the Delta of tlie Danube, as well
as the Island of Serpents, the Sandjak of Tultcha, comprising the
36o
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Cazas districts of Kilia, Sulina, Mahmoudie, Isatcha, Tultcha, Mat-
chin, Babadali, Ilirsovo, Kiistendje, Medjidie are re-united witli
Eoinnania. The Principality receives in addition the territory
situate to the south of the Dobrudja, as far as a line, having its
starting point to the east of Silistria and joining the Black Sea
to the south of Mangolia.
The alterations thus effected may be described in their results
as follows, according to the latest estimates : —
Eoumania before the Treaty of Berlin
Addition made by ,, ,, ,,
Total ....
Deduct cession
Area : Eng. sq. m.
Population
45,642
5,935
5,073,000
357,000
51,577
3,270
5,430,000
140,000
Total actual .
48.307 1 5.290.000 1
The number of births, deaths, and marriages, with surplus, or
otherwise, of births over deaths, was as follows in each of the live
years from 1872 to 1876 : —
Surplus or
Years
Births
Deatlis
irarriagcs
deficit (-) of births
over deaths
1872
144,172
137,596
35,872
6,576
1873
145,804
146,031
29,257
-227
1874
152.143
154,948
30,962
-2,805
1875
172,580
142,724
32,971
29,862
1876
166,337
127,647
31,565
38,690
There were five towns with over 30,000 inhabitants at the end of
1876. The capital and seat of the Government, Bucharest, had
221,805 inhabitants; Jassy, 90,125; Galatz, 80,763; Botachani,
39,941 ; and Ploesti, 33,170 inhabitants.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse between Roumania and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined statement, which gives the value
of the exports from Roumania to Great Britain and of the British
imports into Roumania, in the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Exports from Eoumania
Imports of British /TojHe
1
to Great Britain
Produce into Roumania
£
£ . !
1875
594,158
1,054,744
, 187G •
1,238,091
707,568
! 1877
247,317
197,273
! 1878
970,555
887,488
[ 1879
1,373,002
997,078
EOUIIANIA. 361
The staple article of Koumanian exports to the United Kingdom
is corn, the value of which was 1,340,691/. in 1878, comprising
67,080/. for wheat; 462,622/. for barley; and 810,989/. for maize
and other corn. The British imports into Roumania consist of mis-
cellaneous ai'ticles of British manufacture, chief among them cotton
goods, including yarn, of the value of 624,472/. in 1879.
The commerce and industry of Eoumania largely profited by
the construction, in recent years, of several lines of railway. In
1869, the first line, 42 English miles in length, was opened from
Bucharest to Giurgevo on the Danube, and at the end of June
1878 the completed network had risen to 775 English miles. To
this Avas added, by the acquisition of the Dobrudja, in 1878, the
railway from Tchernavoda to Kusteudje, 39 miles long, bringing the
length of lines opan for traffic to 814 miles. There were 560
miles of railway lines in course of construction in 1878. The
whole of the railways of Eoumania are State property.
The postal establishment of Roumania carried 9,658,671 letters,
460,659 postcards, and 5,166,740 packets and newspapers in the year
1878. There were 246 post-offices at the end of 1878.
The telegraphs of the Principality were of a length of 4,142
kilometres, or 2,572 English miles, at the end of 1878, the length
of wires being 7,068 kilometres, or 4,389 English miles. The
number of telegrams carried in the year 1878 was 1,115,780, com-
prising 654,359 inland despatches, and 381,029 on international
service, the rest being in transit.
Diplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of EoiJiAxiA IN GuEAT Britain.
Envoy and 3//«/s/(T. — Callahiaki Catardj, accredited July 31, 18S0.
2. Of Gueat Beitaix ik Eoumania.
Diplomatic Agent and Consul- General. — William Arthur White ; Vice-Consul
and Acting Consul-General at "Warsaw, 1857-63; Consul at Danzig, 1864-75;
Diplomatic Agent for Servia, 1875-78. Appointed Diplomatic Agent and Con-
sul-General for Roumania, May 2, 1878.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The French decimal system of money, weights, and measures was
introduced into Roumania in 1876. Unit of the monetary system
is the lei, equivalent to the franc, divided into 100 bani, or centimes.
Russian and Austrian coins and Turkish weights and measiu-es
are largely in use by the people.
362 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Roumania.
• 1. Official Publications.
Statistica din Eomania. Mis^area populatiiini pe ami 1877. Dupa Regi-
strele Stani civile, i. Bucuresci 1879.
Ministeriu de Interno. Oficiii Central de Statistica. Statistica din Eoma-
nia. Indioilo Comunelor pe periodu de cinci ani 1876-1880. Bucuresci, 1880.
Statistica tlin Romania. Statistica penitentiarapeanu 1878. Bucuresci, 1880.
Statistica din Romania. Comerciul exterior, import, export pe anu 1878.
Bucuresci, 1880.
Statistica din Romania. Bucuresci, 1880.
Statistica din Romania. Statistica judiciaria pe anu 1878. Bucuresci, 1880.
Report liy Mr. C. Vivian on the finances, trade, and indiistry of Roumania,
dated Bucharest, October 30, 1875 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Green, C.B., on the finances, railways, &c.,
of Roumania, dated Bucharest, January 1, 1873; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' No. IL 1873. 8. London, 1873.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Green on the financial position of Roumania,
dated Bucharest, January 15, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part
II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Report by Mr. Consul Sanderson on the trade of Galatz, dated Galatz, May
15, 1877 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1877- 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Sanderson on the commerce cf Galatz, and by Mr.
Vice-Consul Bonham on the trade of Jassy, dated February- April 1878 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Sanderson on the commerce of Galatz, and by Mr.
Vice-Consul Morfi on the commerce and shipping of Sulina and the Lower
Danube, dated March-April 1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part
IIL 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Roumania with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Boleszny (A.), Kezikonyv az Al-Dunan, Szerb- es Bolgaror-szagban ntazok
szamara. 8. Pest, 1870.
Bom (Ami), La Turqiiie d'Europe. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Bratiano (J. C), Memoire .sur la situation de la Moldo-Valachie depuis le
ti-aite de Paris. 8. Paris, 1863,
Crctzulesio (E.), La Roumanie consideree sous le rapport physique, adminis-
tratif, et economique. 8. Bucarest, 1876.
Petresco (Jean), Extrait de la stiitistique administrative de la Roumanie.
8. Bucharest, 1876.
Ubici7ii (J. H. A.), Les Provinces Roumaines. 8. Paris, 1856.
>63
RUSSIA.
(Empire of all the Russias.)
Reigfning Emperor.
Alexander II., Emperor of Eussia, born April 17 (April 29 new
style), 1818, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I, and of Princess
Charlotte of Prussia ; educated, imder the supervision of his father, by-
General Moerder, a learned German, and the Russian poet Joukowski ;
entered the army, 1831 ; nominated colonel in the regiment of grena-
diers, 1835 ; chancellor of the xmiversity of Helsingfors, Finland,
1837 ; travelled in Germany, 1840-41 ; superintendent of the
military schools of the empire, 1849 ; appointed to a command in
the Caucasian army, 1850. Succeeded to the throne, at the death
of his father, February 18 (March 2), 1855 ; crowned at Moscow,
August 26 (September 7), 185G. Married, April 16 (AprU 28),
1841, to Empress J/ar/a, born August 8, 1824, daughter of the
late Grand-duke Ludwig XL, of Hesse-Darmstadt ; widower, May
22 (June 3), 1880.
Children of the Emj)eror.
I. Grand-duke Alexande)', heir-apparent, born Feb. 26 (March 10),
1845 ; married, Nov. 9, 1866, to Maria Dagmar, born Nov. 26, 1847,
daughter of King Christian IX. of Denmark. Offspring of the union
are four cliildren : — 1. Nicholas, born May 6 (May 18), 1868.
2. George, born April 28 (May 10), 1871. 3. Xenia, born April 6
(April 18), 1875. 4. Michael, born Nov. 23 (Dec. 5), 1878.
II. Grand-duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April 22), 1847; mar-
ried August 16 (August 28), 1874, to Princess Marie of Mecklem-
burg-Schwerin. Offspring of the imion are three sons : — 1. Cyrille,
born September 30 (October 12), 1876. 2. Boris, born November
12 (Nov. 24), 1877. 3. Andreas, born May 2 (May 14), 1879.
III. Grand-duke Alexis, born January 2 (January 14), 1850.
IV. Grand-duchess Marie, bom October 5 (October 17), 1853 ;
married January 21, 1874, to the Duke of Edinburgh. (See p. 189.)
V. Grand-duke Scrgius. boBn April 29 (May 11), 1857.
VI. Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3), 1860.
Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor.
I. Grand-duchess Olga, born August 30 (September 11), 1822 ;
married July 1 (July 13), 1846, to Prince Karl, then heir-apparent,
now king, of Wiirttemberg. (See page 137.)
II. Gvimd.-diVike Constantine, born September 9 (September 21),
1827 ; high-admiral of the Russian navy ; married, August 30
364 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
(September 11), 1848, to Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg,
of which union there are issue five children: — 1. Nicholas, born
February 2 (February 14), 1850. 2. Olga, born August 22 (Sep-
tember 3), 1851, and married October 27, 1867, to Georgios I.,
King of the Hellenes (see page 281). 3. Vera (Wjera), born
February 4 (Febniary 16), 1854, and married May 8, 1874, to
Prince Eugene of Wlirttemberg; widow, January 27, 1877. 4. Con-
stantine, born August 10 (August 22), 1858. 5. Dimitri, born
June 1 (June 13), 1860.
III. Grand-Duke Nicholas, born July 27 (August 8), 1831 ; field-
marshal in the Kussian array; married, January 25 (February 6),
1856, to Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg, of which marriage there
are two sons, Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856, and
Peter, born January 10 (January 22), 1864.
IV. Grand-duke Michael, born October 13 (October 25), 1832,
field-marshal in the Russian army: married, August 16 (Aug. 28),
1857, to Princess Cecilia of Baden, of which union there are issue
seven children : — 1. Nicholas, born April 14 (April 26), 1859.
2. Anastasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860, and married Jan. 12
(January 24), 1879, to Prince Friedrich Franz of ]\Iecklemburg-
Schwerin. 3. Michael, born October 4 (Oct. 16), 1861. 4. George,
born August 11 (August 23), 1863. 5. Alexander, born April 1
(April 13), 1866. 6. Sergius, born September 25 (Oct. 7), 1869.
7. Alexis, born December 16 (December 28), 1875.
The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from
Michael Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of
the House of Rurik; and in the male line from the duke Karl
Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp, born in 1701, scion of a younger
branch of the princely family of Oldenburg. The union of his daughter
Anne with Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp formed part
of the great reform projects of Peter I., destined to bring Russia
into closer contact with the Avestern states of Europe. Peter I. was
succeeded by his second Avife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian
peasant, and she by the grandson of Peter's elder brother, with
whom the male line of the Romanofs terminated, in the year 1730.
The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan HI., and
Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanof, formed a transition period,
which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of the house
of Holstein-Gottorp. All the subsequent emperors, without excep-
tion, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The
wife and successor of Peter III., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt
Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son,
Paul, wlio became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and
Nicholas, and the grandfather of a third, the present Alexander II.
All these sovereigns married German princesses of the Protestant
faith, creating iiuimate family alliance?, nmong others, vdth the
reigning houses of Wiirttemberg, Baden, and Prussia.
The emperor is in possession of the revenue irom the Crown
domains, consisting of more than a million of square miles of culti-
vated land and forests, besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and
producing a vast revenue, the actual amount of which is, however,
unknown, as no reference to the subject is made in the budgets or
finance accounts, the CroAvn domains being considered the private
property of the imperial family. The sum total of the income of the
imperial family is estimated, in a British Consular report of 1867, at
2,450,000/. sterling, it being added that ' about 450,000/. are spent
in charities, schools, theatres, &c.,' leaving a net revenue of 2,000,000/.
The following have been the Tsars and Emperors of Eussia, fi-om
the time of election of Michael Romanof Tsar Peter I. was the
first ruler Avho adopted, in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.
House of Romannf — Male Line. Ivan III. . . . 1740
Michael . . . 1613 1 Elizabeth . . . 1741
Alexei . . . 1645 I „ . ^
Feodor . . . 1676 liouse of Eoinannj-Holatein.
Ivan and Peter I. . 1682 Peter III.
Peter I. . . . 1689 Catherine II.
Catherine I. . . 1725 ! Paul
Peter II. . . . 1727 1 Alexander I.
Hoi'.se of Jiomcomf-Feraole Line. | f j'^Sler II.
Anne .... 1730 1
1762
1762
1796
1801
1825
1855
The above list shows that, notwithstanding many vicissitudes in
the succession of the crown, the average reign of the sovereio-ns of
Russia, for tAvo centuries and a half, has been fifteen years.
Constitution and Government.
The Government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in the
emperor, Avhose will alone is law. There are, however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the present rei^nino-
house have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these i^s the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of the
Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, by
the right of primogeniture, with preference of male over female
heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued by Peter I.
February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to select his
successor to the throne from among the members of the imperial
family, in-espective of the claims of i^rimogeniture. Another funda-
mental law of the realm i^roclaimed by Peter I., is that every
366 THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
sovereign of Russia, Avith his consort and cliildren, must be a mem-
ber of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes and princesses of the
imperial house, according to a decree of Alexander I., must obtain
the consent of the emj^eror to any marriage they may contract ;
otherwise the issue of such union cannot inherit the throne. By
an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is held to be of age at
the end of the sixteenth year, and the other members of the reigning
family with the completed eighteenth year.
The administration of the empire is entrusted to foiu- great boards,
or coimcils, possessing separate functions, biit centring in the
* Private Cabinet of the Emperor.' The first of these boards is the
Council of the Empire, established in its present form by Alexander
I., in the year 1810. It consists of a president, and an imlimited
number of members appointed by the emperor. On July 1, 1875,
the council consisted of forty -two members, exclusive of the minis-
ters, who have a seat ex officio, and of the princes of the Imperial
House, who can claim the right to be present at the deliberations.
The Coimcil is divided into three departments, namely, of Legisla-
tion, of Civil Administration, and of Finance. Each department
has its own President, and a separate sphere of duties ; but there
are collective meetings of the three sections. The chief function of
the Coimcil of the Empire is that of siiperintending the action of
the general administration, of watching over the due execution of
the laws of the realm, and of proposing alterations and modifications
of the same whenever necessary. The Coruicil stands in direct
communication with the ' Private Cabinet of the Emperor.'
The second of the great colleges, or boards of government, is the
Directing Senate or ' Prawitelstwujuschtschi Senat,' established by
Peter I., in the year 1711. The functions of the senate are partly
of a deUberative and parti}' of an executive character. It is the high
court of justice for the empire, controlling all the inferior tribunals.
The senate is divided into eight committees or sections, of which
five sit at Petersburg and three at Moscow. Each committee is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain descriptions of
cases, brought either immediately before it, or by appeal from the
inferior courts. In a few cases, however, parties dissatisfied with its
decisions may petition the emperor. The senators are mostly per-
sons of high rank, or who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence
presides over each department, Avho represents the emperor, and with-
out whose signature its decisions would have no force. In the ple^ium,
or general meeting of the sections, the minister of justice takes the
chaii*, as high procurator for his majesty. Besides its superinten-
dence over the court of law, the senate examines into the state of
the public revenue and expenditure, and has power to a23point to a
great variety of offices, and to make remonstrances to the emperor.
KUSSIA. -^^y
The third college, established by Peter I., in the year 1721, is
the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the
religious affairs of the empire. It is composed of the principal dig-
nitaries of the Chiu-ch. AU its decisions run in the emperor's name,
and have no force till approved by him. The President of the Holy
Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod and St. Petersburg.
The fourth board of government is the Council of Ministers. It
is divided into eleven departments. They are —
1. The Ministry of the Luperial House. — Count Alex. Adlerherg,
general and aide-de-camp of the emperor ; appointed Minister of
the Imperial House, in succession to his father Count W. Adlerbero-,
April 29, 1870.
2. The Ministry of Foreign Affiiirs. — Prince Alexander Michael
GortschaJcoff, born 1798; entered the diplomatic service, 1818;
Secretary of Embassy at London, 1824; Minister at Florence, 1830;
Plenipotentiary at Vienna, 1832 ; Ambassador Extraordinary at
Stuttgart, 1841 ; Ambassador at Vienna, 1854 ; appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs, April 17, 185G.
3. The Ministry of War.^General Count Miliitin, Assistant-
Minister of "War, July 1860 to June 1862 ; appointed minister,
June 20, 1862.
4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Rear- Admiral PeicJiouroiv, ap-
pointed July 30, 1880.
5. The Ministry of the Interior. — General Loris Melikojf, ap-
pointed Se^^tember 20, 1880.
6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Count Tolstoy, Procura-
tor-General of the Holy Synod, appointed April 27, 1866.
7. The Ministry of Finance. — Count Aba~a, appointed No-
vember 3, 1880.
8. The Ministry of Justice. — Coixnt Nahokojf] appointed June
14, 1878.
9. The Ministry of the Imperial Domains. — Privy Councillor P. A.
Valouiew, appointed Aug. 25, 1872.
10. The Ministry of Public Works and Eailways. — Vice-Admiral
JPossiet, appointed July 23, 1874.
11. The Department of General Comptrol. — Pri^-y Councillor
Solski, appointed ComptroUer-General, October 1879.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers,
who supply their place on certain occasions. They all communicate
directly Avith the sovereign, or with the * Private Cabinet of the
Emperor,' in Avhich body centres the whole executive authority of
the empire. The Private Cabinet is divided into four sections, the
first of which has the presidency and superintendence of the other two,
368 THE STATESMAM^S YEAH-BOOJC, 1881.
and i« in immediate commimication with the emperor. The second
is the legislative department; the third is specially devoted to the
comptrol of the army and secret police ; and the fourth to public
instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.
The local administration of the empire differs in different pro-
vinces ; Government having always allowed conquered or annexed
countries to preserve their own lav/s and institutions, except in so
far as they were hostile to the general constitution of the empire.
The Grand-duchy of Finland has a special and partially inde-
pendent form of government ; and the provinces wrested fi-om
Sweden by Peter the Great, Courland, and those formerly belonging
to Poland, have peculiar institutions and j^rivileges, which, however,
have latterly been much modified.
The empire is divided into general governments, oi- vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are, at present, 14 of the first,
51 of the second, and above 320 of the last. There are, besides,
extensive districts which from the thinness of the population are not
organised into regular governments, which are called provinces, or
' oblasts.^ At the head of each general government is a viceroy, or
general-governor, the representative of the emperor, who as such com-
mands the forces, and has the supreme control and direction of all
affairs, Avhether civil or military. All the functionaries within their
jurisdiction are subordinate to, and make their reports to the general-
o-overnors. They sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts,
and exercise the right of pardon in a limited degree. A civil-
governor, representing the general-governor, assisted by a council of
regency, to which all measures must be submitted, is established in
each government or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the
governor is provisionally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor
Avith respect to the matter be ascertained. A vice-governor is
appointed to fill the ])lace of the civil-governor when the latter is
absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of
finance under the presidency of the vice-governor.
The government of the parish, and part of the local administra-
tion, is intrusted to the people, to the extent of leaving them free
in matters of social interest. For this purpose, the Avhole country
is divided into communes denominated ' Mir ' — which means both
' the village ' and ' the world ' — and these again are united into dis-
tricts or ' Voloste,' embracing a population of about two thousand
souls. Each of the latter divisions is presided over by an Elder,
or * Starshina,' who, in case the district consists of several villages,
has above him a * Starosta,' or head of a commune, as also a
tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these officers
are elected by ballot at annual assemblies by the peasants, and
from among themselves The offices are more or less honorary,
RUSSIA. 369
the emoluments connected Avith some of them being so small as
to be scarcely more than nominal. The annual assemblies for
electing these local representatives are constituted in a very-
peculiar manner. Every five houses have the election of one
deputy for the communal assembly, and these again choose a dele-
gate for the disti-ict assemblies, in the proportion of one man to
every ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish
officers and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the
division of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper
distribution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of
the recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the
commune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and
similar matters. As a rule, these communal assemblies take place
regularly three times a year ; but they may be called more fre-
quently if business of imjwrtance require it. In conjunction with
these assembhes are village tribimals, consisting of two elected
members of the commune called ' conscience people.' Injuries and
offences of every kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not
involving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of
these popular tribunals.
The grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Eussia by
the treaty of Frederickshamm, September 17, 1809, has preserved,
by special grant of Alexander I. (renewed by the decrees of the
Emperor Nicholas, of December 24, 1825, and of Alexander II., of
March 3, 1855), its ancient constitution, dating fi-om the year 1772,
and reformed in 1789. This charter provides for a national parlia-
ment, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the biirghers,
and the peasants. The right of legislation and of general taxation
is nominally in the hands of this assembly, though in reality it is
exercised by a senate appointed by the ' Emperor Grand-duke.'
This senate was created by an ordinance of Alexander I., of October
25, 1811, and consisted first of three members, called the 'Com-
mittee for the Affairs of Finland.' Another ukase, of February 12,
1812, created a Governor-general of Finland, in whom was vested
the whole executive power, as representative of the sovereign. In
1816, a consultative body, called the 'Imperial Senate of Finland,'
\vas placed at the side of the ministerial council, as the ' Committee for
the Affairs of Finland,' and denominated, after aAvhile, ' the Senate.'
The ' Imperial Senate,' originally consisting of fourteen members, then
of sixteen, and finally, up to the present time, of eighteen, is nominated
by the sovereign for three years, and chosen the one-half fi-om the
nobility of Finland, and the other half from among the classes of
citizens and peasants. The organ of their communication with the
emperor is a secretary of state for the grand-duchy of Finland,
residinor at St. Petersburor.
370 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Poland, which had a constitution of its own from 1815 to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date
of the last remnant of its administrative independence. By im-
perial decree of September 1, 1864, followmg in the wake of the
suppression of the great revolt of the two preceding years, the
kingdom was placed under the rule of eight military governors
depending from a ' Council of State ' established at Warsaw ; and
this form of government again was superseded by a decree of IVIarch
22, 1867, which, abolishing the Council of State, transfei'red the
entire administration of the country to a ' Commission for the
interior affairs of Poland,' sitting at St. Petersbiu-g. Finally, by
ukase of the Emperor dated Feb. 23, 1868, the Commission Avas
dissolved, and the government of Poland absolutely incorporated
with that of Riissia.
Church and Education.
The established religion of the empire is the Greco-Pussian,
officially called the Orthodox- Catholic Faith. The Pussian Church
separated from the See of Rome in 1054, and from the Byzantine
patriarchate in 1589. It has its own independent synod, but main-
tains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The sacred
synod, the board of government of the Church, Avas established with
the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs.
There have been three epochs in the government of the Russian
Church. At first it had a foreign head, the patriarch in Constanti-
nople, Avho appointed the Metropolitan of Kief, and afterwards of
Moscow ; during the second period, commencing in 1589, it was
governed by a patriarch appointed by the Tsar, but nearly indepen-
dent ; lastly, the direction of the Church Avas transferred to the
emperor. He is, hoAvever, not the head of the Church in the same
sense as the Pope of Rome. The emperor exercises the external
functions in a still greater degree than the pontiff; he ap2ioints to
every office in the Church, and is resti'icted only so far as to leave to
the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates ; and
he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain cases.
But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and
dogmatic questions. In the case of any new heresy springing iip in
Russia, requiring a judgment, the emperor cannot pronounce a
decision, but this duty appertains to the synod, and, if the ques-
tion is critical, the opinion of the four Eastern j^atriarchs must be
consulted, and finally a council has to be convened. The judg-
ment of the Church being once given, the emj^eror must command
RUSSIA. 371
its execution. In official documents the emperor is not called the
Head, but the Protector, or Defender, of the Church.
The points in which the Greco -Russian Church differs from the
Roman Catholic faith, are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of
the Pope, its prohibiting the celibacy of the clergy, and its autho-
rising all individuals to read and study the Scriptures in the
vernacular tongue. The prohibition of celibacy is carried to such
an extent, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before
he is man'ied, nor after he becomes a widower ; and as, by the rules
of the Church, he is not allowed to remarry, the death of his wife
occasions the cessation of his clerical fimctions. The priests may,
however, on the death of their wives, enter into a convent, and
enjoy the privilege of becoming eligible to be dignitaries of the
Church. There are in Russia nearly 500 cathedrals and about
29,000 chiu-ches attached to the established faith, the latter employ-
ing about 70,000 secular or parochial clergymen. There are also
about 550 convents, of which 480 are for men and 70 for women.
The clergy are either secular or regular — the former consisting of
the parochial clergy, and the latter of the higher dignitaries, monks,
and priests. The hierarchy is composed of bishops, archbishops,
and metropolitans. There are in all 08 dioceses.
The Russian Church formerly possessed immense wealth, but
it was partly confiscated by Peter I. and partly by Catherine II.
The latter sovereign appropriated the whole movable property of
the Church for the use of the State, assigning, in compensation,
pensions to the chief ecclesiastical dignitaries. But, with the
exception of a few benefices in Petersburg, Moscow, and other
principal cities, the stipends of the clergy, even when increased
by the offerings of the people, and by the fees on occasion of
births, marriages, and funerals, are almost inadequate to provide
for their subsistence. The total nimiber of established clerg}'-, of all
ranks and orders, is stated at 254,000.
With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, who are
not allowed to settle in Russia Proper, all rehgions may be fi-eel}''
professed in the empire. No member of the Russo-Greek Church
is, however, permitted to renounce his creed ; and when a marriage
takes place between one of its members and a person belonging to
another faith, the children must all be brought up in the established
church. Roman Catholics are most numerous in the formerly Polish
pro'V'inces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and Mohammedans in
Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost entirely settled in the
towns and larger villages of the western and south-ivestern frontier
districts.
The number of members of the principal religious creeds in
European Russia was retm-ned as follows at an enumeration taken
in 1867:—
bb2
372
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1681.
Creeds
Russia, ex-Polaud
Poland
Total,
Em-opean Russia
Orthodox Greek Catholics
United Greeks and Ar-
menians
Koman Catholics . . .
Protestants . ...
Jews . . ....
Mahometans ....
Pagans
54,061,326
37,136
2,882,991
2,234,112
1,829,100
2,358,766
255,503
32,484
229,260
4,326,473
331,233
783,079
606
472
54,093,810
266,396
7,209,464
2,565,345
2,612,179
2,359,372
255,975
The following table shows, after official returns, the number of
Educational Establishments in Russia, maintained, either wholly or
in part, by the government, and placed imder the Minister of Public
Instruction, at the end of the year 1870 : —
Number
Pupils
Universities
Lyceums . .....
Veterinai'y schools ....
Gymnasiums and progymnasiums—
For males .....
For females .....
Training schools for teachers
District schools .....
Primary schools .....
Total
8
2
2
153
173
39
419
22,827
7,275
262
154
1 58,478
1,274
27,508
831,402
23,623
926,353
In the budget for the year 1879, a sum of 16,230,110 roubles, or
2,318,58G/. Avas set down for public education. Of this total the
allowance made to imiversities and lyceums was 321,739Z. ; to
gymnasiums 586,650/. ; to district, parochial, and primary schools,
349,317/. ; and to training colleges for teachers, and for bitilding ex-
penses, 177,261/. The rest was for the cost of general administration.
The mass of the population of Russia is as yet without education.
In 1860 only two out of every hundred recruits levied for the army
were able to read and Avrite, but the proportion had largely increased
in 1870, when eleven out of every hundred were found to be pos-
sessed of these elements of knowledge. In the Grand-duchy of
Finland, which has a system of public instruction separate from that
of the rest of the empire, education is aU but universal, the whole
of the inhabitants being able at least to read, if not to write.
The empire, Finland excepted, is divided into educational districts,
each of which has a imiversity, with a number of lyceums, at which
the young men intended to fill civil offices are mostly instructed,
besides gymnasiums, high schools, and elementary schools, varying
RUSSIA.
171
according to area and population. The chief districts are those of
Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkof, Kasan, Dorpat, Kief, Odessa, "Wilna,
and Warsaw.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue of the empire is derived to the extent of two-
thirds from direct and indirect taxes, while nearly two-thirds of the
total expenditure are for the army and navy, and interest on the
public debt. There are annual budget estimates published by the
government, and also, since 1866, accounts of the actual receipts and
disbursements of the State, which, entering into minute details,
cannot be issued till after the lapse of a number of years.
The following table gives the total actual revenue and expendi-
ture of the Imperial Government for each of the tliree years from
1875 to 1877, and the budget estimates of the total revenue and
expenditure for each of the two years 1878 and 1879: —
Tears
Eevenue
Expenditure
Ron hies
£
Roubles
£
1870
532,306,209
76.043,744
529,050,426
75,578,632
1876
634,791,290
76,398,757
534,705.120
76,386,446
1877
537,784,596
76,826,371
637,776,074
76,825,153
1878
600,398,425
85,771,204
600,398,425
85,771,204
1879
628,965,708
89,852,244
628,583,757
89,797,679
The financial estimates of Russia are framed on the model of the
fonner Imperial French budgets. The estimates of revenue are
subdivided under tlie three heads of, first, ordinary receipts ;
secondly, ' recettes d'ordre ;' and thirdly, extraordinary receipts.
The estimates of expenditure are subdivided into foui- heads, namely,
first, ordinar}^, expenditure ; secondly, anticipated deficits in receipts
(' non valeurs dans les recettes'); thirdly, ' depenses d'ordre;' and
fourthly, temporary disbursements, the latter chiefly incurred for the
construction of railways. The ordinary revenue includes all the
direct and indirect taxes raised for the purpose of meeting the ordinary
cost of the administration, while the 'recettes d'ordre' represent the
estimated receipts from the sale of volumes of laws printed by the
government, of the produce of State mines, and of other miscellaneous
sources. These receipts are balanced by sums of a similar amount
placed on the estimates of expenditure under the heading of 'depenses
d'ordre.' The extraordinary receipts consist mainly of sums bor-
rowed for the purpose of subsidising railways and for promoting
other works of public utility. They are entered in the same manner
as the ' recettes d'ordre' on the expenditure side of the Budgets.
The following two tables show the principal sources of revenue and
374
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the chief branches of expenditure of the Government accordino- to
the budget estimates for each of the two years 1878 and 1879 :
Sources of Revenue
Year
187S
Year
1879
1. Ordinary Keveniie :
Direct taxes ......
Indirect taxes ......
Mint, post, and telegraphs
State domains ......
Miscellaneous receipts ....
Revenue of Transcaucasus
Total ordinary revenue
2. ' Eecottes d'Ordre '
3. Extraordinary receipts ....
Total revenue ■' p
Roubles
133,302,866
301,612,877
22,530,371
27,897,322
45,772,072
7,216,015
Roubles
133,267,237
354,560,497
24,292,270
27,878,865
47,561,940
7,900,915
538,331,523
595,461,724
22,417,485
24,136,218
39,649,417
9,367,766
600,398,425
85,771,204
628,965,708
89,852,244
Branches of Expenditure
Year
1878
Year
1879
1. Ordinary Expenditure :
Interestandsinkingfundofthonationaldebt
Imperial Chancery .....
Holy Synod ......
Ministry of the Imperial House
,, ,, Foreign Affairs.
AVar ....
,, ,, the Navy ....
„ ,, Finance ....
„ ,, Imperial Domains .
„ „ the Interior
„ „ Public Instruction .
„ „ Puhlic'VVorksandEailways
„ ,, Justice ....
Department of General Control
Civil administration of the Transcaucasus .
Total ordinary expenditure
2. Anticip. deficits in receipts
3. 'D^penses d'Ordre'
4. Temporary disbursements ....
Total expenditure <j „
Roubles
133,676,719
1,989,810
10,100,830
9,047,464
3,096,498
181,841,736
25,119,611
75,511,913
17,449,989
53,952.366
15,946,113
11,065,700
15,162,231
2,974,344
6,891,907
Roubles
156,577.526
2,349,423
10,187,123
9,121,856
3,365,647
181,566,088
26,195,582
75,396,316
18,360,102
56,746,242 i
16,230,116
11,072,365
15,574,861
2,986,243
7,350,285
563,827,231
593,079,773
2,000,000
2,000,000
24,417,485
24,136,218
10,153,709
9,367,766
600,398,425
85,771,204
628,583,757
89,797,679
EUSSIA.
375
The direct taxes of the empire consist chiefly of imposts on land
— ' impots redevances foncieres ' — which produce nine-tenths of the
whole poll-tax, levied from the peasantry, and raised at very little ex-
pense. Customs and excise duties, the former of a protective nature,
and the latter laid principally on spirits, beer, salt, and tobacco, form
the bulk of the revenue from indirect taxation. The spirit duties were
largely raised in 1873, and again in 1879, notwithstanding which the
consumption is increasing, forming an ever-grooving soui'ceof revenxie.
It will be seen from the table showing the budgets of expenditure
for 1878 and 1879 that, next to the disbursements for the aiTny the
largest branch of expenditure is that for the public debt. In the
budget estimates for the years 1878 and 1879, the total amoimt re-
quired for interest and sinking fund — but not cost of management,
the latter going to the charge of the Ministry of Finance — was
divided as follows : —
Interest, &c., on Public Loans
1878
1879
Foreign loans :
Koubles
Eoubles
Terminable ......
14,113,962
23,188,884
Perpetual
21,423,353
22,368,567
Internal terminable loans :
; Debt to sundry departments .
944,724
800,433
, Four per cent, bank bills (metallic)
3,000,000
3,000,000
j Five per cent, bank bills
7.450,000
7,450,000
1 1st and 2nd lottery loans
13,286,000
13,277,000
1st and 2nd oriental loans
11,000,000
20,000,000
1 Treasury bills
9,331,200
10,331,200
i Polish obligations
1,687,500
1,817,308
i Debt on Polish ' Feuilles de liquidation'
3,272,228
3,255,824
j Internal perpetual loans ....
10,118,102
10,117,817
1 Anticipated redemption of loans
i Total ....
138,741
143,653
95,765,810
115,750,686
' Interest and sinking fund on consolidated
biUs issued for construction of railways,
, &e
i Grand total .
37,910,909
40,826,840
133,676,719
156,577,526
£19,096,674
£22,368,218
To cover a series of annual deficits and, at the same time^ to
procure the capital for the construction of a network of railways
throughout the Empire, a number of foreign loans were raised during
the twenty-eight years from 1850 to 1877. The most important of
them were, first, a loan of 6,400,000/., issued in 1850, to meet the
expenditure for the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow;
secondly, a loan of 12 millions sterling, issued in 1859 j thirdly, a
loan of 8 millions, issued in 1860 ; and fourthly, a loan of 15 mil-
76
THE STATESMAN S TEAL-BOOK, 1881.
lions sterling, issued in 1862, the latter three contracted partly for
the covering of financial deficits and partly for the construction of
railways. The subsequent foreign loans were one for 2,600,000/.,
issued in 1863, and two for 6,000,000/. each, issued respectively in
1864 and 1866. The next was a foreign loan of 12,000,000/.,
brought out in January 1870 ; followed by another loan of
12,000,000/., issued in 1871 ; and by two loans, each of 15,000,000/.,
the first brought out in September 1872, and the second raised in
December 1873. The two foreign loans of 1850 and of 1864 were
contracted for by Messrs. Baring; the four foreign loansof 1870, 1871,
1872, and 1873 were contracted ])y Messrs. Rothschild, of London and
Paris; and lastly, the foreign loan of 1877 was contracted by Messrs.
^Mendelssohn, Berlin, in union with the Comptoir d'Escompte, Paris,
and other continenfcil banks. Finally, a foreign loan of 23,000,000/.
was issued in November 1880 direct by the Russian Government,
but both Messrs. Rothschild and the Comptoir d'Escompte of Paris
declining to contract ibr it, there were but fcAV subscribers.
The following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital,
interest per cent., and price of issue, of the foreign loans of Russia,
fifteen in number — including early liabilities dating back to 1822 —
contracted up to the end of September 1879 : —
Foreign Ldans or Russia.
Year of issue
Nominal capital
Interest
per cent.
Price of issne
per cent.
1822
6,400,000
5
77
1850
.5,500,000
H
93
18o9
12.000,000
3
68
1860
8,000,000
4i
92
1862
15,000,000
6'
94
1863
2,600,000
5
85
1861
6^000^000
5
86
1866
6,000,000
4
61
1870
12,000,000
5
80
1871
12,000.000
5
81
1872
15,000,000
5
89 i
1873
15,000,000
5
90
187-1
1,480,000
5*
87 i
1875
15,000,000
4
87 i
1877
15.000,000
146,980,000
H
85
Not included in the above list are several loans for railways, gua-
ranteed by the Imperial Government. The earlier of the foreign
loans of Russia have become largely reduced at joresent, through the
operation of sinking funds. Of the 1822 loan, issued by Messrs.
Rothschild, more than one-half had been repaid at the end of 1875 ;
russiA.
"^77
of the 1850 loan, contracted for by Baring Brothers, the outstanding
sum Avas 2,950,000/. ; of the 1859 loan, issued by Thomson, Bonar,
and Co., the amount was 5,100,000/. ; and of the 1860 loan, issued
by Baring Brothers, it was 6,600,000/. at the same date. But the
repayments, through sinking funds, were comparatively small of the
subsequent loans.
The entire public debt of Russia, interior and foreign, was estimated
to amount to 2,450,000,000 roubles, or 350,000,000/., on the 1st of
September 1878, the total including an internal loan of 210,000,000
roubles, or 30,000,000/., issued in 1877, soon after the commence-
ment of the war against Turkey, and another internal loan, called
' The Second Eastern Loan,' to the amomit of 300,000,000 roubles,
or 42,857,142/. issued in August 1878. The cost of the war against
Turkey, for which these loans were raised, was estimated officially,
at the end of June 1878 — but, probably, under-estimated to a con-
.siderable amount— at 910,000,000 roubles, or 130,000,000/.
Not included in the debt here enumerated is a very large quantity
of paper money with forced currency. According to official reports,
the total amount of bank notes in circulation on the 1st of January
1876, was 797,313,480 roubles, or 113,901,925/. There were new
issues of paper money to a very large amount during the years
1876 to 1879. The total debt represented by paper money of
forcod currency was estimated at 1,134,000,000 roubles, or
162,000,000/., at the end of September 1879.
The destruction of public credit, through an illimited issue of
paper money, is of old standing. In the reign of Catherine II., the
tirst attempt, on a large scale, was made to cover the annual deficits
by a very liberal supply of paper roubles, the sum total of which at
the death of the Empress, 1796, amounted to 200,000,000. During
the subsequent wars with France and Turkey, new emissions of paper
followed, Avith the consequence that in 1815 the notes had fallen to
418, that is, one silver rouble was worth four roubles eighteen copecs
in paper. Great efforts were now made by the Government to im-
prove this state of things, by withdrawing a portion of the paper from
circulation. After ten years of improved financial management,
there remained, however, still 600,000,000 of notes, circulating at the
rate of three paper roubles to one silver rouble. As a final remedy,
the Imperial Government withdrew, in 1843, the whole of the old
paper money, introducing, in its stead, a new foiTQ of bank notes,
with forced currency. By these and other means, particularly the
estabUshment, in 1859, of a State bank, the Bank of Russia,
under the control of the Minister of Finance, the nominal
value of the paper money was considerably raised, with a prospect
of the resumption of specie payments in the course of a number
of years.
378 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The finances of the Grancl-diichy of Finland, represented by an
average annual revenue and expenditure of 3,000,000 roubles, or
about 429,000/., and a public debt of 45,000,000 roubles, or
6,435,000/., are administered separately from the imperial ex-
chequer ; but the special budgets of Poland ceased in 1867, on the
final incorporation of the kingdom with Russia.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The armed forces of Eussia were drawn, previous to the year 1871,
from the classes of peasants and artisans, partly and principally by
means of a conscription, partly by the adoption of the sons of soldiers,
and partly by voluntary enhstment. In January 1871, a law of
military re-organisation was sanctioned by the Emperor, which came
into force in 1872. The new law orders an annual conscription, to
which all men who have completed their twenty-first year, and are
not physically incapacitated, are liable. Immunity fi*om service by
the purchase of substitutes is prohibited under the new regulations.
They fix the period of service in the army at fifteen years, six of them
in active service, and nine years in the reserve. The men remain
with the colours only as long as will be required to keep up the
force at its full complement, and during the remaining period they
are sent on furlough. After ac<|uitting themselves of their six
years' sei'vice, the soldiers pass over into the reserve for another
period of nine years, during which they are liable to serve only in
time of war. If called out during these nine years, the younger men
of the reserve are employed in active operations, the older ones
being set apart to form a reserve to reinforce the garrisons of
fortresses. In time of peace, the men of the reserve are called out
only for short periods of drill, undergone near their ordinary places
of residence. To enable the educated classes to free themselves from
compulsory conscription, and also to provide the requisite number
of officers, and persons fit to serve in the supplementary branches,
yoimg men possessed of a certain degree of education are permitted
to enter from their 1 7th year as volunteers for a short period ot
service. After acquitting themselves of service in the line, the
volunteers either undergo a military examination of an inferior
degree, and pass over to the reserve, or they may pass an officer's
examination and become either army officers or reserve officers.
Volunteers passing into the reserve, as officers or as privates, remain
in the reserve till their 36th year. All other officers leaving the
regidar army before their 36th year are likewise liable to serve in
the reserve to that age. Soldiers belonging to the reserve are
EussiA. 379
exempt from service only in case of illness, or if serving in some
other public capacity. All able-bodied men not entering the army,
or navy, can in time of war be called out to serve in a militia, to be
organised in accordance with the rules announced in an Imperial
manifesto. It is enacted by the law of 1871, that ' now as formerly,
military sendee will be performed under special laws by the
Cossacks, the non-Russian inhabitants of certain portions of the
Empire, and the population of the Grand Duchy of Finland.' The
levies furnished by the Cossacks are regulated by particular treaties ;
and many half-savage tribes are excused, partly on account of their
diminutive size, and partly because of their great aversion to a miH-
tary life. Generally, it is foimd that a levy of two on every 500 males
produces a supply of about 90,000 or 100,000 men.
Under the new law of army organisation the land forces of Russia
consist in time of peace of field troops and garrison troops. In
addition to these, reserve forces are organised during the
contiauance of peace, and independently of the army being placed on
a war footing. A militia is also formed for extraordinary con-
tingencies, if the safety of the country require it. The garrison
troops are organised to answer the following purposes. Firstly, in
time of peace they are employed to do ordinary garrison service, and,
secondly, they instruct recruits, and, in the cavalry, break-in horses ;
they also drill the men on furlough and in the reserve called
out for exercise. In time of war, the garrison troops continue the
garrison duty, drill recruits, and supply the 'cadres' for the
formation of the infantry and foot artillery reserves, as also for the
formation of ' troupes de marche ' of all arms of the service. The
reserve forces are only formed in time of war. The ' cadres ' are
supplied by the local garrisons and filled up by the reserves. The
reserve forces have a double destination, namely, first to act as a
field force in separate infantry regiments and divisions with their
own foot artillery and train, and, secondly, to garrison fortresses
and supply fortress artillery. One company of the garrison troops
is regarded as a sufficient ' cadre ' for a battalion of reserve, and
one garrison gun as a ' cadre ' for a reserve battery. The ' troupes
de marche ' are formed upon ' cadres ' supplied by the garrison
troops of aU arms. They consist of all men on fiu-lough and in
reserve, in excess of the numbers required for raising the field forces
to the war standard. They are also employed to fill up the gaps
occasioned by losses in the field forces. To keep the Guards always
at their full complement, special reserve forces are attached to them,
at the rate of one battalion per regiment of infantry and rifie
brigade, and one battery per artillery brigade. The reserve and
garrison battalions are stationed in the districts whence they draw
their reserves at the rate of two reserve battalions per garrison
THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1S81.
battalion. The organisation of the reserve forces is not at first to
be fully carried out under the new law in any but those provinces of
European Russia densely enough inhabited to admit of it. In
those outlying or little inhabited portions in which the formation of
reserve troops would be inexpedient, the reserve men are to be
formed into ' troupes de marche ' and despatched to the seat of war
to reinforce the reserve corps ; or they are to be sent to
garrison neighbouring fortresses, or do garrison duty in the interior.
The following Avasthe composition of the Russian army in 1879 : —
Peace Footing.
Battalions .
Squadrons .
Guns .
Officers
Eank and file
Total of men
War Footing.
852
281
1,422
33,043 I Officers .
732,829 Eank and file .
765,872 1 Total of men
39,380
1,173,879
1,213,259
The nominal strength of the various divisions of the Russian
army, according to the returns of the ministry of war, was as
follows in 1879 : —
1. Regular army.
Infimtry
Cavalry
Artillery
Engineers
1 Total.
1 2. Army of 1st rosf^rve.
1 Troops of the line ....
; Garrison troops in regiments .
; ,, „ in battalions .
Total.
3. Anny of 2nd reserve.
Troops of all arms ....
1
1 General total
On the peace On the war
footing 1 footing
364,422 694,511
38,306 49,183
41,731 48,773
13,413 16,203
457,872 808,670
80,455 j 74,561
80,455 23,470
19,830 ; 29,892
180,740 127,923
129,815 276,666 '
768,427 1,213,259
Finland has a military system of its own, being obliged, at the
demand of the Grand Duke, that is the Emperor, to bring into the
field a certain number of men, on the Swedish ' Indelta ' principle.
This principle (see page 428) is that every district is bound to supply
RUSSIA.
381
a certain nxiniber of soldiers, and to pay them, while the State pro-
vides for their material wants.
Among the irregular troops of Eussia, the most important are the
■Cossacks. The country of the Don Cossacks contains from 600,000
to 700,000 inhabitants. By Imperial decree, dated April 29, 1875,
every Cossack of the Don, from fifteen to sixty years of age, is
bound to render military service. No substitution is allowed, nor
payment of money in lieu of service. Exemption from military
service is granted, however, at all times, to the Christian clergy, and,
in times of peace, to physicians and veterinary surgeons, apothe-
caries, and teachers in public schools. The regular military force
consists of fifty-four cavalry regiments, each numbering 1,044 men,
making a total of 56,376. The number of Cossacks is computed as
follows : —
On the Black Sea
Great Eussian Cossacks 011 the Caucasian Line
Don Cossacks
Ural Cossacks
Orenburg Cossacks
Siberian Cossacks
Total
Heads
In military
service
125,000
150,000
440,000
50,000
60,000
50,000
18,000
18,000
66.000
8,000
10,000
9,000
875,000
129,000
The military organisation of the Cossacks is in eight districts,
called Woisskos. Each Woissko furnishes a certain nimiber of regi-
ments, fully armed and equipped, and undergoing constant military
exercise, so as to be prepared to enter the field, on being summoned,
in the course of ten days. The two larger districts are the Woissko
of Kuban, which has the privilege of furnishing a squadron of picked
men for an Imperial escort in time of war, and the second the
Woissko of Terak, which furnishes a like escort in time of peace.
The Cossacks are a race of fi-ee men ; neither serfage nor any other
dependence upon the land has existed among them. The entire
territory belongs to the Cossack commune, and every individual has
an equal right to the use of the land, together with the pastures,
huntitig-grounds, and fisheries. The Cossiicks pay no taxes to the
Government, but in lieu of this they are boimd to perform military
service. They are divided into three classes, viz., first, the minors or
" Maloletniye,' up to their sixteenth year ; secondly, those on actual
service, the ' Sluzhiliye,' for a period of twenty-five years, therefore
until their forty-second year ; thirdly, those released fi-om service,
the ' Otstavniye,' who remain for five years, or imtil their forty-
seventh year, in the reserve, after which period they are regarded as
382 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
wholly released from service and invalided. Every Cossack is
obliged to eqiiij"), clothe, and arm himself at his own expense, and to
keep his horse. Whilst on service beyond the frontiers of his own
country, he receives rations of food and provender, and a small
amount of pay. The artillery and train are at the charge of the
Government. Instead of imposing taxes on the Don Cossacks, the
Russian Government pays them an annual tribute, varying in peace
and war, together with grants to be distributed among the Avidows
and orphans of those who have fallen in battle. Besides the regu-
lar Cossacks, there are, on the Orenburg and Siberian lines, the
Bashkir Cossacks, numbering some 200,000 men.
• ■ 2. NavTj.
The Russian navy consists of two great divisions, the fleet of the
Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets is again
subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near the Baltic,
and two in or near the Black Sea. The divisions, like the English,
carry the white, blue, and red flag — an arrangement originating
with the Dutch — but without the rank of the admirals being con-
nected with the colour of the flag.
At the end of the year 1880, the strength of the various divisions of
the Russian navy was returned officially as follows : — 1, the Baltic
Fleet, consisting of 137 men-of-war, comprising 27 armour-clad ships,
44 unarmoured steamers, and 06 transports; 2, the Black Sea Fleet,
consisting of 31 men-of-war, comprising 3 armoui'-clad ships, 25
unarmoured steamers, and 3 transports ; 3, the Caspian Sea Fleet,
consisting of 11 unarmoured steamers and 8 transports; 4, the
Siberian Fleet, consisting of 15 imarmoured steamers and 21 trans-
ports. The total comprises 223 men-of-war, all steamers, armed
with 561 guns, with engines of aggregate 188,120 horse-power.
The ironclad fleet of war of Russia, comprising 30 ships — 28 in
the Baltic, and 2 in the Black Sea — Avas made up, at the end of
1880, of the following classes of ships : —
Ai'mour thickness
Inches
1st Class: Three mastless turret-ships . . . 12 and 14
2nd Class : Nino sea-going cruisers . . . . 4 to 6
3rd Class : Sixteen vessels for coast defence . . 4 to 4^
4th Class: Two circular monitors .... 11 and 18
The following table gives the list of the thirty ironclad vessels
of the Russian navy under their four classes. The columns of the
table show, after the name of each ship, first, the thickness of armour
at the water-line ; secondly, the number and weight of guns ; thirdly,
the indicated horse-power of the engines ; and fourthly, the tonnage,
or displacement in tons. Those ironclads marked by an asterisk
before their names were not completed at the end of 1880: —
RUSSIA.
383
Names of ironclads
Armour
thickness at
water line
Guns
Indicated
horse-
power
Displace-
Number
Weight
ment, or
tonnage
First-class: —
Inches
Tons
Peter the Great .
14
4
35-ton
2,200
9,510
*Minin
12
4
35-ton
2,600
5,650
*Malakoff .
10
4
35-ton
2,500
5,000
Second-class : —
*Duko of Edinburgh .
6
{t
12-ton \
6i-ton/
2,000
4,438
General-Admiral
6
f 4
I 2
1 2-ton "\
61-ton/
2,000
4,438
Admiral Tchitchagoflf".
5'
4
35-ton
1.800
3,396
Admiral Spiridoif
51
4
3o-ton
1.800
3,396
Admiral Greig .
5
6
25-ton
1,800
3.450
Admiral LazarefF
5
6
25-ton
1.800
3,450
Kniaz-Pojarski .
H
10
12-ton
1.800
4,291
Sevastopol .
4
rio
I 8
12-ton"!
80-pdrs./
2,600
5,944
PetropauloYski .
4
fio
I 8
12-ton \
80-pdrs./
2,600
5,944
Third-class : —
*KremI
H
{t
12-ton 1^
6i-ton /
1,500
3,260
*Netronmena
4J
{I
12-toni
6i-ton/
1,500
3,260
Pervenets .
H
26
ei-ton
1.500
3,260
Tcharodeika
H
4
12-ton
800
1.835
Koussalka .
H
4
12 -ton
800
1,835
Smertch
H
2
12-ton
800
1,580
Bromenosetch
4
2
18-ton
800
1,555
Edinorog .
4
2
1 8-ton
800
1,555
Koldoun .
4
2
18-ton
800
1,555
Latnik
4
2
18 -ton
800
1,555
Lava ....
4
2
18-ton
800
1,555
Ouragan
4
2
18-ton
800
1.555
Perm.
4
2
18-toa
800
1,555
Streletz
4
2
18-ton
800
1.555
Tiphon
4
2
18-ton
800
1,555
Veshtchoun
4
2
18-ton
800
1,555
Circular moniiors : —
Admiral PopofiF .
18
2
40-ton
640
3,550
Novgorod .
11
2
28-ton
480
2,490
The two most powerful vessels of the Eussian ironclad navy are
the niastless turret-ships, Peter the Great and Muiin, the latter
not quite completed at the end of 1880. The Peter the Great, con-
structed in the harbour of Kronstadt, and launched in 1874, resembles
384 1'iIE statesman's year-book, 1S81.
in design and constrnction the three great mastless turret-ships of
the British navy, more especially the Dreadnought (see page 234),
though of larger size, its length being 321 feet, and its extreme
breadth G4 feet. The Peter the Great carries two turrets. The
Minin, armed, is smaller in size, being 298 feet long, and 50 feet
in extreme breadth.
An ironclad of an entirely novel description is the third on the
list, the INIalakoff. It is being built in the yard of Messrs. John
Elder & Co., Glasgow, after designs of Admiral Popoff. The
MalakofF is almost exactly of the form of a tortoise, and lies deep
in the water, with a convex shield on the top, presenting but a
small surface for shot, which, besides is expected partly to glide off
from the thick armour. The Malakoff is contracted for to be
launched at the end of 1881.
Next to the Peter the Great and the Minin, the largest of the
thirty ironclads of the Russian navy are two new broadside
ships, the Duke of Edinburgh and the General-Admiral, the first in
course of completion in 1880. The Duke of Edinburgh, originally
called the Alexander Nevsky, and the General-Admiral, are each
285 feet in length and 48 feet in extreme breadtli, built of iron
sheathed with wood, and with a six-inch armour-belt on the water
line to protect the vital parts. The battery deck of these ironclads
is similar to that of the British ships of the Hercules and Invincible
classes (see pages 234-5), the guns being so arranged as to fire in all
directions. Next in the list of sea-going cruisers stand the four
Eussian ironclads named after admirals, namely, the Admiral
Tchitchagoff, Admiral SpiridofF, Admiral Greig, and Admiral
Lazareff. They are turret-ships of the type of the Monarch (see
page 235), the turrets being encased in six-inch armour. The
next ship in the list, the Kniaz-Pojarski, was built by English en-
gineers at the naval yard of St. Petersburg, and launched in Sep-
tember 1860. The Kniaz-Pojarski is 280 feet long, 49 feet beam,
and about 31 feet deep. The last two armour-clad ships in the list
of seagoing cruisers, the Sevastopol and Fetropaulovski, are of obso-
lete type, having been built in 18G3 and 1864, the former being the
first constructed ironclad of the Russian navy.
An entirely new feature in the construction of armour-clad vessels
is represented V>y the two Circular IMonitors, also called ' Popolfkas,'
after their designer, Admiral PopofF, builder of the Peter the Great.
The first of these new ships, named the Novgorod, of 2,000 tons
burthen and 480 horse-power, was launched in June 1873, at the
docks of NicholaiefF, near Sevastopol ; and the second, named Admiral
Popoff, was launched in October 1875 from the dockyard of Nichol-
aieff. The Admiral PopofF is reported to embrace all the latest
improvements in this class of vessels, being 120 feet in diameter
RUS:<IA. 385
against 100 feet of tlie Novgorod, and of greater speed, with lesser
draught of Avater, namely, 12^ feet. However, as the mean speed
•of the Circular Monitors is not calculated to be more than from
eight to nine miles an hour, they must be held to be chiefly fitted
for defensive purposes, serving as ' floating fortresses.'
The Iraperial navy was commanded, at the end of March 1880,
by 17 admii-als, 32 vice-admirals, 31 rear admirals, 201 first-class cap-
tains, 98 second-class captains, 303 captain lieutenants, 443 lieute-
nants, and 129 midshipmen of the special corps attached to the navy.
The navigation detachment contained, at the same date, five generals
and 508 stafE officers ; the naval artillery four generals and 197 staff
officers; and the naval engineers six generals and 139 staff officers.
The sailors of the Imperial navy are levied, like the army, by
recruitment ; many of them, however, are enlisted voluntarily, and
the crews furnished by Finland are obtained altogether in this
manner. The period of service in the navy is nine years, seven of
v/hich must be spent in active service, and two in the reserve.
Area and Population.
The Russian empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part
of the globe, and about one-twenty-sixth part of its entiie surface.
Owing to the vast extent of the Empire, and its social condition, no
surveys that can lay claim to accuracy have yet been made, and
the area is obtained in greater part from estimates. There has been
likewise no general census of the population, but various enumera-
tions, made by the government during "the years 1870 to 1873,
mainly undertaken for purposes of finance or war, serve to furnish an
approximately correct return of the numbers of the people. Ac-
cording to them, the total ai-ea of the Empire embraces 8,238,771
English square miles, while the total population numbers 85,426,142,
being, on the average, 10 individuals to the square mile. The
density of population of European Russia is considerably greater
than that of the Asiatic part of the Empire. Russia in Europe,
comprising an area of 2,261,244 English square miles, with
78,472,347 inhabitants, has, on the average, 34 individuals to the
square mile, while Asiatic Russia, extending over 5,977,127 English
square miles, with 6,935,795 inhabitants, has barely more than a
single individual to the square mile.
The following table exhibits the details of these official statements,
— referring to the year 1870, as regards the whole of European
Russia, and to various dates, mostly later, in respect to the Asiatic
portion of the Empire — concerning the area and population of the
various political and geographical divisions of the Empire 01
Russia : —
c c.
386
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Governments
Area: English
square miles
i
Population
1. Russia in Europe: —
Archange ......
331,490
281,112
Jaroslav
13,750
1,000,748
Kaluga .
11.939
996,252
Kostroma
32,701
1,176,097
Koursk .
17,936
1,945,807
Moscow .
12,858
1,772,624
Nijni Novgoro
d
19,796
1,271,564
Novgorod
47,234
1,011,445
Olonetz
57,437
296,392
Orel
18,041
1,596,881
Pskov .
17.069
775,701
Riazan .
16,254
1,477,433
Smolensk
21,638
1,140,015
Tambov .
25,683
2,150,971
Tula
11,956
1,167,878
Tver
25,223
1,528,881
Vladimir
18,863
1,259,923
Vologda .
155,492
1,003,039
Voronej .
25,438
2,152,696
Great Eussia
Kharkov
880,798
24,005,459
21,040
1,698,015
Kiev
19,689
2,175,132
Poltava
19,265
2,102,614
Tchernigov ......
Little Russia
Astrakhan ......
20,232
1,659,600
80,226
7,635,361
86,668
601,514
Kazan .
24,600
1,704,624
Orenbui^
73,886
900,547
Penza
14,996
1,173,186
Perm
128,245
2,198,666
Samara .
60,198
1,837,081
Saratow .
32,622
1,751,268
Simbirsk
19,109
1,205,881
Ufa
47,032
1,364,925
Viatka .
59,114
2,406,024
Eastern Eussia
! 3
Bessarabia ......
546,470
15,143,716
14,046
1,078,932
Cossacks of the Don ....
61,911
1,086,264
Ekat«rinoslaf
26,147
1,352,300
Kherson. .
.
.
.
•
27,622
1,696,809
R
USSIJi
L.
38/
Governments
Area : English
square miles
Population
Sea of Azov ......
14,217
_
. Taurida i
24,538
704,997
South Exissia
Grodno
168,381
5,819,302
14,965
1,008,521
Kovno .
15,691
1,156,041
Minsk .
35,273
1,182,230
Moghilev
18,158
947,625
Podolia .
16,223
1,933,188
Vilna .
16,412
1,001,909
Vitebsk .
17,439
888,727
Volhynia
27,736
1,704,018
"Western Russia
Courland
161,897
9,822,259
10,535
619.154
Esthonia . . ....
7,817
323,961
Livonia .......
18,158
1,000,876
Baltic Provinces
Total, Russia Proper
Kalisz
20,759
1,325,471
57,269
3,2^9,462
1,895,041
65 695,559
4,391
609,261
Kielce
3,897
518,730
Lomsha .
4,667
489,699
Lublin .
6.500
707,098
Piotrkow
4,729
682,495
Plotzk .
4,200
471,938
Eadom .
4,769
532,466
Siedlce .
5,536
504,606
Su'walki .
4.846
524,489
Warsaw .
5,622
925,639
Poland
Abo-Bjorneborg .....
49,157
6,026,421
9,332
310,159
Kiiopio .
16,499
230,692
Nyland .
4,584
175,558
St. Michael
8,818
160,694
Tevastehus
8,333
197,140
Uleaborg
63,954
189,044
Viborg .
16,623
278,754
Wasa ,
.
16,078
314,994
Finland
Kuban .......
144,221
1,857,035
36.782
672,224
Stavropol
27,020
437.118
Ter
Cis-Caucasia
23,267
485,237
87,069
1,694,579
C C5l
388
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Governments
1 Area: English
rop\i'ation
square miles
Baku
15,151
513,560
D;ighest:in
11,521
448,299
Elizabethpol .
17,114
529,412
Erivan .
10,670
452,001
Kutais .
7.995
605,691
Sukhum .
3,331
70,701
Tchernoiemore
2,741
15,703
Tiflis .
15,613
606.584
Sdkhatali
1,620
56,802
Trans-Caucasia
Caucasus
Total, European Kussiu,
2. liussia in Asia : —
85,756
3,298,753
172,825
4,893,332
2,261,244
78,472,347
Amoorskaya ......
173,552
44,400
Irkutsk
309,177
378,244
Primorskava, or 3Iaritime Region .
731,910
45,000
Tobolsk . '
531.959
1,036,848
Tomsk
329,024
838,756
Trans-Baikal
240,770
430,780
Yakutsk
1,517,063
231,977
Yeniseisk
Siberia
Akmoliusk ......
992,832
372,862
4,826,287
3,428,867
210,556
381,200
Zarafshan
19,625
271,000
Semipalatiusk
188,291
510,163
Semiretchinsk
155,290
543,094
S^T-Daria
165,996
848,489
Turgai .
202,183
289,930
Ural
141,468
346,715
KulJja .
27,457
114,337
Amu-Daria
39,974
220,000
Central Asia
Total, Asiatic Russia
Grand total, Russian Empire
1,150,840
3,524,928
5,977,127
6,953,795
8,238,771
85,426,142
By articles 42 and 59 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13,
1878, Russia added to its vast territories the province of Bessarabia,
taken from Roumania, together with the districts of Ardahan, Kars,
iu:ssjA. 389
and Batoum, in Asia Minor, detached from tlie Turkish Empire.
Bessarabia has an estimated area of 3,720 English square miles, with
a population of 140,000. According to the most reliable estimates
the newly acquired district in Asia Minor, formed, provisionally,
into the government of Kars, embraces an area of 5,670English square
miles, with a total population o£ G00,G44, comprising 417,602 Ma-
hometans and 183,042 Christians.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and mar-
riages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the four
years from 1867 to 1870, after the last official returns of the central
statistical committee of the Ministry of the Interior : —
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surphis of
births orerdeatlis
1867
1868
1869
1870
3,201,340
3,093,087
3,178,970
3,180,223
2,299,165
2,517,037
2.450,362
2,263,021
639,741
606,764
646,549
670,832
902,175
576,050
728,608
917,202
According to these returns the population progresses at an average
increase of 781,000 a year- a percentage which, supposing the in-
habitants always to multiply at the same rate, would double the
population in 58 years.
The vast majority of the population of Kussia are devoted to
agricultural occupations, and dwell in villages, spread thinly over the
vast area of the empire. According to local enumerations made at
various periods there are but sixteen towns containing more than
50,000 inhabitants. The list is as follows: —
Towns Population Towns
8t. Petersburg (1869) . 667,920 Kasan
Moscow (1871) . . . 611,970 : Kieff.
Warsaw .... 251,584 Nicolaieflf .
Odessa (1873) , . . 162,814 ' Tiflis
Xichcneff (Bessarabia) . 103,998 , KharkofF .
Ptigii 102.043 Tula .
Saratoff . . . . 93.218 Berditcheif
Vilna . . . . 79,265 Samara
Population
78,602
70,591
67,972
60.937
59,968
58,150
52,786
51,947
In the larger towns a considerable proportion of the trading and
iridustrial population are either aliens, or of foreign extraction.
The population of Russia Proper is composed of three groups : Greut
Russians, or Veliko-Russ ; Little Russians, or Malo-Russ; and White
Russians, or Belo-Russ. The first, numbering 35,000,000, all
belonging to the Slavonian race, occupy the central provinces ; the
second, numbering about 11,000,000, compose the bulk of the popu-
lation of Poltava, Kharkof, Chernigof, Kief, Volhynia, Podok^k,
390 THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Ekaterinoslaf, and the Taurida ; the White Russians, about
3,000,000, inhabit the provinces of Monilef, Minsk, Vitebsk, and
Grodno. Besides these three groups of Russians proper, there is a
great variety of national elements in the general population of the
Russian Empire.
Previous to the year 1861, the greater portion of the inhabitants
of the empire were serfs, belonging either to the Crown or to private
individuals. The number of the latter class was estimated in 1861
at 22,000,000, who were the property of 109,340 nobles and other
private persons. By an imperial decree of March 3, 1861, coming
into final execution on March 3, 1863, serfdom was abolished,
under certain conditions, within the whole of Russia. The owners
of the serfs were compensated for their land on a scale of payment
by which the previous laboiu" of the serf was estimated at a yearly
renial of 6 per cent., so that for every six roubles which the labourer
earned annually, he had to pay 100 roubles to his master as his
capital value to become a freeholder. Of this sum, the serfs had to
give immediately 20 per cent., while the remaining 80 per cent,
were disbursed as an advance b}^ the Government to the owners, to
be repaid, at intervals extending over forty-nine years, by the freed
peasants. According to an official report, the whole of these arrange-
ments were completed at the end of July, 1865, so that, from this
date, serfdom ceased to exist in Russia.
Besides the 22,000,000 of serfs belonging to private owners,
there were, according to a census taken at the time, 22,225,075
Crown peasants — that is, 10,583,638 men, and 11,641,437 women.
The emancipation of this class began previous to that of the private
serfs, and was all but accomplished on September 1, 1863. By an
imperial decree of July 8, 1863, land was granted to the peasants on
the private and appanage estates of the Crown, and to the peasants
who belonged to the imperial palaces, Avhich they are to pay for in
forty-nine years in instalments, each equal in amount to the ' obrok,'
or poll-tax formerly yielded by them. The peasants on these Crown
estates, about 2,000,000 in number, were thereby elevated to the
rank of rent-paying peasants, a situation in which they will remain
for forty- nine years, when they become freehold landowners.
Since the Emancipation Act of 1861 the cultivable lands of Russia
pi -.per in Europe have been approximately distributed as follows : —
Per cent.
Town lands, about . . . . . '. . • 0'4
Crown „ 34-r.
Lands attached to mines 3.5
„ held by peasants : 1. Crown peasants 15'6 per cent. '^ 2o-6
„ „ 2. Former serfs 5'0 „ >
Lands held by landed gentry and nobility . . .19*7
,, other proprietors, or not surveyed . . 20-4
RUSSIA.
391
It will be seen that about one-third of the cviltivable land in
Eussia proper is held by the State ; one-fifth by landed proprietors ;
and one-fifth by the peasantry.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of Russia with foreign countries is officially divided
into trade Avith Europe, and trade with Asia; the former being sub-
divided into trade through the Baltic ports, through the White Sea
ports, through the Southern ports, and over the European land
frontier. The immense extent of the Empire, and its ever-changing
limits eastward, make it difficult to obtain exact returns of the
aggregate amount of its foreign commerce, which must be partly
estimated. According to official statements, the total value of im-
ports in the five years 1874 to 1878 averaged, in round numbers,
455,000,000 roiibles, or 65 millions sterling, while the valvie of the
exports during the same triennial period averaged 476,000,000
roubles, or 68 millions sterling per annum. The four principal
articles of import drunng the period were raw cotton, iron and other
unwrought metals, tea, and machinery of all kinds, while the staple
article of export was grain and other agi-icultural produce.
The two principal countries trading with Russia are Germany
and Great Britain. Of the imports, about 40 per cent, annually
came from Germany, and 20 per cent, from Great Britain ; and of the
exports 35 per cent, went to Great Britain, and 20 per cent, to Ger-
many, on the average of the five years 1874 to 1878.
The commercial intercoiu'se of Russia with the United Kingdom
is shoAvn in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the value
of the total exports from Russia to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the imports of British and Irish pi-oduce into Russia, in each of
the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Ye
Exports from Eussia to Great
Imports of British Home
Britaiu and Ireland
Produce into Eussia
1870
£
20,561,127
£
6,991,761
1871
23,721,375
6,683,948
1872
24,320,333
6,609,224
1873
21,189,231
8,997,721
1874
20,933,391
8,776,468
1875
20,708,901
8,059,524
1876
17,574,488
6,182,838
1877
22,142,422
4,178,641
1878
17,803,852
6,559,482
1879
15,876,585
7,644,629
The commerce between Russia and the United Kinardcm was
392
THE STATESMAN S Yl-'AK-llOOK, 18S1.
divided as follows between the Northern and the Southern ports of
the empire, in each of the three years 1877 to 1879 : —
Exports from Russia
to Great Britain
1877
1878
1879
Northern Ports
Southern ., . .
Total . . .
£
18,925,959
3,216,463
£
12,352,193
5,451,659
£
11.063,115
4,813,470
22,142,422
17,803,852
15,876,585
Imports of British home
produce into Russia
1877
1878
1879
Northern Ports .
Southern ,, . .
Total . . .
£
3,868,765
309,876
£
5,441,347
1,118,135
£
6.609,251
1,035,378
4,178,641
6,559,482
7,644,629
The chief article of export from Russia to the United Kingdom
is grain, mainly Avheat. The grain and flour exports were of an annual
average value of over 8 millions sterling during the five years 1875 to
1870. (See table below.) The principal other articles of export to
Great Britain in the year 1879 were flax, exported to the value of
1,081,911/.; wood and timber, the exports of which amounted to
1,873,999/.; flax seed and linseed, exported to the value of
2,288,871/.; and hemp, exported to the value of 550,099/. Minor
articles of export to Great Britain are tallow and stearine ; bristles ;
wool ; cordage and twine ; oil-seed cake ; and tar. The principal
British imports into Kussia in the year 1879 were iron, Avrought and
unwrought, of the value of 1,205,G3S/. ; cotton stuffs and yarn, of
the value of 1,305,203/.; and woollens, of the value of 024,901/.
The ({uantities of grain and flour, exported from Russia to the
United Kingdom in each of the five years 1875 to 1879, from both
the northern and southern ports of the empire, were as follows : —
Exports 1875
187G
1877
1878 1 1879
Northern Ports .
outhern „
Total
Cw-ts.
8,333,408
11,547,965
Cvvts.
6,744,531
9,290,587
16,035,118
Cwts.
15.243,594
4,927,515
Cwts. 1 Cwts.
11,109.783 il0,457,892-
10,299,388 j 7,965,04e
19,881,373
20,171,109
21,409,171 18,422,93&
The declared value of the exports of l^read stuff from the northern
ports in the year 1879 was 3,947,091/., and from the southern
porta it was 3,431,594/. Thus, the total value of these exports of
Russia to the United Kingdom amounted to 7,379,285/. in 1879.
The total was 7,154,204/. in 1870; 10,085,049/. in 1877; and
8,334,171/. in 1878.
RUSSIA. 393
The commercial navy of Russia consisted, at tlie end of the year
1879, of 2,568 sea-going vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 261,231
ship last, or 522,462 tons. The total comprised 629 ships engaged
in trading to foreign countries, and 1,780 coasting vessels, many of
them belonging to Greeks, sailing under the Russian flag. Not
included in the return were 389 trading steamers on the rivers and
lakes of the empire, very nearly two-thirds of the number on the
river Volga and its affluents.
The internal commerce of the empire, as well as its foreign trade,
has been greatly extended by the establishment, in recent years, of
a comprehensive network of railways. During the latter part of
the reign cf Nicholas, three lines were constructed by the initiative
of the Emperor, being the short line from St. Petersburg to Zarskoje-
Selo and Pawlosk, first of Russian railways, opened in 1838, the
more important one from Warsaw to the Austrian frontier and
Cracow, and finally, the line from St. Petersburg to Moscow,
called the Nicholas railway, commenced in 1842, and opened Nov. 1,
1851. Under the successor of Nicholas, the present Emperor,
the construction of railways, both directly by the state, and by
private companies — the latter, in every case, receiving considerable
Government aid — was continued more actively than before, and on
the 1st of January 1874, the total length of the railways of Russia
open for traffic Avas returned officially at 15,842 versts, or 10,560
English miles. The latest official returns state that on the 1st of
Januaiy 1879, the total length of railways in Europe open for
traffic had increased to 20,506 versts, or 13,619 English miles. At
the same date 1,110 miles more of lines were in course of construction.
The progress of railway construction in Russia is shown succinctly
in the following table which gives the length of lines opened at suc-
cessive periods: —
1
Years
Versts
English Miles
1838 to 1865
1866 „ 1870
1871 „ 1875
1876 „ 1878
Total
3,578
6,514
7,606
. 1 2,719
2,385
4,343
5,071
1,812
. I 20,417
13,611
On the proposition of the Minister of Public Works, the Emperor
sanctioned, in June 1875, the extension of the then existing system by
6,500 versts, or 4,333 English miles, which, added to the 2,500 versts,
or 1,666 English miles, previously sanctioned, raised the total to
9,000 versts, or 6,000 English miles. The new network is to
be divided into four classes, according to different degrees of
urgency, and the first of these classes will include the Sibei'ian
Railway and the seven projected lines in the coal basin of the
Don ; 2,600 versts, or 1,734 English miles, are assigned to this class,
394
THE STATESMANS YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
at the head of which has been placed the immense Siberian line,
reported as ' most ui-gent ' by a Special Commission on Eailways
summoned in 1870. It is from a station on this line, probably
Tioumen, that the Central Asian line to Tashkend is to take
its rise, the continuation of the Orenburg line in that direction
having been condemned as impracticable, owing to the inhos-
pitable nature of the country it would have to traverse. The
importance of the seven lines about to be sanctioned for the coalfields
of the Sovith is great, as the new railways will traverse this field
in every direction, and connect it on one side Avith the Black
Sea and the Sea of Azov, and on the other with the existing
trunk lines of the Empire.
On the 1st of January 1879 there were 45 railway companies exist-
ing in the empire. Of this number, 10 had constructed their lines alto-
gether -without Government assistance ; while the remaining 35 were
guaranteed — 15 to the full amount of their capital, and the other 20
only to a partial extent. The entire sum guaranteed in 1874 by
the State in the shape of interest and repayment of capital amounted
to 51,177,627 roubles, or 7,311,089/. In the year 1878 the sum of
14,592,172 roubles, or 2,084,596/., being 78*52 per cent, of the sum
total, was paid out of the exchequer to the railway companies. The
charters granted to railway companies are for the most part ter-
minable after between 75 and 85 years ; bitt some small companies
have charters only for 37 years.
The following table shows the gross receipts, the working exj^enses,
and the net receipts of the Russian railways during each of the
ten years from 1869 to 1878 : —
Tears
Gross Receipts
Working Exisenses
Ket Receipts
Roubles
Roubles
Roubles
1869
65,272,518
35,469,953
29,802,-565
1870
78,820,633
46,719,992
32,100,642
1871
95,075,742
60,386,666
34,689,076
1872
102,645,916
66,081,549
36,564,367
1873
123,696,908
72,248,948
51,447,960
1874
141,632,640
89.124,000
52,508,640
1875
142,004,655
92,941,455
49,063,200
1876
147,396,236
100,267,449
47,128,787
1877
193,223.874
121,494,777
71,729,097
1878
211,905,768
133,120,261
78,785,497
It appears from official returns referring to the end of the year
1878, that at that date the capital of all the railway companies
amounted to 1,450,288,196 roubles, or 207,184,028/. The capital
consisted of 135,446,153/. in bonds and 71,737,875/. in shares?. No
less than 92,101,350/. of the bonds and 9,055,750/. of the shares
RUSSIA. 595
were held hy the Government themselves; 48 8-10 per cent, of the
whole railway property of the country was therefore held by the
Government.
The Post-office in the year 1878 conveyed 93,692,561 letters
and postcards, 6,676,710 wrappers and parcels, and 63,350,064
newspapers. There were 3,678 post-offices in the empire at the
commencement of 1879. The total receipts of the General Post
in the year 1878 did not cover the expenditure.
The length of telegraph lines in Prussia, on the 1st of January
1879, was 88,518 versts, or 59,012 Enghsh miles, and the length
of wire 175,843 versts, or 117,229 English miles. Of the total
system, about two-thirds was the property of private companies,
inclusive of railways. There were at the same date 2,166 telegraph
offices, 935 belonging to the State, and 1,231 to private companies.
The total number of telegrams carried in 1877 Avas 5,369,935,
comprising 4,193,980 inland despatches, and the rest on inter-
national service. The receipts of the telegraph office — 6,652,632
roubles, or 950,376^., in 1877 — showed, in recent years, a small
annual surplus, which is, by Imperial decree, always devoted to the
extension of the telegraphic system.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Russia in Great Britain.
Aniiassador. —Vrince LobanoflF-Rostoifsky, appointed January 1, 1880.
Councillor of Embassy/. — H. de Bartolomei.
Secretaries.— A. BoutenefF: Count N. Adlerberg ; Prince Dimitri Dolgorouky,
Military Attache. — General GorloiF.
Naval Attache. — Vice-Admiral J. Likhatcheff.
2. Of Great Britain in Russia.
Ambassador.— ^.t. Hon. Frederick Temple Blackwood, Earl of Dufferin, born
June 21, 1826; educated at Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford; British Com-
missioner in Syria, 1860; Under-Secretary of State for India, 1864-66; and
for War, 1866-67 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1868-72 ; Governor-
General of the Dominion of Canada and British North America, 1872-78.
Appointed Ambassador to Russia, February 8, 1879.
Secretaries.— B.ou. Francis Richard Plunkett ; Lord William Compton ; W.
N. Beauclerk.
Military Attache. — Lt.-Col. L. V. Swaine.
Money, Weights, and Measures of Russia.
The money, weights, and measures of Russia, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
MONBY.
The Silver Rouble, of 100 copecks . = Approximate value 25. lOi., or about
7 roubles to the pound sterling.
39^ THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, ISSi.
The silver rouble is the legal unit of money in Russia, and mupt
contain as such 278 grains, or 4 Zolotaicks and 21 Dolis, of fine
silver. In actual circulation there is little else but paper money,
discounted at from 10 to 20 per cent, below its nominal value.
Weights and "Measures.
The Bcrkowitc: . . . . = 360 lbs. avou'diipois.
„ Pood ....
„ Ckeivert ....
„ Oxkuft ....
„ Anker ....
„ Vedro ....
,, Ar sheen
„ Dessiatine
„ Skip Last
1 Poimd ....
1 Pood, or 40lbs. Kussian .
63 Poods ....
1 Tckctvcrt
100 Tchct verts
1 Vcrst ....
36
5-77 imperial bushels.
•')8^ wine gallons.
^ . " . "
2j imperial gallons.
28 inches.
= 2 • 702 English acres.
= 2 tons.
= yjj of a pound English.
= 361bs. English.
= 1 ton.
= ~ of imperial quarter.
= 70 quarters.
= 3,500 ft., or two-thirds of a mile.
Since 1831, the English foot of 12 inches, each inch often p;irts,
has been used as the ordinary .'Standard of length measures.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Russia.
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire des finances russes: budget, credit, commerce, cheminsdo for. Par
A. Vesselovsky, secretaire du coraite scientifique du ministere des finances. 8.
St. Petersbourg, 1880.
Materials for a Statistick of the Empire of Russia. Publislied, und. r tlie
sanction of His Majesty, by the Statistical Department of the Ministry- of the
Interior (Russian). 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-80.
Reccuil de Donnees statislioues sur les Chemins dc Per cnRussie. S. St.
Petersbourg, 1880.
Sbornick : Military-statistical Cyclopaedia, issued under the direction of the
Imp. Ministry of War (Russian). 4. St. Petersburgh, 1878.
Tableau du commerce exterieur de la Russie de 1861 :i 1878. Public par la
commission Imperiale Russe de I'cxposition universello de Vienne. S. St.
Petersbourg, 1879.
Report by Mr. W. Doria, on the finances and commerce of the Russian
Empire, dated St. Petersburg. Dec. 20, 187o, with annexes of January 22,
1876 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Pirt I.
1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. W. Doria, on the foreign commerce of Russia, dated St.
Petersburg, March 19, 1877; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embas.'-y
and Legation.' No. IL 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Francis Richard Plunkett on the finances and public debt of
Russia, dated St. Petersburg, November 5, 1878, and January 27, 1879 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Secretary of Embassy and Legation.' Parts I. and II.
1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Stanley, on tlie trade and commerce of
RUSSIA. 397
Odessa, dated Odessa. March 4, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Ikporrs by Mr. Yice-Consul Wagstaff on the trade of Berdiansk ; by Mr.
Consul Barrow on the trade and commerce of Kerteh ; by Mr. Consul Stevens
on the trade of Nicolaieff; by Mr. Acting Vice-Consul Gardner on the trade
of Poti ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Soucanton on the trade of Revel ; by Mr. Consul
Grignon on the trade and commerce of Riga ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Harford on
the trade of Sebastopol ; by Mr. Consul Carruthers on the trade of Taganrog,
and by Mr. Consul-Gencral C. E. Mansfield on the trade and commerce of
Poland, dated January-August, 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No.
VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Grignon on the commerce of Riga, dated November
15, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1877. 8. London,
1877.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Lowe on the trade of Berdiansk ; by Mr. Consul
CampbeU. on the commerce of Finland ; by Mr. Consul Barrow on the trade of
Kerteh ; byMr. Vice-Consul Wagstaff on the trade of Nicolaieff; by Mr. Consul-
General Stanley on the commerce of Odessa and Southern Russia; and Mr.
Consul Carruthers on the trade of Taganrog, elated February -May 1877 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. IV. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Lowe on the trade of Berdiansk ; by Mr. Consul
Barrow on the trade of Kerteh ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Wagstaff on the commerce
of Nicolaieff; by Mr. Vice-Consul Gardner on the trade of Poti ; by Mr. Consul
Grignon on tlie commerce and shipping of Riga ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Moffat
on the tradtj of Sebastopol ; and by Mr. Consul Carruthers on the commerce of
Taganrog, dated January-April 1878; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Campbell on the trade of Helsingfors, dated Decem-
ber 31, 1878, and Feln-uary 10, 1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Russia with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the
trade of the United Kingdom wth Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publtcatioxs.
Bax (Capt. B. W., R.N.) Russian Tartary, Eastern Siberia. 8. London,
1876.
Bar (K. E. von), and Hdmerscn (Gr. von), Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Rus-
sischen Reichs. 25 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-72.
Barri/ (Herbert), Russia in 1870. 8. London, 1871.
Bcrnhardi (T. von), Gesehichte Russland's. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1874.
Besobrasof (W.), Etudes sur les revenus publics. 1 partie. Memoires de
I'acad. des sciences de St. P^tersbourg. 4, St. Petersbourg, 1870.
Brasche (Otto), Beitrag zur Methode der Sterblichkeitsberechnung und zur
Mortalitatsstatistik Russlands. 8. AViirzburg, 1870.
Bryce (James), Transcaucasia and Ararl. 8. London, 1877.
Buschen (A. von), Aper9u statistique des forces productives de la Russie. 8,
Paris, 1868.
Eckardt (Dr. Julius), Russland's landliche Zustande seit Aufhebung der
Leibeigenschaft. 8. Leipzig, 1870.
Erman (Georg Adolf), Archiv fiir die wissenschaftliche Kunde Russlands.
25 vols. 8. Berlin, 1841-68.
FlerofsJci (N.), The Condition of the Labouring Classes in Russia. (Russian.)
8. St. Petersburg, 1869.
398 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Golovine (Ivan), Etudes et Essais: Riehesse de la Eiissie, Economic privee,
Economie hospitaliere. 8. Paris, 1864.
Haxthauscn (A. von), Studien liber die inneru Ziistaude, das Volksleben u. s. w.
Eusslands. 3 vols. 8. Berlin, 1847-52.
Hippcau (C), L'instruction publique en Russie. 12. Paris, 1878.
7^«rt!;^■Ks (K.E. T.) Statistisk Handbok for Finland. 8. Helsingfors, 1872.
Jourdier (L.), Des forces productives, destructives, et improductives de la
Eussia. 8. 2nded. Leipzig, 1861.
K6ppm(I>T. P. voji), Statistisclie Eeise in Russland. 8. St. Petersburg, 1864.
.> Martin (Henri), La Eussie d'Europe. 8. Paris, I8C0.
Michrll (Robert), Summary of Statistics of the Eussian Empire, in ' Journal
of the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. 35, part 3. 8. London, 1872.
MoUnari (Gustave de), Lettres sur la Eussie. New cd. 18. Paris, 1878.
Prndi/ (J. N.), Description etlinographique des peuples de la Eussie. 8.
St. P^tersbourg, 1862.
Pd~hoUlt (Alex.), Eeise im Westlichen und Siidlichen Europiiisehen Euss-
land, 8. Leipzig, 1860.
Porochine (Vict, de), Les Eessources Materielles de la Eussie. 8. Paris, 1865.
Rambaud (Alfred), The History of Eussia from its origin to the year 1877.
2 vols. 8. London, 1879.
Bavenstcin (E. G.), The Eussians on the Amur; its Discovery, Conquest, and
Colonisation. 8. London, 1861.
Eeed (E. J.) Letters from Russia in 1875. 8. London, 1876.
Rotfqcr (Carl), Eussische Revue. Monatsschrift fiir die Kunde Russlands.
8. St." Petersburg, 1880.
Eoth (H. L.), A Sketch of the Agriculture and Peasantry of Eastern Eussia.
8. London, 1868.
Sarauiu (Christian von) Die Russische Heeresmacht auf Grund offizieller
Quellen und eigeuer Anschauung. 8. Leipzig, 1875.
Sarauw (Chrn. von), Russland's Kommerzielle Mission in Mittelasien. 8.
Leipzig, 1871.
Schuyler (Eugene), Turkestan. Notes of a Journey in Eussian Turkestan,
Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja. 2 vols. 8. London. 1876.
Schnitzler (Jean Henri), L'Empire des Tsars. 3 vols. 8. Paris and
St. Petersburg, 1856-69.
Schnitzler (Jean Henri). Les Institutions de la Eussie, depnis les riformes
de I'Empereur Alexandre II. 2 vols. 8. Paris. 1867.
Semenovj (N.), Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Eussian
Empire (Eussian). 4 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-66.
Statistische Mittheilungen aus Eussland (Eeprinted from the ' St. Peters-
burger Kalender'). 8. St. Petersburg, 1877.
Stchapof (A.), The Intellectual Development of the Eussian People.
(Russian). 8. St. Petersburg, 1870.
Strclhitzkjf (M.) Evaluation of the Surface of the Empire of Russia under
the Eeign of Emperor Alexander II. (Eussian.) 4. St. Petersburg, 1874.
Tegoborski (L. de), Etudes sur les Forces Productives de la Russie. 3 vols.
8. Paris, 1852.
Tunncr (Ritter P. von), Russland's Montan-Industrie, insbesondere dessen
Eisenwesen. 8. Leipzig, 1871.
Wallace (Mackenzie), Russia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
i^i
399
SERVIA.
(Knja2estvo Srbija.)
Eeigning Sovereign and Family.
Milan II., Prince of Servia (Knjas Srbski), born 1855, the son of
]\Iilos I. Obrenovic. Succeeded to the throne, by the election of the
Servian national assembly, after the assassination of his uncle,
Prince Michail Obrenovic, June 30, 1868. Crowned at Belgrade,
and assumed the government, Aug. 22, 1872 ; married October 17,
1875, to Fraulein Natalie von Keschko, born 1859. Offspring of
the union is a son, Alexander, born Aug. 14, 1876.
The present ruler of Servia is the fourth of his dynasty, which
was founded by Milos Todorovitsch Obrenovic, leader of the
Servians in the war of insurrection to throw off the yoke of Turkey.
The war lasted from 1815 to 1829, when the Turkish Government
was compelled to grant virtual independence to Servia. By the
terms of the treaty, signed September 14, 1829, Milos T. Obre-
novic was acknowledged Prince of Servia, and by a subsequent
Firman of the Sultan, dated August 15, 1830, the dignity was made
hereditary in his family. In consequence of a revolt of the troops,
Milos was forced, June 13, 1839, to abdicate in favour of his eldest
son, Milan I. The latter died July 8, 1839, whereupon his brother,
Michail, was proclaimed prince. Another revolt drove Michail
from the country, in 1842, and his family remained banished till
1858, when Milos T. Obrenovic was recalled to the throne. He
died Sept. 26, 1860, and was succeeded by his son, Michail, former
Prince of Servia, who was assassinated June 10, 1868, and replaced
by the present ruler.
The independence of Servia from Turkey was established by
article 34 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, and was
solemnly proclaimed by Prince Milan at his capital, August 21, 1878.
Constitution and Government.
By the constitution of Servia, the executive poAver is vested
iu the prince, assisted by a coxincil of seven ministers, who
are, individually and collectively, responsible to the nation. The
legislative authority is exercised by two independent bodies, the
* Sovjet,' or Senate, and the ' Narodna-Skupstina,' or National
Assembly. The Senate consists of seventeen members, nominated
by the prince, one for each of the seventeen departments into which
the comitry is divided. This body is always sitting. Formerly all
400 THE STATESMAN ;S yEAR-BOOK, 1881.
vacancies in the Senate were filled up by the rest of the members,
but for some time past the prince has exercised the power of appoint-
ing the senators. The National Assembly is composed of deputies
chosen by the people, at the rate of one deputy to eveiy 2,000
electors. The electors ai'e the males of the country above the age
of twenty-one years, paying direct taxes, and not being either
domestic servants or gipsies. Every elector, aged 30, is eligible to
become a member of the National Assembly, excej^t holders of
Government offices and the clergy.
Revenue and Ai^my.
The revenue of Servia is derived chiefly from direct imposts,
including a general capitation tax, classified as to rank, occupation,
and income of each individual, and which is assessed, in the first
instance, on the different communes, or parishes. The total public
revem:e of the year 1879 amounted to 37,597,500 tax-piastres, or
751,950L, and the expenditure to 37,290,000 tax-piastres,
leaving a surplus of 306,900 tax-piastres, or 6,138/. There
existed no public debt previous to the year 1876, when the
war with Turkey gave rise to the issue of a small internal loan.
To this was added a foreign loan of 1,000,000/., contracted in July
1877, with Paris bankers, under the guarantee of Rvissia.
The standing army, reorganised in 1867, consists of 6,500 men,
actually under arms. The troops comprise a small artillery corps
and 200 cavalry ; the remainder are infantry. Beyond these there
is in existence a militia service, the strength of which is estimated
at 70,000 men. The militia furnished by two departments of the
country, those of Belgrade and of Kragujcwatz, are artillerymen ; the
rest are infantry. There is also a newly organised volunteer service.
According to a law passed by the National Assembly in the session
of 1880, the total armed forces are fixed at 150,000 men on the
peace footing, and at 200,000 men on the war footing.
Population and Commerce.
The area of Servia, previously to the year 1878, was computed
at 16,600 square miles, with a population, according to the last
official returns, of 1,350,000. By the terms of the Treaty of Berlin
signed July 13, 1878, there was annexed to Servia a territory,
formerly belonging to Turkey, of 4,250 Eng. scjuare miles, Avith
316,110 inhabitants, raising the total area of the Principality to
20,850 Eng. square miles, with a popukvtion of 1,670,000. The
great majority of the inhabitants are Slavonians, but in the district
annexed in 1878 there are estimated to be 75,000 Maiiometans.
Belgi-ade, the capital of Servia, had a population of 27,605 at a
census taken on the 31st December 1874.
SERVIA.
40 1
Servia is divided into eighteen districts, the population of which,
distinguishing sexes, was as follows, according to the enumeration
of December 31, "1874: —
Districts
! Males
1
Females
Total
Town of Belgrade .
15,603
12,002
27,605
Alexinatz
29,929
27,732
57,661
Belgrade (district)
,
37,308
34,594
71,902
Valle70 .
45.501
42,785
88,286
Knejevatz
32,123
30,794
62,917
Kragoxiyevatz
55,689
52,006
107,695
Kraina .
' 38,981
37,036
76,017
Krouchevatz .
39,740
37,363
77,103
Podrigne
26,179
26,218
52,397
Pojarevatz
81,917
77,005
158,922
Eoudnik
26,700
26,013
52,713
Smederevo
36,322
34,214
70,536
Onjitze .
57,352
57,150
114,502
Tzernareka
30,017
28,417
58,434
Tchatchak
32,641
31,191
63,832
Chabatz
40,823
38,544
79,367
Yagodina
36,199
34,370
70,569
Tehoupriya .
32,863
30,569
63,432
! 695,887
658,003
1,353,890 1
New territory
316,110 :
To
tal ,
1,670,000
The excess of births over deaths amounted to 11,435 in 1877
and to 8,174 in 1878. The vast majority of the inhabitants are
members of the Greek Orthodox Church. At the enumeration of
1874 there were found besides them 4,161 Roman Catholics, 463
Protestants, 2,049 Jews, and G,30G Mahometans. Almost the
whole commerce of the coimtiy is in the hands of the Jews.
The chief trade of Servia is with Austria. Besides with this
country, commercial intercoiu-se is only carried on with Turkey
and Roumania. The trade of the principality is represented by
imports from Austria and Turkey of the annual value of 900,000Z.,
and exports, to the same countries, of 1,100,000/. The chief article
of export is that in live animals, particularly pigs. The latter, which
are kept in countless herds, feeding on the acorns which cover the
ground for miles, are driven in large quantities into Hungary and
adjoining parts of Austria. The commercial resources of Servia
are as yet wholly xmdeveloped, chiefly for want of roads.
402 THE STATESMAN g YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Diplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of Seevia in Great Britain.
Envoy (nul Minister.— M. Marinovitch, accredited June 31, 1880.
2. Of Great Britain in Servia.
Bifloinatic Agent and Consul- General. — Gerard Francis Gould, formerly
Secretary of Legation at St. Petersburg, 1863-66 ; Charge d' Affaires at
Buenos Ayre.s, 1866-68; at Athens, 1868-69; at Stockholm, 1870-72;
and at Lisbon, 1874-77. Appointed Diplomatic Agent and Consul- General for
Servia, August 7, 1878.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The official accounts are kept in ' tax-piastres,' equal in value to
4|-fZ., or 50 ' tax-piastres ' to the pound sterling. The circulating
coin consists chieiiy of Austrian and Russian currency.
Servia joined the Latin Monetary Convention (see page 39), by
a treaty dated June 20, 1879.
The usual weights and measures adopted by the people in their
transactions are tho.se of Turkey (see page 477), and in foreign trade
those of Austria.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Servia.
1. Official Publications.
Statistique de la Servie. 4. Belgrade, 1875-79.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Watson, on the trade of the Principality of
Servia, dated Belgrade, March 2, 1872; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
No. II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Longworth on the trade and commerce of
Servia, dated Belgrade. October 1873; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part L 1874. 8. London, 1874.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Balme (M.) La Principaut^ de Servie. 8. Paris, 1880.
Grieve (W. T.), The Church and People of Servia. 8. London, 1864.
Jakchieh (Vladimir), Recueil statistique sur les contrees serbes. 8. Belgrade,
1875.
Kanitz (F.). Serbien : Historisch-Ethnographische Reisestudien aus den
Jahren, 1839^1868. 8. Leipzig, 1868.
iVfyai'ouics(ElodieLavvton), The History of Modern Serbia. 8. London, 1872.
Paton (Andrew Archibald), Servia, the Youngest Member of the European
Family. 8. London. 1845.
Thiers (Henri), La Serbie : son passe et sou avenir. 8. Paris, 1862.
403
SPAIN.
(Las Espanas.)
Reigning King.
Alfonso XII., born November 28, 1857, the son of Queen Isabel
and of the Infante Francisco ; proclaimed King of Spain at Madrid,
December 31, 1874 ; assumed the government, January 9, 1875 ;
married January 23, 1878, to Princess Marie- de-las- Mercedes, born
June 24, 1860, youngest daughter of the Due de Montpensier;
widower, June 26, 1878 ; married, in second nuptials, Nov. 29, 1879,
to Archduchess Marie Christina of Austria, born July 21, 1858.
Offspring of the second union is a daughter, Marie-de-las-Mercedes,
born September 11, 1880.
Sisters of the King.
I. Infanta Isabel, Princess of the Asturias, born Dec. 20, 1851 ;
married, May 13, 1868, to Gaetan, Count de Girgenti; widow, Nov.
26, 1871.
II. Infanta Marie della Paz, born Jime 23, 1862.
IIL Infanta Eulalia, bom February 12, 1864.
Parents of the King.
Queen Isabel, born October 10, 1830; the eldest daughter of
King Fernando VII. ; ascended the throne at the death of her father,
Sept. 29, 1833; assumed the government on being declared of age,
Nov. 8, 1843 ; exiled Sept. 30, 1868 ; abdicated in favour of her son,
June 25, 1870. Married, Oct. 10, 1846, to her cousin. Infante Frrm-
cisco, born May 13, 1822.
Aitnt of the King.
Infanta Louise, born Jan. 30, 1832, the second daughter of King
Fernando VII. ; married Oct. 10, 1846, to Prince Antoine d'Orleans,
due de Montpensier, sixth son of King Louis Philippe of the French.
OfEspring of the union are two children : — 1. Princess Isabelle, born
Sept. 21, 1848; married May 30, 1864, to Prince Louis Philippe,
Comte de Paris, born Aug. 24, 1838, eldest son of Prince Ferdinand,
Duke of Orleans. 2. Prince Antoine, born Feb. 23, 1866.
Cousin of the King.
Infante Don Carlos Marie-de-los-Dolores, born March 30, 1848,
the eldest son of Infante Don Carlos Antoine, brother of King Fer-
nando VII. Married, Feb. 4, 1867, to Princess Marguerite of Bour-
bon, daughter of Duke Carlos III. of Parma. Offspring of the union
are two daughters and a son. Prince Joaquira, born June 27, 1870.
King Alfonso XII. has a civil list, fixed by the Cortes in June
1876, of 7,000,000 pesetas, or 280,000^., exclusive of allowances to
DD 2
404
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
members of the royal family. The annual grant to the Queen was
fixed by the Cortes, in December 1879, at 450,000 pesetas, or
18,000/., with a jointure of 250,000 pesetas, or 10,O00Z., in case of
■widowhood. The parents of the King, ex-queen Isabel and her
husband, have an allowance of 1,050,000 pesetas, or 42,000/., and the
fovu- infantas, his sisters, of 800,000 pesetas, or 32,000/. The total
amount of the civil list and allowances to the relatives of the King
was fixed by the Cortes in 1876 at 10,000,000 pesetas, or 400,000/.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of
Spain, with dates of their accession, since the foundation of the Spanish
monarchy by the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile : —
Hoicsc of Aragon.
Fernando v., 'The Catholic' . 1512
House of Habshurg.
Carlos I. . ■ . . . 1516
Felipe II 1556
Felipe III 1598
Felipe IV 1621
Carlos II 1G65
House of Bov.rhon.
Felipe V. . " . . .1700
Fernando VI. . . . 1746
Carlos III 1759
Carlos IV 1788
Fernando VII. . . .1808
House of Bonaparte.
Joseph Bonaparte . . . 1808
The average reign of the thirty
Fernando V. to King Alfonso XII., filling a period of three centuries
and a half, was twenty-seven years.
Government and Constitution.
The present constitution of Spain, drawn up by the Government
and laid before a Cortes Constituyentes, elected for its ratification,
]\Iarch 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It consists of 79
articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that Spain shall be a
constitutional monarchy, the executive resting in the King, and
the power to make the laws ' in the Cortes with the King.' The
Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, equal in aiithority.
There are three classes of Senators — first. Senators by their own
right, or Senadores de derecho jiropio ■ secondly, 100 life Senators
nominated by the Crown; and thirdly, 130 Senators elected by the
Corporations of State, and by the largest payers of contributions.
Senators in their own right are the sons, if any, of the King and of
the immediate heir to the throne, who have attained their majority ;
Grandees who are so in their own right and who can prove an
annual renta of 60,000 pesetas, or 2,400/.; captain-generals of the
House of Bourbon.
Fernando VII., restored .
1814
Isabel
1833
Bepublic.
Provisional Government .
1868
Marshal Serrano, Eegent
1869
House of Savoy.
Amadeo .....
1870 <
Bepublic.
Executive of the Cortes .
1873
Marshal Serrano, President
1874 1
House of Bourbon.
Alfonso XII
1875
n monarchs of Spain, from
King
SPAIN. 405
army ; admirals of the navy ; the patriarch of the Indias and the arch-
bishops ; the presidents of the Council of State, of the Supreme
Tribunal, and of the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino. The elective
Senators must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by totality
every time the King dissolves that part of the Cortes. The Congress
is formed by deputies ' naiued in the electoral Juntas in the form the
law determines,' in the pi-oportion of one to every 50,000 souls of
the population. By a royal decree issued August 8, 1878, the
Island of Cuba received the privilege of sending deputies to the
Cortes, in the proportion of one to every 40,000 free inhabitants,
paying 125 pesetas, or hi., annually in taxes. Members of Congress
must be 25 years of age; they are re-eligible indefinitely, the elections
being for five years. The deputies cannot take State ofiice, pen-
sions, and salaries ; but the ministers are exempted from this law.
Both Congress and Senate meet every year. The King has the
power of convoking them, suspending them, or dissolving them ; but
in the latter case a new Cortes must sit within three months. The
King appoints the president and vice-president of the Senate from
members of the Senate only. The King and each of the legislative
chambers can take the initiative in the laws.
The constitution of June 30, 1876, further enacts that the King is
inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and that all his decrees
must be countersigned by one of them. The Cortes must approve
his marriage before he can contract it, and the King cannot marry
any one excluded by law from the succession to the crown. Should
the lines of the legitimate descendants of Alfonso XII. become extinct
the succession shall be in this order — first, to his sisters ; next to his
aunt and her legitimate descendants ; and next to his uncles, the
brothers of Ferdinando VII., ' unless they have been excluded.' If
all the lines become extinct ' the nation will elect its monarch.'
The executive is vested, imder the King, in a Council of Ministers
of nine members, as follows : —
President of the Council. — Don Antonio Ciinovas del Castillo ;
President of the Coimcil from December 3, 1875, to March 7, 1879;
re-appointed President of the Council, December 9, 1879.
Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Don Jose Elduayen, Marqviis del
Pazo de la Merced, appointed March 18, 1880.
Minister of Finance. — Don Francisco Cos- Gay on, appointed
March 18, 1880.
Minister of the Intei-ior. — Don Francisco Romero y Robledo,
appointed December 9, 1879.
Minister of Justice. — Don S. Antonio Bugallal, appointed March
18, 1880.
Minister of Commerce and Agriculture. — Don Francisco de Lasala
y Collado, appointed December 9, 1879.
406 THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Minister of War. — Don Jose de Echevarria, Marquis de Fuente-
fiel, appointed December 9, 1879.
Minister of Marine. — Rear-Admiral Don S. Duran y Lira, ap-
pointed March 18, 1880.
Minister of the Colonies. — Don Carlos Bustillo, appointed March
18, 1880.
The various provinces of Spain, districts and communes, are
governed by their own municipal laws, with strongly pronounced
local administration. In the Constitution of 1869, the municipal
liVjerties of the people are guaranteed by Section 99 — ' La organi-
zacion y atribuciones de las Dipiitaciones provinciales y Ayu<nta-
mientos se regiran por sus respectivas leyes.' Every commune of
at least sixty members has its own elected Ayuntamiento, consisting
of from four to twenty-eight Regidores, or Consejales, and presided
over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger towns, several
Alcaldes tenientes. The entire municipal government, with power
of taxation, and authority for preserving the public peace, is vested
in the Ayuntamientos, re-elected every two years, the members
appointing annually the Alcalde, executive functionary, from their
own body. From the communal representation flows that of the
provinces of Spain, each of which has its o"vvn Parliament, the
Diputacio pi-ovincial, the members of which are elected by the
Ayuntamientos. The Diputaciones provinciales, Avhich are in-
vested with large political powers, and in many respects independent
of the national government and legislature, meet in annual session,
and are permanently represented by the Consejo provincial, a com-
mittee of from three to six members, re-elected every year. The
Constitution of 1870 secures to the Diputaciones provinciales
and the Ayimtamientos the government and administration
of the respective provinces and communes — ' gobierno y direccion
de los intereses peculiares de la provincia 6 del pueblo por las re-
spectivas corporaciones.' Neither the national executive nor the
Cortes have the right to interfere in the established municipal and
provincial self-government, except in the case of the action of the
DiputJiciones provinciales and Ayuntamientos going beyond the
locally limited sphere to the injury of general and permanent in-
terests— ' se extralimiten de sus atribuciones en perjuicio de los in-
tereses generales y permanentes.'
Church and Education.
The national Church of Spain is the Roman CathoHc, and the
whole population of the kingdom, with the exception of about
60,000 persons, adhere to the same faith. According to Article 12
of the Constitution of 1876, a restricted liberty of worship is allowed
SPAIN. 407
to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in private, all public an-
nouncements of the same being strictly forbidden. The Constitution
likewise enacts that ' the nation binds itself to maintain the worship
and ministers of the Roman Catholic religion.' Eesolutions of former
legislative bodies, not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that
the clergy of the established Church are to be maintained by the State.
On the other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835,
and March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed,
and their property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These
decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of the Eoman
Catholic Chiu'ch, which ended in the sovereign pontiff conceding
the principle of the measui-e. By a concordat with Rome, concluded
in August 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised to sell the
whole ecclesiastical property, except chiuches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates,
bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent.
It was found at the last general census, of 1860, that of the total
population of the kingdom there were 2,414,015 men, and 715,906
women, able to read and write ; 316,557 men, and 389,211 women,
ableto read but not to write; and that all the rest, upAvards of 5,000,000
men, and 6,800,000 women, could neither read nor write. At the
preceding census, of 1846, the total number of persons of both sexes,
able to write, was foimd to be no more than 1,221,001, while the
total number able to read was only 1,898,288, or considerably less
than one-fifth of the population.
According to official returns laid before the Cortes in July 1876,
the number of places of worship and schools of Spanish Protestants
were as follows : 53 places of worship ; 90 schools, enrolled mem-
bers 2,500, and 8,000 attendants at service on Simdays at the various
chapels ; 3,000 children. The poorest receive Protestant education.
Middle-class education is given in fifty-eight public colleges by
757 professors to 13,881 pupils. In first-class edtication, the most
remarkable feature is the large number of law-students, namely,
3,755 in 1859-60, divided among ten faculties. There were, at that
date, ten faculties of literature and philosophy, with 224 students ;
seven faculties of sciences, with 141 students; four faculties
of pharmacy, with 544; seven faculties of medicine, with 1,178 ; and
six faculties of theology, with 339 students— in all 6,181 students.
The expenditure for public education by the government amounted,
on the average of the last years, to rather less than 250,000/.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the kingdom is raised by a system of direct and
indirect taxation, stamp duties, Government monopolies, and income
from state property. The direct taxes are imposed on landed pro-
4o8
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
perty, houses, live stock, industry, commerce, registration acts,
titles of nobility, mortgages, and mineral produce. The indirect
taxes are derived from foreign imports, articles of consumption,
tolls, bridge and ferry dues.
There have been no accounts of the actual public revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom published since the year 1870-71, but
only budget estimates. These differ, as will he seen from the sub-
joined tabular statement, giving the budgets of three financial periods,
to an extent such as to alloAv not even an api^roximate judgment of
the real receipts and disbursements. According to official returns,
the following Avere the estimated soiuces of revenue and branches
of expenditure for the financial years ending June 30, 1871 ; June
30, 1875 ; and Jime 30, 1878 :—
Sources of Reventje.
Direct taxes ....
Indirect taxes
Sale of national property
State monopolies
Colonial revenue
Exemption from military sernce
Miscellaneoiis receipts .
Total .
Civil list ....
Cortes .....
Public debt ....
Compensations for privileges .
Pensions ....
Ministry of Pi-esident of Council
„ Foreign Affairs .
„ Grace and Justice
War .
„ Marine
„ Interior
„ Public Works
„ Finance
„ Colonies
Expenses of sale of national
property ....
Total' .
The totals of the budgets for the financial years 1878-79 and
1879-80, approved by the Cortes, were as follows : —
Year 1870-71
Year 1874-75
Yeai- 1877-78
£
£
£
7,932,450
6,047,000
11,488,000
4,851,210
4,333,000
8,360,000
9,120,371
2,317,000
515,000
4,312,715
5.308,000
8,777,000
1,135,000
119,000
200,000
2,545,000
550,000
1,023,000
100,000
27,901,746
21,792,000
29,440,000
ES OF Expend
ITUBE.
Year 1S70-71
Year 1874-7-5
Year 1877-78
£
£
£
312,000
120,000
380,000
33,122
10,451,200
1,956,000
9,989,000
223,450
400,000
1,931,221
1,260,000
1,787,000
69,834
20,000
50,000
142,340
12,000
130,000
2,521,713
41,000
1,729,000
4,730,321
9,840,000
4,891,000
965,210
1,320,000
1,039,000
992,752
739,000
1,632,000
1,721,356
78,500
1,956,000
5,782,427
4,100,000
5,320,000
16,240
; 200,000
527,000
2,926,238
721,500
32,819,424
20,808,000
29,430,000
SPAIN.
409
Financial
years
Eevenue
Total Bxpeuditure
1878-79
1879-80
Pesetas £
750,630,202 30,025,208
778,478,388 31,139,135
Pesetas £
753,177,860 30,127,114
806,590,940 | 32,263,638
The Minister of Finance declared, in presenting the budget for
1871-72, that the State was 'on the verge of bankruptcy ,' from which
it could be sared only ' by the most strenuous exertions, devoted
both to raise the revenue, by the imposition of new taxes and other-
wise, and to depress the expenditure to the lowest possible point.'
The latter recommendation has in recent years become difficult of
execution on account of the large expenditure connected with the
civil war. It will be seen from the preceding statement, giving the
budgets for 1870-71 and 1874-75, that while in the former financial
year the cost of the war department was estimated at 4,730,321/., it
was set down in 1874-75 at 9,840,000Z., being about one-half of the
total revenue which it was expected would be raised. But the army
expenditure fell again to under five millions in the budget of 1877-78,
and remained the same in the budgets of 1878-79 and of 1879-80.
The large and constantly increasing annual deficits, dating from
the reign of Queen Isabel, were covered, partly, by loans, partly by
extraordinary taxation — such as that ' exemptions from military ser-
vice,' figuring in the budget of 1874-75, — and partly by the sale of
national property, formerly belonging to churches, convents, and
monasteries. The national and church property of Spain was and is
still of immense value, but there was a reluctance in some persons to
buy the latter on account of religious scruples, till 1858, when a con-
cordat was concluded with the Pope and sanction obtained for the
sales, which were then actively continued, the Government giving
great facilities to the purchasers. The payments are made one-
tenth in cash, and the remainder in promissory notes from 1 to 10,
and, in some cases, to 19 years, the property remaining mortgaged
to the final instalment, owing to which the biddings at times have
been for even more than double the amount of its value. The
Cortes, in 1859, 1861, and 1863, authorised the Government to
apply 28,000,000/. for extraordinary expenses in constructing roads
and railways, and of this sum abotit 18,000,000/. had been spent
in 1869, the money being obtained out of the ftmds placed at in-
terest by capitalists, corporations, and the public in the ' Caja de
Depositos,' or Deposit Bank, under the direction of the Government.
The constant and ever- increasing excess of Government expendi-
ture over public revenue ci'eated a national debt of very large
amovmt. According to a report published by the Government in
the * Guia official de Espana ' of 1876, the debt and its annual
4IO
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
interest were as follows at the two dates of December 31, 1871, and
June 30, 1875 : —
Dec. 30, 1871 .
June 30, 1875 .
Capital of Debt Interest
Reales
29,734,586,152
40,975,987,607
£
297,345,861
409,759,876
Reales £
810,211,213 8,102,112
1,056,252,927 10,562,529
According to a report of the British Secretary of Legation at
Madrid, dated January 1, 1880, the public debt was then as follows —
State debt £387,864,660
Special Treasury debt 40,222,580
Floating debt on the 1st December, 1879 , . 2,280,000
Total .... 430,367,240
In addition to this total the State has incurred obligations in
respect to the Island of Cuba, estimated at over 10,000,000/.
The following statement — the last official issued — gives the various
items of the debt as existing on the 30th of June 1875, distinguish-
ing the loans contracted previous to June 18G8, and those contracted
from June 30, 1868, to June 30, 1875.
Loans Contracted previous to Jttne 1868
Description
Debt consolidated, viz. : —
Due to the United States, 5% debt .
External, 3 %
Internal ,, .
Bonds inscribed in favour of Civil Corporations
,, In favour of the Clergy . . . .
Debt external, deferred 3 % .
,, internal, „ ,,..,.
,, redeemable, of the 1st class
,, external ,, 2nd ,, . . .
,, internal ,, 2nd ,,
Debts redeemable : —
Bonds of public roads
„ for public works
„ of railways ....
Debt for materials ....
Arrears of salary due to public employes
Shares of the Canal of Isabel II.
Later issues .....
Debt not converted ....
Eedemption of Sound dues
' ■ Total
Escndos
of 10 reales.
1,200,000
200,481,200
579,053,337
244,257,800
112,324,586
133,598,837
229,823,400
201,801,792
5,846,737
27,591,200
21,023,000
13,170,300
6,454,200
141,221,300
416,236
43,233,246
1,048,400
74,265,230
112,820,117
1,300,000
f2,210,930,917
\ £221,093,092
SPAIN. 41 r
Description Escudos of 10 reales
Loans contracted from June 30, 1868, to June 30, 1875 : —
Loan contracted with the house of Eothschild . . 40,000,000
National Loan of 1869 200,000,000
Forced Loan of March 1869 100,000,000
„ May 1871 63,750,000
„ Octoher 1871 358,708,610
Various loans fi-om 1872 to 1875 .... 1,124,140,145
rr . 1 Tj ir -n u^ T QA iQ"- f 4,097,529,672
Total Public Debt, June 30, 18/ o i £409 752 967
In 1851, on account of the inability of the Government to meet
its engagements in full, a portion of the debt of SjDain was converted
into Passive Stock, that is, a stock not bearing interest, and which
was to be liquidated by an annual sinking fund. The law closed
the London market, and subsequently that of Paris, against Spanish
loans. It was admitted by successive ministers of finance in recent
years that Spain was absolutely iiuable to pay interest on its debt
in the existing state of things, ruined both by a costly and wasteful
civil war, and desperate and equally costly efforts to suppress the
insurrection in Cuba. In a report of the Government of the King
Alfonso XII., dated July 1875, it was stated that not any of the
national creditors could hope to be satisfied ' without having recourse
to credit operations at an enormous rate of interest, which in a
short time doubles the original debt.'
Army and Navy.
The army of Spain was re-organised in 1868, after the model of
that of France. Under the new military law, the ai-med forces of the
kingdom consist of — 1. A permanent army ; 2. A first or active re-
serve ; 3. A second or sedentary reserve. All Spaniards past the
age of 20 are liable to be drawn for the permanent army, in which
they have to serve four years. The first or active reserve is com-
posed of all young men who, without reckoning four years of
active service, have exceeded the number of years fixed by law for
the permanent force. The position of these young men is that of
soldiers upon six months' ftirlough -withoiit any pay. The second
reserve consists of all those men who, proceeding fi-om the re-
cruits, shall have had four years' effective service, only excepting
those who at their own request or for the convenience of the service
may be allowed to remain on the active list. It is arranged that until
the new organisation shall have come into full effect, — which was
not the case at the end of 1878, — and in order to preserve a proper
proportion between the active army and the reserve, the government
may anticipate the period of passing into the second reserve, even
before the completion of the four years of active service, in the case
412
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of any number who, between the permanent army and the first
reserve, may exceed 100,000 men. Every soldier must be liberated
after having served eight years either in the active or in the reserve
army. The nominal strength of the armed forces of Spain, in-
cluding those serving in the Isle of Cuba, Avas stated at 180,000
men in 1878.
For military purposes the kingdom is divided into five districts,
or ' capitanias generales,' at the head of each of which stands a
' captain-general,' with the rank of field-marshal. Ofiicial returns
of the year 1878 state the actwal strength of the army, including the
' provinciales ' or provincial militia, and the ' guardia civil ' or
national guard, as follows : —
Infantry ....
StafE
Officers
Rank aud file
Total
278
2,647
57.258
60,183
Artillery ....
44
369
9,486
9,899
Engineers ....
8
72
2,288
2,368
Cavalry
107
829
10,904
11,840
' Provinciales'
173
1,510
43,243
44,926
' Carabineros ' . . .
43
470
11,549
12,062
' Guardia civil'
Total .
24
401
9,965
10,390
677
6,298
144,693
151,668
The general staff of the Spanish army comprises five captains-
general on the active list, besides titular dignitaries, 60 lieutenants-
general, 131 majors-general, and 238 brigadiers-general.
The navy consisted, according to official returns, of the following
vessels afloat and under construction, at the end of 1878 : —
, ScEEW Steasiers : —
10 armour-clad ships, of from 16 to 40 guns
19 frigates, of fi-om 26 to 51 guns .
26 corvettes, of from 2 to 5 guns
18 gun-boats, each -with 1 gun
73 steamers
, Paddle Steamers: —
3 frigates, of 14, 16, and 18 guns .
5 corvettes, of from 2 to 10 guns .
10 avisos, 2 of 1, and 8 of 2 guns
18 paddle steamers
Sailing Vessels : —
1 corvette, of 15 guns ....
4 naval-school ships, of from 18 to 30 guns
3 coast-guard vessels, of 2 guns each
8 sailing vessels
Guns
195
413
68
18
694
48
40
18
106
15
106
6
122
SPAIN. 413
The ten armour-clad ships of the Spanish navy were constnxcted in
England and in France. The largest of them, the Vittoria, launched
early in 1868, was constructed by the Thames Ironworks Company.
The dimensions of the ship are, in length, 316 ft.; in breadth, 57 ft. ;
and in depth, 38 ft. ; while the displacement is 7,053 tons. The
Vittoria carries four 12-ton, three 9-ton, and twelve 7-ton guns, and
is armoured fi-om stem to stern with 5i-in. plates and 10-in. teak ;
the engines, of 5,000-horse power, nominal, are of the same type
as those of the Warrior and Minotaur. Next to the Vittoria in size
is the Numancia, constructed by the company o£ the ' Forges et
Chantiers de la Mediterranee,' at Marseille, France. The Numancia
is built entirely of iron, with the exception of the teak backing for
the armour plating, and is 316 feet long, and 57 feet broad at the
beam, with a draught of water of 27 feet 4 inches. The Numancia
is encased by 5-in. plates, and has an armament of six 18-ton, three
9-ton, and sixteen 7-ton Armstrong guns, broadside battery. Next
in rank after the Numancia stands the Ai-apiles, oldest of Spanish
ironclads, built at Blackwall, near London, and launched October
17, 1864. The Arapiles, constructed after French models, is of
wood, covered with plates 4^ inches thick, and carries 34 guns in
broadside battery. Of similar construction is the Saragossa, also
■with 4i-inch armour, and the Mendez Nunez, formerly named the
Eesolution. The other five ironclads, called the Sagunto, Puycerda,
Duque de Tetuan, Aragon, Castilla, and Navarra, are smaller vessels,
with 4-inch armour, carrying from three to ten guns. The three
last-named ironclads were built for coast defence.
For the defence of the colonies, and mainly of Cuba and Porto
Rico, Spain maintains a small fleet of gunboats, thirty-five in
number, all of the same size, 107ft. long, 22ift. beam, 8ft. depth
of hold, and drawing about 5ft. water. They are screw steamers,
and each one carries a 100-pounder pivot gun at the bow.
The navy of Spain was manned, in 1878, by 9,750 sailors, and
5,500 marines, and commanded by one ' captain-general of the fleet,'
20 admirals, and 378 commissioned officers of various grades. The
navy, like the army, is recruited by conscription, naval districts for
this purpose being formed along the coast, among the seafaring popu-
lation. The number inscribed on these naval conscription lists in
the year 1870 amounted to 66,000 men between 18 and 30 years
of age, and was reported to be 72,000 at the end of June 1875.
Area and Population.
The last general enumeration of the population took place on the
81st December 1877, the returns showing that at that date the king-
dom, including the Balearic and Canary Islands — ' Baleares ' and
414
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
' Canarias,' each considered a province — and tbe small strip of terri-
tory in North Africa, facing Gibraltar, had a total population of
16,625,860, comprising 8,134,659 males and 8,491,201 females.
The following table gives the population, distinguishing males and
females, of each of the forty-nine provinces into which the kingdom
is divided, aiTanged in alphabetical order, according to the revised
retui-ns, showing the ' poblacion de hecho,' of the census of Decem-
ber 31, 1877 :—
Provinces
Males
Females
Total
Popvilation
Alava ....
47,735
45,456
93,191
Albacete .
108,914
110,208
219,122
Alicante .
199,243
208,911
408,154
Almeria .
167,765
182,089
349,854
Avila
90,113
90,344
180,457
Badajoz .
219,309
213,500
432,809
Baleares .
140,247
148,788
289,035
Barcelona
414,889
420,417
835,306
Burgos .
164,337
168.124
332,461
Caceres .
154,475
152,119
306,594
Cadiz
220,481
209,677
430,158
Canarias .
130,208
150,180
280,388
Castellon de la
Plani
I
140,367
143,594
283,961
Ciudad-Real
130,880
129,761
260,641
Cordoba .
192,477
193,105
385,582
Coruna
262,874
332,711
595,585
Cuenca .
117,449
120,048
237,497
Gerona
149,520
149,482
299,002
Granada .
236.827
240,892
477,719
Guadalajara
100,618
100,670
201,288
Guipuzcoa
Huelva .
83,437
83,770
167,207
106,510
104,131
210,641
Huesca
128,288
123,877
252,165
.Taen
215,710
207,262
422,972
Leon
167,927
182,283
350,210
L^rida
143,161
142,136
285,297
Logroiio .
Lugo
85,239
193,851
89,186
216,536
174,425
410,387
Madrid .
293,599
300,176
593,775
Malaga .
Murcia .
245.800
254,431
500,231
224,361
227,250
451,611
Navaxra .
154,493
149,691
304,184
Orense
183,977
204,858
388,835
Oviedo
259,428
316,924
576,352
Palencia .
89,646
91,139
180,785
Pontevedra
193,889
258,057
451,946
Salamanca
141,251
144,249
285,500
Santander
108,947
126,352
235,299
Segovia .
Sevilla .
74,976
74,985
149,961
253,549
251,742
505,29]
SPAIN.
415
ProTiuces
Males
Females
Total
Population
Soria ....
73,695
79,959
153,654
Tarragona
; 163,644
166,461
330,103
Teniel .
118,544
123,752
242,296
Toledo .
169,075
165,669
334,744 1
VMlencia .
335,191
343,839
679,030
Valladolid
121,589
125,864
247,453
Vizcaya .
93,849
96,105
189,954
Zamora .
121,937
128,067
250,004
Zarragoza
1 198,450
201,816
400,266
North African territory .
1,918
558
2.476
To
al
8,134,659
8,491,201
16,625,860
The vast majority of tlie inhabitants of Spain are natives of the
:country, the ahens being less numeroiis than in any other state of
Europe. According to the census returns of December 31, 1877,
there were at that date only 26,834 resident foreigners — ' extran-
geros residentes ' — the mass of them in four provinces, namely,
Barcelona, Cadiz, Gerona, and Madrid. The number in the pro-
vince of Barcelona was 4,392, comprising 2,490 males and 1,902
females ; while in the province of Cadiz the number was 3,321, com-
prising 1,866 males and 1,445 females.
The progress of population did not amount to more than seventy-
five per cent, in the coiu-se of the last hundred years. In 1768, the
population was calculated to number 9,307,800 souls; in 1789 it
had risen to 10,061,480; and in 1797 it exceeded 12,000,000
souls. In 1820 it had fallen to 1 1,000,000, but in 1823 it had again
risen to 12,000,000, and in 1828 to 13,698,029. At a census taken
in 1846, the population was found to be 12,168,774, and it was
16,301,851 at the census of 1860. Finally, at the census of 1877,
the population amounted, as before sho^Tn, to 16,625,860, being an
increase of 324,009 in the course of seventeen years, or at the rate
of about ^ per cent, per annum. The present density of population
is considerably less than half that of Italy, and less than one-third
that of the Netherlands.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages, and the surplus of
TDirths over deaths, was as follows in each of the three years, 1868
to 1870:—
Years
T-,. ., T^ 41 -^r • „ Surplus of births
Births Deaths Marriages over deaths
1868
1869
1870
579,563
602,287
598,347
548,690 111,687 30,873
550,560 137,120 51,727
512,249 103,807 '■ 86,098
4i6
THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
There were at the census of December 31, 1877, ten towns in
Spain with a population of over 50,000. The following is a list of
these towns, with the number of their inhabitants : —
To^vns
Madrid
Population
Towns
Population
384,636
Murcia
90,955
Barcelona .
231,161
Zaragoza .
80,523
Valencia .
137,581
Granada .
74,196
Sevilla
129,148
Cadiz
60,147
Malaga
112,854
Valladolid
50,418
Nearly 46 per cent, of the whole surface of the kingdom is still im-
cultivated. The soil is subdivided among a very large number of
proprietors. Of 3,426,083 recorded assessments to the property-tax,
there are 624,920 properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666
from 10 to 20 reales; 642,377 from 20 to 40 reales; 788,184 from
40 to 100 reales ; 416,546 from 100 to 200 reales; 165,202 from
200 to 500 reales; while the rest, to the number of 279,188, are
larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and upwards.
The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the
hands of 273,760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.
Trade and Industry.
The total imports and exports of Spain were as follows in each of
the two years 1877 and 1878 : —
Tear
Imports 1 Exports
1877
1878
Pesetas
408.516,850
392,750,400
£
16,340,674
15,710,016
454,378,600 18,175,144
431,326,650 17,253,066
Among the importing countries, France stands first, and the
United Kingdom second ; but in exports, the latter holds the first
rank.
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports of Spain to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce into Spain, in each
of the ten yeai-s 1870 to 1879 : —
SPAIN.
417
Years
Exports from Spain to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Spain
1870
6,067,018
2,513,177
1871
7,759,441
3,143,419
1872
9,316,820
3,614,448
1873
10,973,231
3,736,620
1874
8,641,639
4,064,231
1875
8,660,953
3,430,343
1876
8,763,146
3,992,365
1877
10,842,097
3,636,915
1878
9,115,394
3,210,926
1879
8,398,776
2,940,188
Both the exports and imports of the preceding table include those
of the Balearic Islands, but not of the Canary Islands.
The principal article of export fi-om Spain to the United
Kingdom is wine. The quantities and value of wine exported to
the United Kingdom were as follows in each of the ten years from
1870 to 1879:—
Years
Quantities
Value
Gallons
£
1870
7,433,511
1,939,776
1871
7,706,908
2,699,433
1872
8,357,193
2,748,599
1873
9,389,367
3,033,113
1874
7,496,590
2,276,783
1875
6,891,738
2,122,127
1876
6,895,116
2,076,538
1877
6.803,794
2,017,112
1878
6,714,948
1,634,669
1879
5,059,819
1,432,484
The total imports of wine, from all countries, into the United
Kingdom amounted to 19,660,127 gallons in 1872; to 21,682,356
gallons in 1873; to 18,231,972 gallons in 1874; to 18,429,305
gallons in 1875; to 19,950,723 gallons in 1876; to 19,568,807 gal-
lons in 1877 ; to 16,452,538 gallons in 1878 ; and to 15,162,857
gallons in 1879. Thus the avera,y:e amount contributed by Spain was
nearly two-fifths of the total quantity. It was also nearly two-fifths
of the total value of the Avine imports into the United Kiuadom,
which amounted to 7,718,848/. in 1872; to 8,267,326/. in 1873;
to 6,863,465/. in 1874; to 6,801,015/. in 1875; to 6,993,399/. in
1876; to 7,138,966/. in 1877; to 5,988,685/. in 1878; and to
5,365,250/. in 1879. (See Portw/al, page 353.)
Besides wine, the chief articles of export from Spain to the United
E E
4l8 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Kingdom aro fruit, lead, pyrites of iron and copper, copper, both ore
and regulus, and live animals. In 1879 the exports of fruit, chiefly
oranges, raisins, and nuts, amounted in value to 1,924,821Z.; of
lead, to 1,116,230/.; of pyrites to 815,879/.; of copper to 721,164/.;
and of live animals, oxen, and bulls to 302,634/.
The chief British imports into Spain are linen yarn and linens, of
the value of 378,355/. in 1879 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of
the value of 405,015/. ; coals, of the value of 435,060/.; and cotton
goods, of the value of 348,142/. in 1879.
The merchant navy of the kingdom consisted, on January 1,
1880, of 2,031 vessels of a total burthen of 596,664 tons, com-
prising 226 steamers, of 135,814 tons. At the commencement of
1860, there were 6,715 vessels, of 449,436 tons burthen, and at the
commencement of 1868 the number of vessels had fallen to 4,840,
and the total tonnage to 367,790, showing a decrease in the eight
years of 1,975 vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 81,696 tons.
There was an increase in tonnage, it will be seen from the preceding
figures, of 228,874 tons, in the twelve years from 1868 to 1880.
The length of raihvays in Spain on the 1st January 1880, was
6,550 kilometros, or 4,067 English miles ; and 2,000 kilometros, or
1,242 English miles, were in course of construction.
The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private compa-
nies, but nearly all have obtained guarantees, or subventions,
from the Government. All the principal lines have been con-
ceded to private individuals, or companies, with large subventions.
The concessions, when a ' subvention ' is attached to them, are
given by public adjudication. Any one who has made the stipu-
lated deposit of ' caution money ' may apply for a concession in
sealed tenders, which are opened and read in public on the day of
adjudication, and whoever offers to make the raihvay with the
lowest subvention becomes legally entitled to the concession.
The Post-office carried 85,210,000 letters and post cards in the
year 1878. There were 2,592 post-offices on the 1st of January 1879.
The length of lines of state telegraphs of Spain on the 1st January
1879 was 15,835 kilometros, or 9,833 English miles, and the length
of wire 39,790 kilometros, or 24,710 English miles. In the year
1878, the total number of telegraph messages was 2,103,645, one-
tenth of the whole foreign, and one-third of the remaining number
administrative despatches.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Spain, formerly embracing nearly the
whole of America, are reduced at present to Cuba, Porto Rico, and
the Philippine Islands, with scattered settlements in the Atlantic and
Indian archipelago, and a small strip of ten-itory in Northern
SPAIN.
419
Africa. The total area of these possessions is 1] 3,678 English square
miles. The total population, according to the returns of the census
of December 31, 1877, numbered 6,399,347. These returns state
the area and population of the various possessions as follows : —
Colonial Possessions
Area:
English square
miles
Population
1. Possessions in America :
Cuba
Porto Rico
Total, America
2. Possessions in Asia :
Philippine Islands ....
Caroline Island and Palaos
Marian Islands ....
Total, Asia .
3. Possessions in Africa :
Fernado do Po and Annabon .
Total Possessions
43.220
3,550
1
1,394,516
646,362
46,770
2,040,878
65,100
905
420
4,319,269
28,000
5,610
66,425
4,352,879
483
5,590
113,678
6,399,347
The population of Cuba at the census of Dec. 31, 1877, was dis-
ti-ibuted as follows: — Whites, 764,164; free negroes, 3,444,050;
negro slaves, 227,902; and Chinese, 58,400. The number of slaves
from 1870 to 1877 decreased by 136,000. But the total number of
inhabitants also decreased by 20,500 during the same period.
Spain is the only European state which still permits the existence
of slavery in its colonies. A bill for the abolition of slavery in Porto
Eico was passed by the National Assembly on the 23rd of March,
1873, while a bill for the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba was
laid before the Cortes in November 1879, supported by the govern-
ment. The bill provides that on the promulgation of the law
embodying it, all slaves from 55 and upwards shall become free.
Slaves from 50 to 55 will be liberated on September 17, 1880 ;
from 45 to 50, in September 1882; from 40 to 45, in 1884; from
35 to 40, in 1886 ; an! from 30 to 35, in 1888. Those uader 30
will be emancipated in 1890. Prom 1880 a sum of 100,000 piastres
will be annually set apart in the Cuban budget for defraying the
expense of the emancipation of the slaves, the price to be paid to
the owners being fixed at 350 piastres for each slave.
Cuba is divided into three provinces, the S.E. and central being
the richest and most populous, containing 22 cities and towns, and
204 villages and hamlets.
B B 2
420
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The value of the commercial intercourse between the Spanish
West India Islands, that is Cuba and Porto Rico, and the tJnited
Kin<Tdom, is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the value of the total exports of the two possessions to the United
Kingdom, and the total imports into these of British produce in the
five years 1875 to 1879 :—
Exports from Cuba
Imports of British
Years
and Porto-Kico to
produce into Cuba
Great Britain
and Porto-Eico
£
&
1875
3.668.776
2,630,634
1876
2,943,385
2,015,113
1877
1,505,245
2,243,771
1878
1,804,872
1,889,960
1879
2,929,826
1,771,528
The staple article of export from Cuba and Porto-Rico to the
United Kingdom is unrefined sugar, the value of Avhich was
2,616,416/. in 1875; 1,705,123/. in 1876; 801,161/. in 1877;
922,661/. in 1878 ; and 2,299,764/. in 1879. Next to sugar, the
most important article of export to the United Kingdom is tobacco
and cigars, the value amounting to 495,206/. in 1879. The British
imports mainly comprise cotton and linen manufactures, the former
of the value of 861,770/., and the latter of 264,923/. in 1879.
The chief articles of produce of the Philippine Islands are sugar,
hemp, and tobacco. The total exports to Great Britain in 1879
were of the value of 1,480,821/., and the imports of British produce
of 599,023/. The chief article of exports to Great Britain in 1879
was imrefined sugar, of the value of 98M.997/. Of the British imports
in 1879 the value of 399,122/., or considerably more than tAvo-thirds,
was represented by cotton manufactures. The commercial inter-
course between the Philippine Lslands, as well as the rest of the
Colonial Possessions of Spain, and the United Kingdom, has been
in a very fluctuating condition for a number of years.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Spain in Great Britain.
E71V01/ and Minister. — Marquis de Casa Laiglesia. accredited March 31, 1875.
Secretaries. — E. de Ojeda; W. K. de Villa Urutia ; P. J. de Ziilueta.
2. Of Great Britain in Spain.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Lionel Sackville S. West, formerly Charge
d'Affaires in France, 1869-72, and Envoy to the Argentine Confederation,
1872-78. Appointed Envoy and Minister to Spain, January 11, 1878.
Secretaries. — Hugh Wyndham, C.B. ; Sir George Francis Bonham, Bart. ;
Charles F. F, Adam.
SPAIN. 42 1
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Spain, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Real =100 Centimes = Average rate of exchange, 100 = £1 sterling.
,, Pestta = 4 Reali's = „ „ ,, 25 = £\ ,.
„ Escudo= 10 Seal es = „ „ „ 10 = £1
Weights and Measures
Since January 1, 1859, the French metric system of weights and
measures has been introduced in Spain, with no other change than a
slight one of names, the metre becoming the metro, the litre the litro,
the gramme the gramo, and the are the area. But, beside these, the
old weights and measures are still largely used. They are : —
The Quintal .
= 101 '4 lbs. avoirdiipois
„ Libra
= 1-014
. , ( for wine
" ^'•*-'^^« 1 „ oil
= 3| imperial gallons.
„ Square Vara .
= 1-09 Vara = 1 yard.
„ Fanega ' .
= Ig imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Spain.
1. Official Publications.
Auuario Estadistieo de Espaiia, publicado por la Direccion general de Esta-
distica. 4. Madrid, 1880.
Censo de la Poblaeion de EspaSa, segun el empadronamiento hecho en
31 de Dieiembre de 1877. Fol. Madrid, 1879.
Estadistica general exterior de Espana, con sus provincias de ultramar y
potencias extrangeras ; formada por la Direccion general de aduanas. 8.
Madrid, 1879.
Estado General de la Armada para el ano de 1879. 4. Madrid, 1879.
Guia official de Espaiia. 1880. 8. Madrid, 1880.
Nomenclator de los Pueblos de Espaiia, formado por la Comision de Estadis-
tica General del Eeino. Publicase de orden de S. M. Fol. Madrid, 1878.
Keport by Mr. E. C. H. Phipps on the finances of Spain at the close of
1876, dated Madrid, January 25, 1877 ; in 'Keports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1877. 8. London, 1877-
Eeport by Sir George F. Bonham on the commerce of Spain, dated Madrid,
October 23, 1878 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' Part I. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by Mr. Hugh Wyndham on the finances of Spain, in ' Reports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1880. 8. Lon-
don, 1880.
Report by Mr. Consul Young on the trade of the consular district of Biscay
and the results of the Carlist insurrection, dated Bilbao, September 30, 1874 ;
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Reports by Mr. Consul Turner on the trade of Coninna, and by Mr. Vice-
Consul March on the trade of Santander, dated November 1874 and January
1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IL 1875. 8. London, 1875.
422 THE STATESMANS TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Eeports by Mr. Vice-Consul Wetherell on the trade of the Grand Canary
Islands ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Topham on the trade of Lanzarote, dated
January-April 1876; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. VI. 1876. 8.
London, 1876.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Barrie on the trade of Alicante; by Mr. Consul
Prat on the trade and commerce of Barcelona ; by Mr. Consul Young on the
trade and industry of Bilbao and Biscay ; by Mr. Consul Pauli on the trade
and commerce of Cadiz ; by Mr. Consul Wilkinson on the commerce and ship-
ping of Malaga ; and by Mr. Consul Mackenzie on the commerce of Manila ;
dated January-May, 1877 ; in ' Commercial Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Eeports by Mr. Consul-General Cowper on the commerce and agriculture of
the Island of Cuba, and by Mr. Consul Palgrave on the trade and commerce of
the Philippine Islands, dated August-September, 1877 ; in ' Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part L 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeports by Mr. Vice-Consul McPherson on the commerce of Cadiz and Sevilla ;
by Mr. Vice-Consul Pentington on the trade of Gijon ; by Mr. Vice-Cousid Diaz
on the trade of Huelva ; by Mr. Consul Wilkinson on the commerce of Malaga ;
and by Mr. Vice-Consul Suter on the wine culture of Xeres, dated December,
1877 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Turner on the trade of Coninna, dated January, 1878;
in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Spain with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Z>aw7?iVr (Baron Ch.), L'Espagne. 4. Paris. 1873.
Figuerola (D. Laureano), Memoria relativa al estado general de la hacienda.
g. Madrid, 1870,
Garrido (Fernando), La Espana Contemporanea. 8. Barcelona, 1865.
Jager (F.), Eeisen in den Philippinen. 8. Berlin, 1873.
Lavigne (Germond de) L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1867.
Lcstgarens (J.), La Situation economiqne et industrielle de I'Espagne ea
1860. Bruxelles, 1861.
Madoz (Pascal), Diccionai-io Geografieo, Estadistico, y Historieo de Espana
y sus provincias de ultramar. 16 vols. 4. Madrid, 1846-50.
Mazade (Ch. de), Les revolutions de I'Espagne. 8. Paris, 1869.
Polin (D. Jose Lopez), Diceionario Estadistico Municipal de Espana. 4.
Madrid. 1863.
Segoillot (H.) Lettres sur I'Espagne. 18., Paris, 1870.
Vidcd (J. L.), L'Espagne en 1860. Etat politique, administratif, legis-
latif; Institutions economiques; Statistique generale de ce Royaume. 8.
Paris, 1861.
Villa-Atardi (Baron de), Consideraciones sobre el Estado Administrativo y
Economico de Espaiia. 4. Madrid, 1865.
Willkomm (Heinrich Moritz), Das pyrenaische Halbinselland. 8. Leipzig.
1866.
423
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(SVERIGE OCH NORGE.)
Reigning King.
Oscar II., born January 21, 1829, the third son of King Oscar I.
and of Queen Josephine, daughter of Prince Eugene of Leuchtenberg.
Succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother, King Carl XV.,
Sept. 18, 1872. Married June 6, 1857, to Queen Sophia, born
July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Diike Wilhelm of Nassau.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Gustaf, Duke of "Werniland, born June 16, 1858.
II. Prince Oscar, Duke of Gotland, born Nov. 15, 1859.
UI. Prince Carl, Duke of Westergotland, born Feb. 27, 1861.
IV. Prince Eugene, Duke of Nerike, bom Aug. 1, 1865.
Sister of the King.
Princess Eugenia, born April 24, 1830.
Niece of the King.
Princess Loioisa, only child of King Carl XV., born Oct. 31, 1851 ;
married July 28, 1869, to Prince Frederik, eldest son of the King
of Denmark. (See page 41.)
King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte
Corvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte Corvo,
who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by the
Parliament of the kingdom, Avig. 21, 1810, and ascended the throne
Feb. 5, 1818, imder the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He was suc-
ceeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only son, Oscar. The
latter died July 8, 1859, and was succeeded by his eldest son Carl XV.,
distinguished in Swedish literatiure as a poet of high genius, at
whose premature death, without male children, the crown fell to
his next surviving brother, the present King.
The royal family of Sweden and Norway have a civil list of
1,218,000 kronor, or 67,666/., from Sweden, and 340,000 kroner,
or 18,889/., fi-om Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an annuity
of 300,000 kronor, or 16,666/., voted to King Carl XIV. and his
successors on the throne of Sweden.
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, with
424 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the dates of their accession, from the accession of the House of
Vasa : —
House of Vasa.
House of Hesse.
Gustafl.
1523
Fredrik ....
1720
Erie XIV.
Johan III.
1560
1568
House of Holstein- Gotto
Adolf Fredrik .
rp.
1751
Sigismund
1592
Gustaf III. .
1771
Carl IX
1604
Gustaf IV. AdoLf .
1792
Gustaf II. Adolf .
1611
Carl XIII.
1809
Christina
1632
House of Pfaltz.
House of Ponte Corvo
CarlX
1654
Carl XIV. * .
1818
Carl XI
1660
Oscar I
1844
Carl XII.
1697
Carl XV.
1859
Ulrika Eleonora
1719
Oscar II. ...
1872
The average reign of the nineteen rulers who occupied the throne
of Sweden from the accession of Gustaf I. to that of Oscar II.,
amounted to eighteen years.
By the Treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to the
King of Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people
did not recognise this cession, and declared themselves independent.
A Constituent Assembly met at Eidsvold, and having adopted, on May
17, a Constitution, elected the Danish Prince Christian Fredrik King
of Norway. The Swedish troops, however, entered Norway without
serious resistance, and the foreign powers refusing to recognise
the newly-elected king, the Norwegians were obliged to conclude,
August 14, the Convention of Moss, by which the independency of
Norway in the union with Sweden was solemnly proclaimed. An
extraordinary Storthing was then convoked, which adopted the
modifications in the constitution made necessary by the union with
Sweden, and then elected King Carl XIII., King of Norway, Nov. 4,
1814. The following year was promulgated a Charter, the Riks-
act, establishing new fundamental laws on the terms that the union
of the two kingdoms be indissoluble and irrevocable, without
prejudice, however, to the separate government, constitution, and
code of laws of either Sweden or Norway.
The law of succession in the same in Sweden and Norway. In
case of absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets assemble for
the election of the future sovereign, and should they not be able to
agi-ee upon one person, an equal number of Swedish and Norwegian
deputies have to meet at the city of Carlstad, in Sweden, for the
appointment of the king, this nomination to be absolute. The com-
mon affairs are decided upon in a Council of State composed of
Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the
Coimcil of State exercises the sovereign power until a Eegent or
Council of Regency is appointed by the united action of the Diets of
Sweden and Norway.
SWEDEN. 425
I. SWEDEN.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are — 1. The
Constitution or Eegenngs-Formen of June 6, 1809 ; 2. the amended
regulations for the formation of the Diet, of June 22, 1866 ; 3. the
law of royal succession of September 26, 1810; and 4. the law
on the liberty of the press, of July 16, 1812. According to these
statutes, the king mvist be a member of the Lutheran Church, and
have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His person is inviolable.
He has the right to declare war and make peace, and to grant pardon
to condemned criminals. He nominates to all appointments, both
military and civil ; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to
preside in the supreme Court of Justice. The princes of the
blood royal, however, are excluded from all civil employments.
The king possesses legislative power in matters of poHtical administra-
tion, but in all other respects, that power is exercised by the Diet in
concert with the sovereign, and every new law must have the assent
of the crown. The right of imposing taxes is, however, vested 'in
the Diet. This Diet^ or Parliament of the realm, consists of tAvo
chambers, both elected by the people. The First Chamber consists
of 137 members, or one deputy for every 30,000 of the population.
The election of the members takes place by the ' landstings,' or pro-
vincial representations, 25 in number, and the municipal corporations
of the towns, not already represented in the ' landstings,' Stockholm,
Goteborg, Malmo, and Norrkciping. AU members of the First
Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and must have possessed for at
least three years previous to the election either real property to the
taxed value of 80,000 kronor, or 4,444/., or an annual income
of 4,000 kronor, or 223/. They are elected for the term of
nine years, and obtain no payment for their services. The Second
Chamber consists of 204 members, of whom 64 are elected by the
towns and 140 by the rural districts, one representative being
returned for every 10,000 of the population of towns, one for every
' domsaga,' or rmral district, of under 40,000 inhabitants, and two
for rural districts of over 40,000 inhabitants. All natives of
Sweden, aged 21, possessing real property to the taxed value
of 1,000 kronor, or 56/., or farming, for a period of not
less than five years, landed property to the taxed value of
6,000 kronor, or 333/., or paying income tax on an annual
income of 800 kronor, or 45/., are electors ; and all natives
aged 25, possessing, and having possessed at least one year
previous to the election, the same qualifications, may be elected
members of the Second Chamber. The election is for the term of
three years, and the members obtain salaries for their services, at
the rate of 1,200 kronor, or 67/., for each session of four months,
426 THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
besides travelling expenses. The salaries and travelling expenses
of the deputies are paid out of the public purse. The members
of both Chambers are elected by ballot, both in town and country.
The executive power is in the hands of the king, who acts under
the advice of a Council of State, the head of which is the Minister
of State. It consists of ten members, seven of which are ministerial
heads of departments and three without department, and is com-
posed as foUowa : —
1. Count Arvid Rutger Fredriksson Fosse, Minister of State;
appointed April 19, 1880.
2. Baron Carl Fredrik Lotharius Hochschild, Minister of Foreign
Affairs ; appointed April 27, 1880.
3. Nils Henrik Vult von Steyern, Minister of Justice ; appointed
April 19, 1880.
4. Colonel Otto Fredrik Taiibe, Minister of War ; appointed
April 19, 1880.
5. Baron Carl Gustaf von Otter, Minister of Marine ; appointed
April 19, 1880.
6. Fredrik Ludvig Salomon Hederstjerna, Minister of the
Interior; appointed April 19, 1880.
7. Hans Ludvig For s sell. Minister of Finance ; appointed May 11,
1875.
8. Carl Gustaf Hammarshjold, Minister of Education and Eccle-
siastical Affairs; appointed August 27, 1880.
9. Johan Henrik Loven; appointed June 5, 1874.
10. Johan Christer Emil Richert ; appointed August 27, 1880.
All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the
acts of the Government.
The administration of justice is entirely independent of the
Government. Two functionaries, the Justitie-Kansler, or Chancellor
of Justice, and tlie Justitie Ombudsman, or Attorney-General,
exerci.se a control over the administration. The former, appointed
by the king, acts also as counsel for the crown, while the latter,
who is appointed by the Diet, has to extend a general supervision
over all the courts of law.
Cimrch and Education.
The mass of the population adhere to the Lutheran Protestant
Church, recognised as the State reUgion. At the last census, the
number of ' Evangelical Lutherans' was returned at 4,162,087, the
Protestant dissenters, Baptists, Methodists, and others, numbering
3,999. Of other creeds, there were 573 Roman Catholics, 30 Greek-
Catholics, and 1,836 Jews.
The kingdom has two universities, at Upsala and Lund, frequented
the former by 1,500 and the latter by 650 students per annum.
SWEDEN. 427
Education is well advanced in Sweden. Public instruction is gra-
tuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under
the supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of having
been privately educated. In the year 1878, nearly 98 per cent, of
all the children between eight and fifteen years visited the public
schools. There were 5,031 male and 5,183 female teachers in the
primary schools in 1878.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national income is derived to the extent of one-third from
direct taxes and national property, including railways, and the rest
mainly from indirect taxation, customs and excise duties, and an
impost on spirits. The sources of revenue and branches of expen-
diture of the kingdom for the year 1881 were established as follows,.
in the budget estimates passed in the session of 1880 by the Diet.
Sources of Revenue for 1881 • — Kroner
Domains, railway, land taxes, &c. ..... 18,760,000
Customs 26,700,000
Post 4,730,000
Stamps 3,000,000
Impost on spirits, &c 15,020,000
„ „ Income 5,600,000
Net profit of the State Bank 1,185,000
rr . , / 74,995,000
Total revenue | £4,166,388
Branches of Eocpenditure for 1881 : —
{a) To cover the deficit of the budget for former years . 2,372,676
(i) Ordinary :
Koyal Household . . . . 1,218,000
Justice 3,740,000
Foreign Affairs .... 613,800
Army 17,251,000
Navy 5,175,000
Interior 4,280,342
Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs 9,770,825
Finance 12,681,405
Pensions 2,280,000
57,010,472
(c) Extraordinary 4,713,528
(<i) Expenditiire through the Eiksgaldskontor :
Paying of loans .... 10,237,774
Miscellaneous (Diet, &c.) . . 660,550
10,898,324
m , , J-, r 74,995,000
Total expenditure I £4,166,388
Exclusive of the budget, the Diet voted, in 1879, 8,470,000
428
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
kroner, or 470,555L, for the construction of new railways, and
1,820,000 kronor, or 101,111/., to complete the rolling stock of the
lines already opened for traffic, while a loan of 4,000,000 kronor,
or 222,222/., was granted for the purchase of the lines of a private
railway company. These expenses are to be covered by loans.
The expenditure for the army, chiu-ch, and for certain civil
offices, is in part defrayed out of the revenue of landed estates be-
longing to the Crown, and the amounts do not appear in the
budget estimates. To the expenditure for foreign affairs Norway
contributes annually 304,700 kroner, or 16,928/., a sum not entered
in the estimates.
To the ' Riksgaldskontor,' the supervision of which is exclusively
exercised by the Diet, belongs the administration of the public
debt — exclusively incvirred for the construction of railways — and
the right to contract any loans which the Diet may vote.
On the 1st of January 1880, the public liabilities of the kingdom
were as follows, according to reports laid before the Diet : —
Kronor.
14,479,200
17,400,400
1,869,000
8,929,272
25,376,266
20,141,256
3,900
14,332,900
18,137,600
35,827,200
35,747,990
25,051,175
ailway loan of 1858
. H
per cent
„ 1860 ,
. H
» >)
„ 1861
■ H
» >>
„ 1864 ,
, U
)>
„ 1866
, 5
» »
„ 1868
, 5
„ ,,
„ 1869
, 5
). >,
„ 1870
. 5
n I,
„ 1872
, 4
). ,)
„ 1875
, H
•) )>
.. 1876
., H
I)
,, 1878
, 4
» J>
Loan, non-consolidated, payable latest Nov. 1 ,
Total
217,296,159
1885 3,000,000
r 220,296,159
t £12,238,675
The railway loans of 1864, 1868, 1876, and 1878 were negotiated
in England, at the respective rates of92|^, 90, 86^, and 88 per cent.
All the loans are paid off gradually by means of sinking funds.—
(Official Communication.)
Army and Navy.
The Swedish army is composed of four distmct classes of troops.
They are —
1. The Vdrifvade, or enlisted troops, to Avhich belong the royal
lifeguards, one regiment of hussars, the artillery, and the engineers.
2. The Indelta, or national militia, the privates of which are paid
SWEDEN.
429
and kept by the landowners. Every soldier of the Indelta has,
besides a ' small annual pay, his torp, or cottage, with a piece of
ground attached, which remains his own during the whole period
of service, often extending over thirty years, or even longer. In
time of peace, the infantry of the Indelta are called up for a
month's annual practice, and the cavalry for thirty -six days. In
time of war, an extraordinary Indelta has to be raised partly by
landowners, who, on this account, enjoy certain privileges, including
non-contribution to the cost of the peace establishment.
3. The militia of Gothland, consisting of thirty companies of
infantry, and tliree batteries of artillery. They are not compelled
by law to serve beyond the confines of the Isle of Gothland, and
have a separate command.
4. The Bevdring, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy,
from the male population between the age of 20 and 25 years.
The law of conscription was introduced into Sweden in 1812,
but the right of purchasing substitutes, which formerly existed, was
aboUshed by the Diet in 1872.
The total strength of the armed forces of Sweden was as follows
at the end of September 1880 : —
1
•Line
Bevaring < Militia
Total
Officers and Staff .
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Artillery (258 guns)
, Engineers
1,979
25,246
4,623
4,242
894
385 109
116,000 7,880
4,000 —
5,000 228
2,473
149,126
8,623
9,470
894
1 Total .
36,984
125,385 8,217
170,586
There are also Volunteers, first organised in the year 1861, by
the spontaneous desire of the population of the kingdom. In time
of peace the volunteers are individually free, and bound by no other
but their own rules and regulations ; but in time of war they may
be compelled to place themselves under the command of the military
authorities. However, they can be required only to serve within
the limits of their own districts. At the end of 1880, the volun-
teers numbered 18,161 men.
In the parliamentary session of 1 862, and again in the sessions
of 1865, 1869, 1871, and 1875 the Government brought bills before
the Diet for a reorganisation of the whole of the army, but neither
of these were adopted by the representatives of the people.
The navy of the kingdom is divided into three classes, namely,,
first, the Koyal Navy ; secondly, the Royal Naval Reserve, and
thirdly, the Naval BevuHng. The fleet consisted, at the end of
September 1879, of the following vessels : —
430
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Ironclads: —
Horse-power
Guns
Number of Crew
4 monitors .
1,570
8
330
1 0 gimboats .
1,191
10
411
Unarmoiired steamers : —
1 frigate
1,400
16
316
4 corvettes .
3,180
26
724
8 gunboats .
6,860
16
568
10 „ ...
1,360
10
390
3 transports, &c.
400
—
189
1 torpedo boat .
960
—
71
Sailing vessels : —
5 corvettes ,
—
96
1,188
6 brigs
—
10
449
Galleys: —
4 mortar boats .
—
4
—
18 gun vessels
—
31
—
47 floating batteries
—
47
1,037
1 transport (brig)
—
—
Total 121 ....
_ . ■ — ■ _
15,921
274
5,673
The largest ironclad of the Swedish navy is the monitor Loke, of
1,500 tons burthen, and 430 horse-power, built in 1870. The other
three monitors, called John Ericsson, ThordiJn, and Tirflng, of earlier
construction, are nearly the same size. At the end of September
1879 the Royal Navy was officered by 3 flag-officers, 5 commodores,
20 captains, 43 commanders, 43 lieutenants, and 26 sub-lieutenants,
while the Royal Naval Reserve was commanded by 70 commissioned
officers. The naval Beviiring at the same date ntimbered 40,000
men. — (Official Communication.)
Area and Population.
Sweden was one of the first countries of Europe in which a regu-
lar census was taken. The first enumeration took place in 1748, at
the suggestion of the Academy of Stockholm, and it was repeated
at first every third year, and subsequently, aft;er 1775, every fifl;h
year. At present, a general census is taken every ten years, besides
which there are annual numerations of the people.
The population of Sweden amounted on December 31, 1867,
according to the official numerations of that date, to 4,195,681, of
whom 2,040,589 were men and 2,155,092 women. On the 31st
of December, 1869, the total population was 4,158,757, of whom
2,014,530 were men and 2,144,227 women. The decrease of
population in the two years from December 31, 1867, to December
31, 1869, arose through emigration. On the 31st of December,
1879, the population had risen to 4,578,901 souls, comprising
2,228,855 men and 2,350,046 women.
SWEDEN.
431
The area and population of Sweden, on the 31st of December
1879, are shown in the folloAving table : —
Governments (Lan.)
Area: English
square miles
Population,
Dec. 31, 1879
Stockholm (City)
13
173,433
Stockholm (Rural district)
2,995
146,171
Upsala ....
2,053
111,115
Sodermanland
2,631
146,229
Ostergotland
4,243
270,679
Jonkoping .
4,464
196,959
Kronoberg .
3,841
170,789
Kalmar
4,438
245,721
Gotland
j 1,203
55,281
Blekinge
1,164
137,405
Kristianstad
2,507
232,861
Malmohus .
1,847
349,741
j HaUand
1,899
136,858
Goteborg and Bohus
1,952
261,109
Elfsborg
4,948
291,665
1 Skaraborg .
3,307
260,797
1 Vermland
7,346
271,158
Orebro
3,521
182,997
Vestmanland
! 2,623
128,586
Kopparberg .
• 11,421
190,750
Gefleborg
1 7.418
176,498
i Vesternorrland
i 9,530
156,220
1 Jemtland
i 19,.593
81,474
i Vesterbotten
21,942
105,136 1
Norrbotten .
40,563
89,269
Lakes of Venern, Vettern, &c.
3,517
— !
Total •
i 170,979
4,568,901
The following table gives the births, deaths, and marriages, with
the surplus of births over deaths, for each of the five years from
1873 to 1878:—
Years
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of births
over deaths
1873
131,643
73,525
31,257
58,118
i 1874
133,249
87,760
31,422
45,489
1875
135,958
88,439
30,762
47,519
1876
135,890
86,334
31,184
49,556
1877
138,476
83,175
30,674
55,301
1878
134,464
81,418
29,151
53.046
The population of Sweden is mainly rural. In all the towns of
the kingdom lived, at the end of December 1879, but 690,188 souls,
and but two towns had more than 50,000 inhabitants, namely, Stock-
holm, the capital, 173,433, and Goteborg, 76,761. The number
432
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of persons devoted to agricultural pursuits, and of their families,
amounts to nearly three millions. About a quarter of a million in-
dividuals are OAvners of the land which they are culti\rating. The
nobility, comprising 940 heads of families, enjoyed formerly con-
siderable privileges ; but they have nearly all been annulled.
Emigration from the country, commencing in recent years, showed
at first a tendency to assume considerable proportions, but is now
decreasing. In 1860, the number of emigrants was 348 ; in 1865
it rose to 6,691 ; in 1866 to 7,206; in 1867 to 9,334; in 1868 to
27,024 ; and in 1869 to 39,064 ; but it fell to 20,003 in 1870, to
17,450 in 1871, to 15,915 in 1872, to 13,580 in 1873, and to 7,791
in 1874. The number was 9,727 in 1875, 9,418 in 1876, 7,610 in
1877, 9,032 in 1878, but considerably increased afterwards, in 1879
and 1880.
Trade and Industry.
The commercial intercourseof Sweden is chiefly with Great Britain,
as regards exports, and, next to it, with France and Denmark. As
regards imports, the commercial intercourse is largest with Great
Britain, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Ru.ssia, in the order here
indicated. The imports consist mainly of textile manufactures, coal,
and colonial merchandise, the last largely on the increase, while the
stJiple exports are timber, bar iron, and corn. Both the imports and
exports more than doubled in the ten years from 1870 to 1879, the
total imports rising from 7,500,000/. to over 16,000,000/., and the
total exports from 5,000,000/. to 12,500,000/.
The commerce of Sweden with Great Britain is tAvice as great
as that with any other country. Subjoined is a tabular statement
giving the total value of the exports from Sweden to Great Britain
and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into^
Sweden, in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Esports from Sweden to
Imports of British Home
iBars
Great Britain
Produce into Sweden
&
* 1
1870
6,399,435
1,026,716
1871
5,438,992
1,102,993
1872
6,724,005
1,985.848
1873
7,739,744
3,150,323
1874
8,483,552
3,390,850
1875
6,762,538
2.801,003
1876
7,972,529
2,713,181
1877'
7,859,812
2,453,250
1878
6,852.291
1,686.305
1879
6,475,371
1,400,085
The staple article of exports from Sweden to the United
SWEDEN. 433
Kingdom consists of wood and timber. The total exports
to Great Britain of wood and timber, including houi~e frames,
amounted to 2,777,322/. in 1872, to 3,890,075/. in 1873, to
•i,330,75GZ. in 1874, to 2,808,124/. in 1875, to 3,790,013/. in 1876,
to 4,390,417/. in 1877, to 2,982,951/. in 1878, and to 2,498,094/.
in 1879. Next to wood and timber, the most important article of
exports is oats, sent to the value of 1,568,947/. in 1879 to the
United Kingdom. Of other exports to Great Britain, the chief
are iron in bars, imwrought, valued 789,404/. : butter, valued
292,111/.; and live animals, valued 190,453/., in the year 1879.
The imports of British home produce are of a miscellaneous nature;
the most notable were iron, wroixght and unwrought, of the value
of 155,859/.; coals, of the value of 203,060/.; and cotton manu-
factures, valued 201,416/. iu 1879.
The commercial navy of Sweden, at the end of 1879, numbered
4,315 vessels of a burthen of 536,610 tons, of which total 3,563
vessels, of 454,491 tons burthen, were sailing vessels, and 752 vessels
of 182,119 tons burthen, were steamers. The port of GiJteborg had
the largest shipping in 1879, namely, 277 vessels, of 87,674 tons,
and next to it came fStockholm, possessing 253 vessels, of a total burthen
of 31,668 tons. In 1864, Stockholm had 110 vessels, of 28,216
tons, registered for foreign trade, and Goteborg 124, of 35,G2G tons;
so that the shipping of the latter port showed the largest increase in
the course of the fourteen years.
Mining is one of the most important departments of Swedish indus-
try, and the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant
progress by the introduction of new machinery. There were raised
in the year 1878, throughout the kingdom, 15,821,520 cwt. of iron
ore from mines, besides 115,585 cwt. from lake and bog. The pig-
iron produced amounted to 7,845,578 cwt. ; the cast goods to
489,454 cwt.; thebarironto 4,657,060 cwt., and thesteel to 1,476,061
cwt. There were also raised in the same year 2,983 lbs. of silver ;
25,565 cwt. of copper, and 947,635 cwt. of zinc ore. There are
not inconsiderable veins of coal in the southern parts of Sweden,
giving 4,429,889 Swedish cub. feet of coal in 1878.
Within recent years a network of railways, very important for
the trade and industry of Sweden, has been constructed in the
country, partly at the cost of the State. The State railways include
all the main or trunk lines, the chief of which are the North
Western, connecting the capitals of Sweden and of Norway ; the
Western, between Stockholm and Goteborg ; the Southern, termi-
nating at Malniu, opposite Copenhagen ; the Eastern, from Stock-
holm to Malini) ; and the Northern, passing from Stockholm, and
connecting the capital with the north of the kingdom. The fol-
lowing table gives particulars concerning the length and cost of con-
F F
434
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
striiction of all the Swedish railways open for traffic on the 1st of
January 1880, distinguishing the railways belonging to the State,
and the private railways : —
Lines of Eailway
Length
Cost per
English mile
Engl, miles
&
State Eailways
1,203
8,446
Private railways : —
Gefle— Dak.
I 57
9,023
Upsala — Gefle
81
5,160
Frovi — Ludvika .....
61
10,249
East Vermland .....
42
5,371
Koping — Hult .....
44
6,968
Stockholm — VesterSs — Bergslagen .
151
4,787
Nora — Karlskoga and Xora-Ervalla
81
5,697
Vestervik — Atvidabcrg — Bersbo
57
Uddevalla — Venersborg — Herrljunga
1 58
4,615
Njissjo — Oskarshatnn ....
92
6,551
Vexjo — Karlskrona ....
70
4,084
Oxelosund — Flen — Ycstmanland
97
6,816
Karlshamn — Vislanda ....
48
2,670
Hessleholm — Helsingborg
49
4,630
Bergslagernas .....
302
7,400
Ystad— Eslof . . . . .
47
4,535
Forty-seven other private lines
Total
988
—
3,528
—
On the 15th of September, 1880, the total length of the railways of
Sweden opened for traffic had increased to 3,570 English miles, of
which 1,212 miles belonged to the State.
All the telegraphs in Sweden, with the exception of those of private
railway companies, belong to the State. The total length of all the
telegraph lines at the end of 1878 was 10,930 kilometres, or 6,787
English miles, and the total length of telegraph wires 28,346 kilo-
metres, or 17,603 English miles. The number of taxed telegraphic
despatches sent in the year 1878 was 1,057,258, of which number
676,453 were from and for Sweden, 296,777 from and for other
countries, and 84,028 in transit.
The Swedish Post-office carried 40,400,789 letters, of which
6,740,383 were for and from foreign countries, in the year 1879. The
number of post-offices at the end of the year was 1,838. The total
receipts of the Post-office in 1878 amounted to 4,706,137 kronor,
or 261,452/., and the total expenditure to 4,738,086 kronor, or
263,227/., leaving a deficit of 31,949 kronor, or 1,774/.
435
II. NORWAY.
Constitution and Government.
The constitiition of Norway, called the Grundlov, bears date
November 4, 1814. It vests the whole legislative power of the realm
in the Storthing, or Great Court, the representative of the sove-
reign people. The king has the command of the land and sea
forces, and makes all appointments, bnt, except in a few cases, is not
allowed to nominate any but Norwegians to public offices under the
crown. The king possesses the right of veto over laws passed by the
Storthing, but, except in constitutional matters, only for a limited
period. The royal veto may be exercised twice ; but if the same
bill pass three Storthings formed by separate and subsequent elec-
tions, it becomes the law of the land without the assent of the
sovereign.
The Storthing formerly assembled every three years; but by a
modification of the constitution, adopted in April 1869, it was
resolved to hold annual sittings. The meetings take place suo jure,
and not by any writ from the king or the executive. Every Nor-
wegian citizen of twenty-five years of age, who is, or has been, a
public functionary, or possesses property in land, or has been tenant
of such property for five years at least, or is a burgess of any
tow^n, or possesses real property in a to-wn to the value of 600 kroner
or 33Z. sterling, is entitled to elect ; and, under the same conditions,
if thirty years of age, and settled in Norway for at least ten years, to
be elected. The mode of election is indirect, the people first nomi-
nating a number of deputies, to whom devolves the task of appointing
the representatives in the Storthing. Towards the end of every
third year the people choose their deputies, at the rate of one to
fifty voters in toAvns, and one to a hundred in rural sub -districts,
where they meet in the parish cliurch. The deputies afterwards
assemble at some public place, and there elect among themselves, or
from among the other qualified voters of the district, the Storthing
representatives. No new election takes place for vacancies, which are
filled by persons who received the second largest number of votes.
The Storthing has 114 members.
The Storthing, Avhen assembled, divides itself into two houses, the
'Lagthing' and the ' Odelsthing.' The former is composed of one-
fourth of the members of the ' Storthing,' and the other of the
remaining three-fourths. Each ' Thing' nominates among the mem-
bers its own president, vice-president, and secretaries. All new
bills, whether presented by the government, or a member of the
Storthing, must originate in the ' Odelsthing,' from which they pass
into the 'Lagthing,' to be either accepted or rejected. In the
latter case, should the ' Odelsthing' demand it, after having twice
FF 2
436 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
passed the bill, tlie two Houses assemble in common sitting to
deliberate on the measure, and the final decision is given by a
majority of two-thirds of the voters. The ordinary business of the
Storthing is to settle the taxes for the next year, to super-
vise the administration of the revenue, and to enact, repeal,
or alter any laws of the country. But the Storthing can also
form itself into a high court of justice, for the impeachment and trial
of ministers, members of the chief court of justice, and members of
the Storthing for delicts they may have committed. The bill of
accusation must always come from the ' Odelsthing ' and be brought
from thence before the ' Lagthing,' sitting for the occasion, together
with the Chief Court of Justice, as ' Kigsretten,' or supreme tribunal
of the realm. Before pronouncing its OAvn dissolution, every
Storthing elects five delegates, whose duty it is to revise the public
accounts. While in session, every member of the Storthing has
an allowance of twelve kroner, or thirteen shillings and four-
pence a day, besides travelling expenses.
The executive is represented by the king, who exercises his
authority through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers of
State and nine Councillors. Two of the Councillors, who change
every year, together with one of the IMinisters, form a delegation of
the Council of State, residing at Stockholm, near the king. The
following are the members of the Council of State : —
I. Council of State at Christiania.
Minister of State.— Christian August Schnei; appointed November
1,1880.
Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Jens
Holmhoc, appointed January 8, 1874.
Department of Justice. — Christian Jensen, ad interim.
Department of the Interior. — Nils Vofjt, appointed May 13, 1871.
Department of Finance and Customs.- — Henrik Laurentius
Jlelliesen, appointed June 22, 18G3.
Army Department. — Major General Adolf Frederik MunthCf
appointed October 19, 1877.
Department of the Navy and of Postal Communication. — Eear-
Admiral Jacob Lerche Johansen, appointed June 17, 1872.
Eevision of Public Accounts Department. — Christian Jensen^ ap-
pointed October 13, 1879.
II. Delegation, of the Council at Stockholm.
Otto Kichard Kjerulf Minister of State, appointed Nov. 1, 1871.
Dr. Easmus Tender Nissen, appointed January 1, 1875.
Dr. Ole Andreas i'oc/i/cT, appointed October 13, 1879.
Church and Education.
The inhabitants of the kingdom are almost entirely Protestants.
With the exception of 7,238 dissenters, enumerated in the census of
NORWAY.
437
1875, the population adhere to tlie Lutheran Church. All denomi-
nations and sects of Christian and other creeds, the order of the
Jesuits excepted, are tolerated, but only the members of the Lutheran
Church are regularly admitted to public offices.
Education is compidsory in the kingdom, parents being bound to
let their children, from the age of seven in town and eight in the
country, until fourteen, receive public instruction. Schoolmasters are
settled in each parish, who live either in fixed residences, or move
at stated intervals from one place to another, and who frequently attend
different schools, devoting their time in turn to each. They are paid
by a tax levied in every parish, in addition to State grants. Almost
every town supports a superior school ; and in seventeen of the prin-
cipal towns is an ' offentlig skole,' or college, maintained partly b'^'
subsidies from the government. Christiania has a university, founded
by the Danish Government, in 1811, which is attended by about
900 students.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial estimates are voted by the Storthing for the term
of one year. The budget for the period commencing July 1,
1880, and ending June 30, 1881, is distributed as follows : —
Sources of Revenue
Branches of Expenditiu-e
Kroner
Kroner '
Customs .
18,600,000
Civil list .
434,100 i
Excise on spirits
3,600,000
Storthing
397,100 '
,, malt.
2,400,000
The Ministries
1,144,700 1
Tax on succession
230,000
Church and education .
2,393,500
Stamps .
490,000
Justice
3,228,500
Mines
874,100
Interior
4,861,300
Post office
1,600,000
Finance and Customs .
3,621,300
Telegraphs
850,000
Army ....
6,370,800
Judicial fees
875,000
Navy ....
1,883,400
Income on State pro
Post, telegraphs, ports,
perty .
j 2,032,300
light-houses, &c.
4,352,300
Income on State rail
Foreign affairs
461,500
ways .
3,654,400
Amortisation of debt .
1,309,500
1 Loan for constructior
i
Interest and expenses
of railways .
7,019,400
of debt
4,611,700
Private subscriptions
Construction of rail-
for tlie same piirpos
e 1,273,300
ways
8,292,700
Miscellaneous re-
Miscellaneous
169.700
ceipts .
Total
293,400
Balance
Total S
269,800
r 43,791,900
\ £2,432,880
43,791,900
£2,432,880
The debt of the kingdom was contracted lor the construction of
public works, mainly railways. It amounted, at the end of June 1870,
to 99,632,000 kroner, or 5,535,100/.— (Official Communication.)
438
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Army and Navy.
The troops of the kingdom are raised mainly by conscription, and
to a small extent by enlistment. By the terms of two laws voted
by the Storthing in 1866 and in 1876, the land forces are divided
into the troops of the line, the military train, the Landvaern, or
militia, the civic guards, and, in time of war, the Landstorm, or final
levy. All yoiing men, past the twenty-first year of age, are liable to
the conscription, with the exception of the inhabitants of the three
northern Amts of the kingdom, who are free fi-om military land
service. The yonng men raised by conscription have to go through
a first training in the school of recruits, extending over 50 days in
the infantry, and 90 days other arms, and are then put into the ba-
taillons, w^iich, under ordinary circumstances, have an annual prac-
tice of 30 days, after which the men are sent on furlough, with ob-
ligation to meet Avhen requested. The nominal term of service is
ten years, divided between seven years in the line and three
years in the Landvaern, or militia. The Landvaern is only liable
to service within the fi'ontiers of the kingdom.
On the 1st of January 1880, the troops of the line, Avith its
reserves, numbered 40,000 men, Avith 700 officers. The number of
troops actually under arms can never exceed, even in Avar, 18,000
men Avithout the consent of the Storthing. The king has permission
to keep a guard of Norwegian volunteers at Stockholm, and to
transfer, for the purpose of common military exercises, 3,000 men
annually fi-om NorAvay to SAveden, and from SAveden to NorAvay.
The naval force of Norway comprised, at the end of October
1880, thirty-four steamers and 90 sailing vessels, the latter, with
the exception of five, forming a flotilla of row-boats for coast
defence. The following Avas the composition of the fleet of
steamers in the navy : —
steamers
Horse-power
Guns
4 iron-elad monitors .
2 frigates
1 corvette ....
1 sloop
9 gunboats ....
15 small gunboats
2 tugboats ....
34 steamers ....
650
900
250
80
680
250
80
8
78
16
14
14
15
2
2,890
147
NORWAY.
439
The navy was manned, in 1880, by 1,408 sailors, a great
number of them vohmteers, with 114 commissioned officers and
cadets. All seafaring men and inhabitants of seaports, between
the ages of twenty-t^vo and thirty- five, are enrolled on the lists
of either the active fleet or the naval militia, and liable, by a
law passed in 1866, to the maritime conscription. The numbers
on the register amounted, in 1880, to nearly 26,000 men. —
(Official Communication.)
Area and Population.
A census of the population of Norway is taken every ten years.
The kingdom is divided into twenty provinces, or Amts, the area
and population of which were as follows at the two last census
enumerations, taken December 31, 1865, and December 31,^.
1875:—
Amts
Area : English
Population,
Population,
square miles
Dec. 31, 1865
Dec. 31,1875
Christiania (town) .
4
57,382
70,054
Akershus
•2,002
107,416
116,365
Smaalenene .
1,591
98,849
107,804
Hedemarken .
10,056
120,411
120,618
Christians
9,670
124,968
115,814
Buskerud
5,617
99,275
102,186
Jarlsberg and Lanrvik
872
85,423
87,506
Bratsberg
6,707
81,929
83,171
Nedenas
3,871
68,033
73,415
Lister and Mandal
2,471
73,757
75,121
Stavanger
3,468
104,849
110,965
Sondre Bergenhus
5,853
113,386
119,303
Bergen (town)
1
27,703
33,830
Nordre Bergenhus
7,044
86,784
86,208
Ronisdal
5,650
104,337
117,220
Sondre Trondhjem
7,081
109,043
116,804
Nordre Trondhjem
8,793
82,489
82,271
Nordland
14,660
89,668
104,151
Tromso
10,156
^ 45,334
54.019
Finmarken .
18,302
20,329
24,075
Total .
•
I 122,869
1,701,365
1,806,900
Norway is essentially an agricultural and pastoral country. At
the census of 1865, the inhabitants of towns numbered 266,292, and
at the end of 1875 they were 332,398, showing an increase of
24 per cent., against an increase of the rural population of only 4 per
cent. The two largest towns are Christiania, with a population of
116,801 (on Janviary 1, 1880), and Bergen, with 40,100 (on January
1, 1879).
440
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
For some years, emigration carried off, chiefly to the United
States, considerable nimibers of the population. In 1871 the
number of emigrants was 12,276; in 1872 it was 13,865; in 1873
it declined to 10,352; in 1874 to 4,601; and in 1875 to 4,048
In 1876 the emigrants numbered 4,355, while in 1877 the number
was 3,229, and 4,818 in 1878.
Trade and Industry.
The average value of the total imports into Norway, in the five
years 1875-79, was 161,300,000 kroner, or 8,963,000/., and of
the exports 102,300,000 kroner, or 5,684,000/. Of the imports
about 27 per cent, came from, and of the exports 30 per cent. Avent
to Great Britain.
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of
the exports from Norway to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Norway, in each of the ten
years 1870 to 1879 :—
Exports from Norway to
Imports of British Home
Years
1870
Great Britain
Produce into Norway
.c,
1,855,161
&
981,998
1871
2,191,458
1,058,113
1872
2,367,302
1,425,432
1873
2,947,033
1,880,852
1874
2,r,99,99-j
2,010,089
1870
2.156,100
1.737,452
1876
2,681,782
1,5 11, .538
1877
2,594,663
1,727,433
1878
2,275,106
1,112,398
1879
1,917,352
1,086,171
About three-fourths of the exports from Norway to the United
Kingdom consist of wood and timber. In 1879 the exports of tim-
ber, sawM or split, amounted to 672,242/., and of other wood to
382,811/., making a total of 1,055,053/. The minor exports to
Great Britain comprise f].sh, ice, and small quantities of bar iron and
copper ore. Iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 1 62,954/. :
cotton manufactures, of the A'alue of 138,120/.; coals, of the value of
169,940/. ; and woollens, of the value of 91,818/., formed the
chief British imports into Norway in the year 1879.
The shipping belonging to Norway numbered 8,125 vessels, of a
total Inu-then of 1,509, 477 tons, manned by 58,609 sailors, at the end
of 1879. Norway has, in proportion to population, the largest
commercial navy in the world.
At the end of October 1880 there were in Norway 759 miles
of railway open for traffic, and 212 miles tuider construction, being
NORWAY.
441
a total of 971 miles.
lines : —
The foUowin!? is a list of the various
Uailiuays open for traffic : —
Christiania to Eidsvold (42 miles) -with the branch Lille-
strommen to the Swedish frontier (71 miles) .
Christiania to Drammen (33 miles) and Eandsfjord, with
branches to Kongsberg and Kroderen ....
Christiania to Frederikshald and the Swedish frontier
Eidsvold to Hamar .......
Hamar to Trondhjem .......
Trondhjem to Meraker and the Swedish frontier
Stavanger to Ekersund .......
Total open for traffic
Bailways under construction : —
Ski to Sarpsborg ........
Drammen to Laurvik and Skien .....
Bergen to Voss .........
Total under construction
Total railways
Length
English Miles
113
123
107
37
268
64
47
759
49
96
67
212
971
There Avere at the end of 1879 telegraph lines of the length of
5,. "15 English miles (4,634 miles belonging to the state, 081 miles
to the railways), and wires of the length of 9,726 miles (8,414 mile.s
belonging to the state, 1,312 miles to the railways). The number of
telegrams in the year 1879 was 704,741, of which 461,625 were inland,
111,445 sent to, and 128,206 received from foreign countries, and
3,465 in transit. The number of telegraph offices at the end of 1879
was 904. The number of post-offices at the same date was 904.
The number of letters forwarded through the post in 1879 was
13,311,909.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Sweden and Norway in Great Britain.
Eitvoij and Minister. — Count Edward Piper, accredited July 6, 1877.
CouHciUoi- of Legation. — Count Albert 31. Otto Steenbock, appointed May 20,
1870.
2. Of Great Britain in Sweden and Norway.
Envoy and Minister.— 'Hon. Edward Morris Erskine, C.B. ; born in 1818;
Envoy to Greece, 1864-72 ; and appointed Envoy and Minister to Sweden and
Norway, July 24, 1872.
Secretaries. — Christian "William Lawrence.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Sweden and Norway, and
the British equivalents, are as follows : —
The
Swedish Skalpund
Norwegian Fund
Swedish Fot
Norwegian Fod
Swedish Kanna
Norwegian Kande
Swedish Mil
Norwegian Mill
„ Kilogram
„ Meter
„ Hektditcr
„ Kilometer
442 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Money.
The Swedish Krona = 100 ore — approximate vahie Is. \ld.. or about 18
to the pound sterling.
,, Norwegian Krone — 100 ore — the same value as the Swedish Krona.
By a treaty signed May 27, 1873, with additional treaty of
October 16, 1875, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark adopted the
same monetary system.
Weights and Measures.
= 100 ort = 0-937 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 128 l-vintin = 1-1 „
= \0 turn = 117 English inches.
r.'^ = Vltommer = 12-02 „
= 100 kuhiktum= 4-6 Imperial pints.
= 2 potter = 3-3
= 360 ref = 6-64 English miles.
==36,000/ot^ = 7-01 „ _ „ _
= 1,000 ^rrtwi = 2,205 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 100 centi?netcr= 3-28 ft. or 39-37 Eng.in.
r liq. m. -( _ „ , . -1=22 Imperial gallons.
Idiym./- ^^^ ^'f^^ /=2-75 „ bushels.
== 1,000 meter = 1,093 yds. or |Eng. mile
In 1876 the Government presented to the S^vedish Diet a bill for
the introduction in Sweden of the metric system of weights and
measures, which was accepted, with some amendments, to the effect
that this system has been introduced from the beginning of 1879 and
will become obligatory in 1889. In Norway a law was passed. May
22,1875, by Avhich the metric system was introduced in that coun-
try on July 1, 1879, becoming obligatory on July 1, 1882.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Sweden and Norway.
1. Officiax Publications.
Bidrag till Sverigcs officiela statistik : A. Befolknings-statistik. B. Eatts-
viisendet. C. Bergshandtering. D. Fabriker och manufakturer. F. Utrikes
handel och sjofart. "G. FSngvSrden. H. Befallningshafvandes FemSrsberiittclser.
J. Tclegrafvjisendet. K. Inrikes handel och sjofart. L. Statens jernvags-
trafik. M. Postverket. N. Jordbruk och Boskapsskotsel. 0. Landtmiiteriet.
P. Folkundervisningen. Q. Skogsviisendet. K. Valstatistik. S. Allmiinna
arbeten. T. Lots-och Fyrvasendet. 4. Stockholm, 1857-1879.
Norges officiello Statistik: A. 1. Skoleva?senet ; A. 2. Fattigstatistik ;
B. 1. Criminalstatistik ; B. 2. Skiftevfesenet ; C. 1. Folketselling, Folke-
msengdcns Bevsegelse ; C. 3. Consulatberetninger, Handel, Skibsfart ; C. 4.
Sundhedstilstanden og Medicinalforholdene ; C. 8. De Offenthge Jernbaner ;
C. 9. Norges Fiskerier; C. 10. Kommunale Forholde ; C. 11. De faste Eien-
domme; C. 12. Bergvserksdrift ; C. 13. Industriellc Forholde; C. 15. Det
Norske Jordbrug. D. Finanststatistik. F. 1. Telegrafstatistik ; F. 2. Post-
statistik. 4. Christiania, 1870-80.
Sveriges Stats-kalender for Sr 1879. Utgifven efter kongl. maj. nSdigste
forordnande, af dess vetenskaps-akademi. 8. Stockhohn, 1879-
SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 443
Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1880. Efter offentlig Foranstaltning
redigeret af N. R. Bull. 8. Kristiania, 1879.
Statistisk Tidskrift, utgifveu af Kongl. Statistiska Central-ByrSn. Stockholm,
1860-1879.
Anmiaire Statistique de la Norvege. Premiere Annee. 1879. Elaboredans
le Bureau Central de Statistique. 8. Kristiania, 1879.
Reports by Mr. Jenner on the finances of Sweden, dated Stockholm, Dec.
30, 1877 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.*
Parts I. and II. 'l878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. R. Gr. Watson on Swedish industries, dated Stockholm, August
12, 1878; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part IV, 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. R. G. Watson on the finances of Sweden, dated Stockholm,
February 5, 1879; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' Part 11. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Reports by Mr. Consul-Gcneral Jones on the trade and commerce of Nor-
way, dated May 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876.
8. London, 1876.
Report by jVIt. Consul Segrave on the trade and commerce of Sweden,
dated Stockholm, May 31. 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part VI.
1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Jones on the commerce of Norway ; by Mr.
Consul Duff on the trade of Gottenburg ; and by Mr. Consul Segrave on the
commerce of Sweden, dated February-May 1877 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Consul Duff on the trade of Gottenburg, dated February 17,
1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Sweden and Norway; in 'Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the Year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official PrBLicATioNs.
Jiroch (Dr. 0. J.), Le Royaume de Norvege et le peuple norvegien. Rap-
port a I'Exposition universelle de 1878. 8. Cliristiania, 1878.
Brock (Dr. 0. J.) Kongeriget Norge og det Norske Folk. 8. Christiania, 1876.
Carlson (F. F.), Geschichte Schweden's. 8 vols. 8. Gotha, 1832-75.
Gcehyiuydcn (J.) Kortfattet statistisk Haandbog over Kongeriget Norges
luddelinger i administrativ, retslig og geistlig Henseende m. m., efter officielle
Kilder udarbeidet. 8. Bergen, 1870.
Hamrnar (A.), Historiskt, geografiskt och statistiskt: lexicon ofver Sverige
8 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1859-70.
Kiaer (A. N.), Statistisk H^ndbog for Kongeriget Norge. 8. Christiania,
1871.
iV7c?5cw (Yng%'ar), Rejsehaandbog over Norge. 8. Kristiania, 1879.
Printzskold (Dr. Otto) Rapport sur I'hygiene, le sauvetage et la condition des
classes ouvrieres en Suede. 8. Stockholm, 1876.
Eudbcck (J. G.), Beskrifning 6h-er Sveriges Stader i Historisk, topographiskt
och statistiskt hanseende. 3 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1855-61.
Sidenhladh (E. and K.), Sveriges officiela statistik i Sammandrag. 8 vols. 8.
Stockholm, 1870-78.
Sidenhladh (Dr. Elis), Royaume de Suede: expose statistique. 8. Stock-
holm, 1876.
Tonsberg (Chr.), Illustreret Norge. Handbog for Reisende, Ny udgave. 8.
Christiania, 1879.
444
SWITZERLAND.
(ScHWEiz. — Suisse.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Switzerland, formerly a league of semi-indepen-
dent states, or ' Staatenbund,' has become a united confederacy, or
' Bundesstaat,' since the year 184S. The present constitution,
based on fundamental laAvs passed in 1848, came into force
May 29, 1874, having received the national sanction by a
general vote of the people, given April 19, 1874. It vests the
supreme legislative and executive authority in a parliament of two
chambers, a ' Stiinderath,' or State Council, and a ' Nationalrath,' or
National Council. The first is composed of forty-lour members,
chosen by the twenty-two cantons of the Confederation, two for
each canton. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of 135 representatives of
the Swiss people, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one deputy
for every 20,000 souls. On the basis of the general census of
1870, which governed the last elections, the cantons are repre-
sented as follows in the National Council : —
Number of
Number of 1
Cantons
Eepresen-
Cantons
Represen- !
tatives
tatives |
Bern ....
25
Solothurn
4
Zurich ....
14
Appenzell — Exterior and
Vaud (Waadt) .
11
Interior
3
Aargau ....
10
Glarus ....
2 1
8t. Galle.n
10
Schaffhausen .
2
Luzern ....
7
Schwyz ....
2
Ticino (Tessin)
6
Unterwald — Upper and
Fribourg (Freiburg) .
6
Lower ....
2
G-raiibiinden (Grisons)
5
Uri
1
WaUis (Valais)
5
5
Zug ....
1
Thurgau ....
Basel — Tcnn and Country
5
Total of representatives in 1
the National Council J
135
Neucliatel (Neuenburg) .
5
Geneve (Genf)
'
1
A general election of representatives takes place every three years.
Every citizen of the republic Avho has attained the age of twenty
years is entitled' to a vote ; and any voter, not a clergyman, may be
elected a deputy. Both chambers united are called the ' Bundes-
Versammlung,' or Federal Assembly, and as .such represent the
supreme Government of the republic. The chief executive authority
is deputed to a ' Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven
SWITZERLAND. 445
members, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. Every
citizen who has a vote for the National Council is eligible for be-
coming a member of the executive.
The president and vice-president of the Federal Council are the
first magistrates of the republic. Both are elected by the Federal
Assembly for the term of one year, and are not re-eligible till after
the expiration of another year. The election takes place at a united
meeting of the State Council and the National Council. The presi-
dent and vice-president of the council, by the terms of the Con-
stitution, hold office for only one year, from January 1 to
December 31.
President for 1881. — Numa Droz, of the canton of Xeuchatel ;
elected Vice-President December 1880; succeeded to the Pre-
sidency at the death of P. Andervert, of Thurgau.
The seven members of the Federal Council — each of whom has a
salary of 480/. per annum, while the president has 600/. — act a&
ministers, or chiefs of the seven administrative departments of the
republic.
Independent of the Federal Assembly, though issuing from the
same, is the ' Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal. It consists of
eleven members, elected for six years by the Federal Assembly. The
Federal Tribunal decides, in the last instance, on all matters in dispute
between the various cantons of the republic, as well as between the
cantons and the Federal Government, and acts in general as high
court of appeal. The Tribunal is divided into three sections, the
' Anklagekammer,' or chamber of accusation ; the ' Kriminalkammer,*
or juiy department ; and the ' Cassations-Gericht,' or council of
appeal. Each section consists of three members, and the remaining-
two members, elected specially by the Federal Assembly, till the
post of president and vice-president. The seat of the Federal
Tribunal is at Lausanne.
The city of Bern is the seat of the Fedei-al Council and the
central administrative authorities.
Each of the cantons and demi-cantons of Switzerland has its local
government, different in organisation in most instances, but all based
on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the people. In a few of
the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers direct, without
the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male citizens
of fall age assembling together in the open air, at stated periods,
making laws and appointing their administrators. Such assemblies,
known as the Landesgemeinde, exist in Appenzell, Glarus, Unterwald,
and Uri. The same system is carried out, somewhat less directly,
in several other of the thinly populated cantons, which possess legis-
lative bodies, but limited so tiir that they must submit their acts to
the people for confirmation or refusal. In all the larger cantons, the
people delegates its sovereignty to a body chosen by universal
446 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
suffrage, called the Grosse Eatli, wliicli exercises all the fimctious of
the Landesgemeinde. The members of these bodies, as well as
most of the magistrates, are either honorary servants of their fellow
citizens, or receive a merely nominal salary. There is no class of
paid permanent officials existing, either in connection with the can-
tonal administrations, or the general government.
The constitution of 1874 abolished the penalty of death, but by a
popular vote taken in May 1879, it was decided, by a majority of
195,000 against 180,000, that each canton should have liberty to
re-enact the infliction of the penalty.
Church and Education.
The poprdation of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism
and Roman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants ad-
hering to the former, and 41 per cent, to the latter. According
to the census of December 1, 1870, the number of Protestants
amounted to 1,566,347; of Eoman Catholics to 1,084,369; of
various Christian sects to 11,435; and of Jews to 6,996. The
Roman Catholic priests are much more numerous than the Protestant
clergy, the former comprising more than 6,000 regular and secular
priests. They are under five bishops, of Basel, Chui', St. Gall,
Lausanne, and Sion. The government of the Protestant Church,
Calvinistic in principle and Presbyterian in form, is under the
supervision of the magistrates of the various cantons, to whom is
also entrusted, in the Protestant districts, the superintendence of
public instruction.
The constitution of 1874 has the following enactments concerning
the exercise of religion : — ' There shall be complete and absolute
liberty of conscience and of creed. No one can incur any penalties
whatsoever on account of his religious opinions. The person who
exercises the paternal authority or that of guardian has the right to
dispose of the religious education of children up to the age of six-
teen years. No one is boimd to pay taxes specially appropriated to
defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does not belong.
The fi-ee exercise of Avorship is guaranteed within the limits com-
patible with public order and proper behaviour. The cantons can
take the necessary measures for the maintenance of the public order
and peace between the members of the different religious commu-
nities, as well as against the encroachments of the ecclesiastical
authorities on the rights of the citizens of the state. All disputes
arising from the creation of new religioiis communities or schisms
in existing bodies shall be referred to the Federal authorities. No
bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the approbation
of the Confederation. The order of Jesuits and its affiliated societies
cannot be received in any part of Switzerland ; all functions clerical
and scholastic are forbidden to its members, and the interdiction can
SWITZERLAND. 44/
be extended to any other religious orders whose action is dangerous
to the state, or interferes with the peace of different creeds. The
foundation of new convents or religious orders is forbidden.'
Education is very widely diffused through Switzerland, particu-
larly in the north-eastern cantons, Avhere the vast majority of inha-
bitants are Protestants. In these cantons, the proportion of school-
attending children to the Avhole population is as one to five ; Avhile
in the half Protestant and half Koman-Catholic cantons it is as one
to seven ; and in the entire Roman-Catholic cantons as one to nine.
Parents are by law compelled to send their children to school, or
have them privately taught, from the age of six to that of twelve
years ; and neglect may be punished by fine, and, in some cases, by
imprisonment. The law has hitherto not always been enforced
in the Roman-Catholic cantons, but is rigidly carried out in
those where the Protestants form the majority of inhabitants. In
every district there are primary schools, in which the elements
of education, with geography and history, are taught ; and secondary
schools, for youths of fi'om twelve to fifteen, in which instruction is
given in modern languages, geometry, natural history, the fine arts,
and music. In both these schools the rich and the poor are edu-
cated together, the latter being admitted gratuitously. There are
normal schools in all the cantons for training schoolmasters.
There are four universities in Switzerland. Basel has a
university, founded in 1460, and since 1832 universities have been
estabhshed in Bern and Zurich. In the summer of 1879, Basel had
52 professors, and 194 students; Bern 80 professors, and 405
students ; and Zurich 77 professors, and 308 students. These three
universities are organised on the model of the high schools of
Germany, governed by a Rector and a Senate, and divided into
foiu: ' faculties,' of theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, and medicine.
There is a Polytechnic School at Zurich, founded in 1855, Avhich
possesses a philosophic faculty and 46 teachers, and a military
academy at Thun, both maintained by the Federal Government.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue of the Confederation is derived chiefly from
customs. By the constitution of May 29, 1874, customs dues
are levied only on the frontiers of the republic, instead of, as before,
on the limits of each canton. A considerable income is also de-
rived from the postal system, as well as from the telegraph estab-
lishment, conducted by the Federal Government on the prin-
ciple of uniformity of rates. The sums raised under these heads
are not left entirely for Government expenditure, but a great part
of the postal revenue, as Avell as a portion of the customs dues, have
to be paid over to the cantonal administrations, in compensation for
448
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the loss of such sources of former income. In extraordinary cases,
the Federal Government is empowered to levy a rate upon the
various cantons after a scale settled for twenty years. A branch
of revenue proportionately important is derived from the profits of
various Federal manvifactories, and from the military school and
laboratory at Thun, near Bern.
The following table gives the total revenue and expenditure of the
Confederation in each of the five years 1875 to 1879, the years 1875
to 1878 showing actual receipts and disbursements, and the year
1879 giving budget estimates : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Francs
&
Francs
£
1875
39,516,051
1,580,642
39,266,030
1.570,640
1876
41,487,402
1,659,496
42,422,017
1,696,880
1877
42,972,305
1,718,892
43,900,308
1,756,012
1878
41,536,225
1,661,449
41,469,641
1,658,786
1879
41,065,000
1,642,600
42,121,000
1,684,840
The estimated revenue for the year 1880 was calculated at
45,700,000 francs, or 1,828,000/., and the expenditure at 45,750,000
francs, or 1,830,000/.
The accounts of actual receipts and disbursements of the Con-
federation have shown a regular surplus for many years, except 1871,
when there Avas a deficit, caused by the expenses of a military occu-
pation of the frontier necessitated by the Franco-German War.
The following table gives the principal soiu'ces of actual revenue
and the budget estimates for the year 1879 : —
Soiirces of revenue
1878
1879
Produce of real property and invested capi-
tal:—
Keal property
Invested capital
Total
Keceipts of Administrations : —
Customs and Finance ....
Posts and Telegraphs ....
Military Department ....
Total
' Amortisationsfond ' .....
Miscellaneous receipts
Total revenue -!
Francs
105,403
457,161
562,564
Francs
108,846
427,300
536,146
19,753,000
17,370,000
2,873.555
39,996,555
19,738,502
17,085,166
3,571,259
40,394,927
480,000
98,734
500,000
32,299
41,065.000
£1,642,600
41,536,225
£1,661,449
SWITZERLAND.
449
The following table gives the various branches of actual expendi-
tvu-e for 1878 and the budget estimates for the year 1879 : —
Branches of Expenditure
Interest and Sinking Fund of National Debt
Exnenses of General Administration
Departments : —
Political .
Interior
Army
Finance and Customs .
Trade and railways .
Justice and police
Post and telegraphs .
Total
Total
Miscellaneous expenses .
Total expenditure <
Francs
1,939,610
816,593
2,756,203
273,562
2,304,557
14,842,181
5,556,372
372,335
43,990
15,283,633
38,676,630
26,808
41,459,641
£1,658,386
Francs
1,932,850
717,700
2,650,550
281,000
2,562,025
15,558,806
4,786,500
316,520
45,000
15,910,000
39,459,851
10,599
42,121,000
£1,684,840
The public debt of the republic amounted, at the commencement
of 1879, to 33,600,000 francs, or 1,344,000/. I't consists of three
loans, the first of 12,000,000 francs, or 480,000Z., raised in 1867, the
second of 15,600,000 francs, or 624,000/., raised in 1871, and the
third of 6,000,000 francs, or 240,000/., contracted in 1877. The
whole bears 44 per cent, interest. As a set-off against the debt
there exists a so-called ' federal fortune,' or property belonging to
the State, valued at 35,000,000 francs, or 1,400,000/.
The various cantons of Switzerland have, as their own local
administrations, so their own budgets of revenue and expenditure.
Most of them have also public debts, but not of a large amount, and
abundantly covered, in every instance, by cantonal property, chiefly
in land. At the end of 1878, the aggregate debts of all the cantons
amounted to 200,000,000 francs, or^8,000,000/.
The chief income of the cantonal administrations is derived from
a single direct tax on income, amounting, in most cantons, to 1^ per
cent, on every 1,000 francs property. In some cantons the local
revenue is raised, in part, by the sale of excise licenses. In Bern
they form one-fifth of the total receipts ; in Luzern, one-seventh ;
in Uri, one-tenth ; in Unterwald, one-eighth ; in Solothurn, one-
sixth ; and in the canton of Ticino one-fourteenth of the total
revenue.
a a
450
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Army.
The fundamental laws of the republic forbid the maintenance of
a standing army -within the limits of the Confederation. The
18th article of the Constitution of 1874 enacts that ' Every Swiss
is liable to serve in the defence of his country.' Article 19 enacts:
' The Federal army consists of all men liable to militaiy service,
and both the army and the war material are at the disposal of the
Confederation. In cases of emergency the Confederation has also
the exclusive and undivided right of disposing of the men who do
not belong to the Federal army, and of all the other military forces
of the cantons. The cantons dispose of the defensive force of their
respective territories in so far as their power to do so is not limited
by the constitutional or legal regulations of the Confederation.'
According to article 20, ' The Confederation enacts all laws relative
to the army, and watches over their due execution ; it also provides
for the education of the troops, and bears the cost of all military
expenditure which is not provided for by the Legislatures of
the cantons. To provide for the defence of the country, every
citizen has to bear arms, in the management of which the children
are instructed at school, from the age of eight, passing through
annual exercises and reviews. Such military instruction is volun-
tary on the part of the children, but is participated in by the greater
number of pupils at the upper and middle-class schools.
The troops of the republic are divided into two classes, namely : —
1. The ' Bundes-auszug,' or Federal army, consisting of all men
able to bear arms, from the age of 20 to 32. All cantons are obliged,
by the terms of the constitution, to furnish at least 3 per cent, of
their population to the ' Bundesauszug.'
2. The ' Landwehr,' or militia, comprising all men from the 33rd
to the completed 44th year.
The strength and organisation of the armed forces of Switzerland
was as follows at the end of September 1879 : —
Staff
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Artillerj- ....
Engineers ....
Administi-ative troop? .
Sanitary troops
Trttal ....
Bundes-auszug
Landwehr
Total
54
77,580
3,412
14,500
4,898
406
4,528
77,408
3,369
7,208
4,882
376
3,776
54
154,988
6,781
21,708
9,780
782
8,304
105.378
97,019
202,397
The staff of the army comprises one general, 76 colonels, 98
lieut.-colonels, 130 majors, 226 captains, 74 upper-lieutenants, 143
under-lieutenants, and 77 ' staff- secretai-ies,'
SWITZERLAND.
451
Every citizen of the republic not disabled by bodily defects, or ill
health, is liable to military service at the age of 20. Before being
placed on the rolls of the Bundesanszug, he has to undergo a train-
ing of from 2S to 35 days, according to his entering the ranks of
either the infantry, the Scharlschutzen, or picked riHemen, the
cavalry, or the artillery. Both the men of the Buudesauszug and
the reserve are called together in their respective cantons for annual
exercises, extending over a -week for the infantry, and over two weeks
for the cavalry and artillery, while periodically, once or twice a year,
the troops of a number of cantons assemble for a general muster.
The military instruction of the Federal army is given to officers
not permanently appointed or paid, but who must have undergone a
course of education, and passed an examination at one of the training
establishments erected for the purpose. The centre of these is the
MiUtary Academy at Tluui, near Bern, maintained by the Federal
government, and which supplies the army both with the highest class
of officers, and with teachers to instruct the lower grades. Besides
this Academy, or ' Ceiitralmilitiirschule,' there are special training
schools for the various branches of the service, especially the artillery
and the Scharfschiitzen. The nomination of the officers, up to the
rank of captain, is made by the cantonal governments, and above
that rank by the Federal Council. The general staff was composed,
at the end of Jime 1875, of 54 commissioned officers, namely, 3 colo-
nels, 16 lieutenant-colonels, and 35 captains. Atthe head of the whole
military organisation is a general commanding- in-chief, appointed, to-
gether with the chief of the staff of the army, by tlie Federal Assembly.
The total expenditure on accoimt of the army was set down in
the budget estimates for 1875 at 11,953,969 francs, or 478,149^.,
and in the budget for 1876 at 14,655,975 francs, or 586,237/., the
increase being due to improvements in the administrative service, to
which are devoted four-fifths of the total disbursements. Not included
in the army expenditure is the maintenance of the Military School
at Thun, referred to above, which has a fund of its own, the annual
income ti-om which is larger than the expenditure.
Area and Popidation,
The Swiss Confederation was founded on the 1st January 1308, by
the 3 cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwald. In 1353 it numbered
8 cantons, aad in 1513 it Avas composed of 13 cantons. This old
Confederation, of 13 cantons, was increased by the adherence of
several subject territories, and existed tiJl 1798, when it was re-
placed by the Helvetic Republic, which lasted four years. In 1803,
Napoleon I. organised a new Confederation, composed of 19 cantons,
by the addition of St. Gall, Graubunden, Aargau, Thurgau, Tessin,
andVaud. This confederation was modified in 1815, when the number
gg2
452
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of cantons was increased to 22 by the admission of "Wallis, Neiichiitel,
and Geneve. Three of the cantons are politically divided — Basel
into Stadt and Land, or Town and Country ; Appenzell into Ausser
Rhoden and Inner Rhoden, or Exterior and Interior ; and Unterwald
into Obwald and Nidwald, or Upper and Lower. Each of these
divided cantons sends one member to the State Council, so that
there are two members to the divided as well as the undivided cantons.
A general census of the population of Switzerland is taken every
ten years. At the last, of which complete returns were published,
taken Dec. 1, 1870, the people numbered 2,0(59,138, of whom
1,304,824 were males and 1,304,314 females. At the preceding
census, taken December 10, 1800, the population mmibered
2,507,170, showing an increase of only 101,977 inhabitants during the
ten years. But it appears from the preliminary returns of the decennial
census of 1880 that the total population has now increased to close
upon three millions. The areaof the republic at the census of 1870
was 41,418 square kilometres, or 15,992 English square miles, giving
an average density of population of 107 per English square mile.
The following table gives the area and population of each of the
22 cantons, according to the census of December 1, 1870, and of
official estimates of July 1, 1870 : —
1
Cantons |
Area:
Eng. sq. miles
Population |
Dec. 1, 1870
July 1, 187G
Graubiinden (Grisoiis) . . '
2.774
91,782
92,906
Bern
2,660
506,465
582.670
Wallis (Valais)
2,026
96,887
100,490
Vaud (Waadt)
1,245
231,700
242,439
Ticino (Tessin)
1,095
119,619
121,768
St. Gallen ....
780
191,015
196,834
Zurich
665
284,786
294,994
Luzorn .....
580
132,338
133,316
Fribcurg (Freiburi;)
644
110,832
113,952
Aargau
542
198,873
201,567
Uri
415
16,107
16,900
Schwyz
351
47,705
49,216
Neuchatel (Ncuenljiirg) .
312
97,284
102.843
Glarus
267
35,150
36,179
Thurgaii
382
93,300
95,074
Unterwalden ....
295
26,116
27,002
Solothui-n ....
303
74,713
77,803
Basel
177
101,887
107,063
Appenzell ....
162
{60,626
60,786
Schaffhausen ....
116
37.721
38,925
Geneve (Geuf )'
109
93,239
99,352
Zug
Total
92
20,993
21,775
! 15,992
2,669,138
2,813,854
SWITZERLAND.
453
The population of the republic is formed by three nationalities
distinct by their language as German, French, and Italian, but the
iirst constituting the great majority. The German language is
.spoken by the majority of inhabitants in sixteen cantons, the French
in tour, and the ItaUan in two. It is reported in the census returns
of 1870, that 384,561 families speak German, 134,183 French, and
30,293 Italian.
The increase of population has been very steady in recent years.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five
years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Births
Deaths Marriages
SurplHS of Births
over Deaths
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
91,806
94,595
92,861
91,426
86,180
70,340 24.629
70,628 22,376
68,970 ! 21,871
68,904 i 20.650
63,651 1 19,450
21,466
23,967
23,891
22,522
22,529
The population is dwelling chiefly in small towns, hamlets, and
villages. At the census of 1870 there were but five towns in
Switzerland with more than 20,000 inhabitants, namely, Geneva,
seat of the watch and jewelry industry, Avith 40,783 ; Basel, centre of
the silk industry, with 44,834 ; Bern, political capital, with 36,001 ;
Lausanne, with 26,520 ; and Zurich, with 21,199 inhabitants.
The soil of the country is very equally divided among the popu-
lation, it being estimated that of the two millions and a half inhabit-
ants of Switzerland, there are but half a million having no landed
possession. Of every 100 square miles of land, 20 are pastiu-e, 17
forest, 11 arable, 20 meadow, 1 vineyard, and 30 uncultivated, or
occupied by lakes, rivers, and mountains.
Emigration, which was formerly considerable, was for some time
on the decline, but is at present again increasing. In the eight
years fi-om 1868 to 1875 there emigrated, on the average, 5,170 per-
sons perannimi. In 187C, the emigrants numbered 1,741 persons;
1,691 in 1877; 2,608 in 1878; and 4,257 in 1879. The vast
majority of the emigrants went to the United States.
Trade and Industry.
The Federal custom-house returns classify all imports and exports
under three chief headings, namely, 'live stock,' '■ad valorem
goods,' and ' goods taxed per quintal.' No returns are piiblished
of the value of either the imports or exports, but only the axiantities
454 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
are given ; and, these, too, are not made regularly known by the cna-
tonis authorities. The imports consist chiefly of food, and the ex-
ports of cotton and silk manufactures, watches, straw-hats, and
machinery. In the year 1877 there were imported 5,507,044 cwts.
of wheat and flour ; 117,270 cwts. of oats ; 705,900 cwts. of pota-
toes, and 256,089 heads of cattle. The principal exports of 1877
consisted of 84,000 cwts. of silk fabrics ; 347,280 cwts. of cotton
fabrics, 1,532 cwts. of watches, and 10G,193 cwts. of machinery.
There were also some exports of cheese and other food substances.
But the excess of food imports over exports amounted annually, in
recent years, on an average to 8,000,000 cAvts. piu-chased at a cost
of 240,000,000 francs, or 9,600,000/.
Being an inland country, Switzerland has only direct commercial
intercourse with the four surroimding states — Austria, Italy, France,
and Gonnany. The trade with Austria is very inconsiderable, not
amounting, imports and exports combined, to more than 25,000
francs, or 1,000/. pcrannxmi, on the average. From Italy the annual
imports average 30,000 francs, or 1,200/. in value, while the exports
to it amoimt to 1,500,000 francs, or 60,000/. The imports from
France average 500,000 francs, or 20,000/., and the exports to it
5,500,000 fi-ancs, or 220,000/. In the intercourse with Germany,
imports and exports are nearly equal, averaging each 500,000 francs,
or 20,000/. per annum.
Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with
a strong tendency to manufacturing industry. According to the
census of 1870, there are 1,095,447 individuals supported by agricul-
ture, either wholly or in part. The manufactories employed, at the
same date, 216,468 persons, the handicrafts 241,425. In the canton
of Basel, the manufactm-e of silk ribbons, to the annual value of
1,400,000/., occupies 6,000 persons; and in the canton of Zurich silk
stuffs to the value of 1,600,000/. are made by 12,000 operatives.
The manufacture of watches and jewellery in the cantons of Neu-
cMtel. Geneva, Vaud, Bern, and Solothurn occupies 36,000 work-
men, who produce anniially 500,000 watches — three-sevenths of the
quantity of gold, and four-sevenths of silver — valued at 1,800,000/.
In the cantons of St. Gall andAppenzell, 6,000 Avorkers make 400,000/.
of embroidery annually. The printing and dyeing factories of Glarus
turn out goods to the value of 6,000/. per annum. The manufacture
of cotton goods occupies upwards of 1,000,000 spindles, 4,000 looms,
and 20,000 opei-atives, besides 38,000 hand-loom Aveavers.
From official retm-ns laid before the Swiss Federal Government by
the Minister of the Interior, it appears that the railways open for
public traffic in Switzerland at the end of 1879, had a total length of
2,365 kilometres, or 1,478 English miles, distributed among thirteen
companies, the largest of Avhich are, the Amalgamated SavIss Rail-
SWITZERLAND. 455
way, the Swiss North Eastern, the Swiss Central, the Canton of Berne
State Railway, the Swiss Western, the Fribourg Railway, and the
Franco-Swiss Railway. There is one mile of railway to every ten
square miles of superficial area.
The post-office in Switzerland forwarded G7. 531, 140 letters in the
year 1878, of which number 47,330,128 were internal,and 20,201,012
international. The receipts of the jDOst-office in the year 1878
amounted to 15,090,722 francs, or 603,G29/., and the expenditure
to 13,489,233 francs, or 530,509/.
Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which,
excepting wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of
the State. At the end of December 1878 there were 6,915 kilo-
metres, or 4,294 miles, of lines, and 18,813 kilometres,|or 11,683 miles,
of wire, over nine-tenths of the whole belonging to the State. The
number of telegraph messages sent in the year 1878 was 2,476,988,
comprising 1,590,108 inland messages; 589,040 international mes-
sages, and 226,769 messages in transit. On the 1st of January
1879, there were 1,161 telegraph offices of which 984 belonged to the
State. The receipts amounted to 1,994,444 francs, or 79,778/., and
the expenditure to 1,794,400 francs, or 71,776/., in the year 1878.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Switzerland in Great Britain.
Jgent and Consul- General, — Henri Vernet, of Geneva.
2. Of Great Britain in Switzerland,
Minister Resident. — Hon. Hussey Grespigny Vivian, C.B., born 1831 ; Agent
and Consul-General in Eoumania, 1874-76; Agent and Consul-Genpral in
Egypt, 1876-79. Appointed Minister Eesident, October 10, 1879.
Secretary of Legation. — J. Carew.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The French metric system of money, weights, and measures has
been generally adopted in Switzerland, with some changes of names,
and of subdivisions. These, and their British equivalents, are : —
MOXET.
The Franc, of 10 Batzen, and 100 Eappen or Centimes,
Average rate of exchange, 25 Francs = £1 sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 Ffund=\\0 lbs. avoirdupois. The
Arpent (Land) = 8-9ths of an acre.
The Pfund, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal
Grammes, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quarters,
named Hall-pfund, and Viertel-pfund.
456
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland.
1. Official Publications.
EiJgenossische Volkszahlung vom 1 December, 1870. 4. Bern, 1872.
Geschaftsbericbte des scbweizerisehen Bundesraths an die Bundesversamm-
hing. 8. Bern, 1875-80.
Message du Conseil federal a la baute Assemblee federale concernant le
recensement federal du 1 decembre 1870. Lel2jui]let 1871. 8. Bern, 1871.
Eesultats du compte d'etat de la Confederation Suisse pour I'annee 1876.
4. Bern, 1878.
Uebersicbts-TabellederEin-,Aus-imdDurchfubrimJahrl878,mitAngabeder
Grenzstrecken uber wekhe dieser Verkehr stattgefunden hat. Fol. Bern, 1879.
Scbweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischeu Bureau des
Kidgenoss. Departements des Innern. 4. Bern, 1870-80.
Eeport by Mr. G. T. Gould, British Secretary of Legation, on the financial
position of the Swiss Confederation, dated Geneva, Dec. 24, 1871 ; in 'Eeports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. 1. 1872. 8. London, 1872.
Keport by Mr. Horace Eubleo, Minister Eesident of the United States, on
the revision of the Constitution of Switzerland, dated Berne, .July 3, 1871 ; in
' Paptrs relating to the Foreign Eolations of the United States.' 8. Wash-
ington, 1871.
Eeport liy Mr. Beauclerk on the commercial position of Switzerland, dated
Berne, July 23, 1878 ; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' No. IV. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Mackenzie on the trade and commerce of the
cantons of Switzerland, dated Geneva, July 24, 1868 ; in 'Commercial Eeports
received at the Foreign Office.' No. XL 1868. London, 1868.
Eeport by Mr. Consul M;ickenzie on the tenure of land in tlie canton of
Geneva, dated October 1, 1869; in 'Eeports from H M.'s Eepresentatives
respecting the Tenure of Land.' Part II. Fob London, 1870.
Eeport by Mr. G. Jenner, Secretary of Legation, on the general condition of
British trade with Switzerland, dated Berne, December 6, 1873 ; in ' Eeports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Eeport by Sir H. Eumbold on the finances of Switzerland, dated Bern, April
29, 1879 ; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part
IV. 1879. 8. Loudon. 1879.
2. Nox-OFFici.iL Publications.
Harfi/i (J.). Statistische Tafel der Schweiz, 1879. Fol. Ziirich, 1880.
Gisi (Dr. Wilh.), Zeitschrift fiir schweizorische Statistik. Herausgegeben
von der Scbweizerisehen Statistischeu Gesellschaft, mit Mitwirkung des eidge-
nossischen Statistischen Bureaus. 4. Bern, 1879-80.
Grotc (George) Letters on the Politics of Switzerland. S. London, 1876.
Kolh (G. Fr.), BeitrJige zur Statistik der Industrie und des Handels der
Schweiz. 8. Ziirich, 1869.
Lomhard {Dr. H. C), Eepartitions mensuelles des deces dans c^uelques cantons
de la Suisse. 4. Bern, 1868.
Maquin (H.), Notes et documents sur I'instruction populaire en Suisse. 8.
Paris," 1878.
Wirth (Max.), Allgemeine Beschreibung und St:itistik der Schweiz. Im
Verein mit ffegen 60 Scbweizerisehen Gelehrton und Staatamannern heraus-
gegeben. 3 Vols. 8. Ziirich, 1871-75.
457
TUEKEY
AND TRIBUTAEY STATES.
(Ottoman Empike.)
Reigning Sultan.
Abdul-Hamid II., born September 22, 1812 (15 Sbaban 1245),
the second son of Sultan Abdul IMedjid ; succeeded to the throne on
the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan Murad V., August 31,
1876.
Children of the Sultan.
I. Mehemmed-Selim Effendi, born Jan. 11, 1870.
II. Zelde Sultana, born Jan. 12, 1871.
III. Name Sultana, born August 5, 187G.
IV. Ahdul-Kadir Effendi, born Feb. 23, 1878.
V. Ahmed Effendi, born March 14, 1878.
Brothers and Sisters of the Sultan.
I. Mohammed Murad Effendi, born Sept. 21, 1840 ; proclaimed
Sultan of Tvu-key on the deposition of his uncle, Sultan Abdul- Aziz,
May 30, 1876; declared by the Council of Ministers to be suffering
from idiocy, and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876.
II. i^a;?W Sultana, born Nov. 1, 1840; mamed, Aug. 11, 1854,
to Ali-Ghalib Pasha, third son of lieschid Pasha; widow, Oct. 30,
1858; remarried, March 24, 1859, to Mehemed Noury Pasha.
III. Refgc Sultana, born Feb. 6, 1842; married, July 21, 1857,
to Etham Pasha, son of IMehomed Ali Pa«ha.
IV. Djemile Sultana, born Aug. 18, 1843; married, June 3,
1858, to Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, .son of Ahmet Feti Pasha.
V. Mehcmmed-Reschad Effendi, born November 3, 1844.
VI. Ahmet- Kemaleddin Effendi, born December 3, 1847.
VII. iSVniVie Sultana, born Nov. 21, 1851; married to Mahmud
Pasha, son of Ilalil Pasha.
VIII. Nur-Eddin Effendi, born April 14, 1851.
IX. Snleiman Effendi, born November 21, 1860.
X. i^e/^zw^e Sultana, born Janimry 26, 1861.
XL Nahlle Sultana, born March 1, 1861.
XII. Watiduddin'E.^eiid.i, born January 12, 1862.
The present sovereign of Tvu-key is the thirty-fifth, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and the
twenty-eighth sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By the
law of succe.ssion obeyed in the reigning family, the crown is
inherited according to seniority by the male descendants of Othman,
sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is considered a
458
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
permanent state institution. All children born in the Harem,
•whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are legitimate and of
equal lineage, but the Sultan is succeeded by his eldest son only in
case there are no uncles or cousins of greater age.
It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some
centuries to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Harem
come, by piu-chase or free will, mostly from districts beyond the
limits of the empire, the majority from Circassia. From among
these inmates the Sultan designates a certain number, generally
seven, to be ' Kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the rest, called
* Odalik,' remaining under them as servants. The superintendent
of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the Palace, and bearing the
title of * Hazuadar-Kadyn,' has to keep up intercoiirse with the
outer world through the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called
' Kyzlar-Agassi,' has the same rank as the Grand Vizier.
The civil list of the Sultan is variously reported at from two to
four millions sterling. To the Imperial family belong a great
number of crown domains, the income from which, as well as
customary presents of high state functionaries, contribute to the
revenue. The whole income, public and private, is nevertheless
reported to be altogether insufficient to cover the expenditure of the
Court and Harem, numbering altogether over five thousand individuals.
The following is a list of the names, with date of accession, of
the thirty-five sovereigns who ruled Turkey since the foundation
of the empire and of the reigning house : —
House of
Oikjfian.
Othman .
1299
Murad IV., 'The
'ntre-
Orchan .
1326
pid'
1623
Murad I.
1360
Ibrahim .
1640
Bajazetl., 'The
Thun
der
Mohammed IV.
1649
bolt ' .
,
1389
Solyman III. .
1687
Solyman I.
1402
Ahmet II.
1691
Mohammed I. .
1413
Mustapha II. .
1695
Murad II.
1421
Ahmet III.
1703
Mohammod II.,
Conquero]
Mahmoud I. .
1730
of Con-stantinople
1451
Osman II.
1754
Bajazet II.
1481
Mustapha III.
1757
Selim I. .
. 1512
Abdul Hamid .
1774
Solyman II., 'The Mapjni
Selim III.
1788
ficent '
. 1520
Mustapha IV. .
1807
Selim II. .
. 1566
Mahmoud II. .
1808
Murad III. .
. 1574
Abdul-Medjid .
1839
Mohammed III
. 1595
Abdul-Aziz
1861
Ahmet I.
. 1603
Murad V.
Mustapha I.
. 1617
May 30— A
ug.31
1876
Osman I. ,.
. 1618
Abdul-Hamid II.
.
1876
TURKEY. 459
The average reign of tlie above thirty-five rulers of the Turkish
empire, during a period of more than five centuries and a half,
amounted to sixteen years.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the precepts of
the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not
in opposition to the accejited truths of the IMahometan religion, as
laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran,
the laws of the ' Multeka,' a code formed of the supposed sayings
and opinions of Mahomet, and the sentences and decisions of his
immediate successors, are binding upon the sovereign as well as his
subjects. Another code of laws, the ' Canon nameh,' formed by
Sultan Soly man the Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sheriffs,'
or decrees, issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general
obedience, but merely as an emanation of human authority.
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the
supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the 'Sadr-
azam,' or Grand Vizier — sometimes styled, in modern appointments,
the ' Bash Vekil,' or Prime Minister — the head of the temporal Govern-
ment, and the ' Sheik-ul-Islam,' the head of the Church. Both are
appointed by the sovereign, the latter with the nominal concurrence
of the ' Ulema,' a body comprising the clergy and chief functionaries
of the law, over which the ' Sheik- ul-Islam ' presides, although he
himself exercises neither priestly nor judicial functions. Connected
witli the ' Ulema ' are the ' Mufti,' the interpreters of the Koran.
The Ulema comprise all the great judges, theologians and jurists, and
the great teachers of literature and science who may be summoned
by the Mufti. The principal civic functionaries bear the title ol
Beys. The Pashas are at once military and civil commanders,
and commonly act as receivers of taxes.
Forms of constitution, after the model of the "West European
States, were draAvn up at various periods by successive Ottoman
Governments, the first of them embodied in the ' Hatti-Humayoun '
of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856, and
the most recent in a, decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of No-
vember 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of reform
appears entirely impossible in the present condition of the Ottoman
Empire.
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative
of the Sovereign, is President of the * Divan,' or Ministerial Council,
and by virtue of his oflice, is Minister of the Interior. The Divan
is divided into eight ministerial departments, namely : — 1, the
Ministry of War ; 2, the Ministry of Finance ; 3, the Ministry of
460 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Marine ; 4, the Ministry of Commerce ; 5, the Ministry of PubHc
Works; 6, the Ministry of Police; 7, the Ministry of Justice ; and
8, the Ministry of Public Instruction. There were constant minis-
terial changes in recent years, the average term of service of
the members of the Divan not amounting to more than four
months.
The whole of the empire is divided into Vilayets, or govern-
ments, and subdivided into Sandjaks, or provinces, and Kazas,
or districts. A Vali, or general governor, who is held to represent
the Sultan, and is assisted by a council, is placed at the head of each
government. The provinces and districts are subjected to inferior
authorities, under the superintendence of the principal governor.
All subjects, however hiimble their origin, are eligible to, and may
fill, the highest offices in the state. Birth confers no privilege, as all
true believers are equal in the eye of the law.
Religion and Education.
The adherents of the two great religious creeds of Turkey, as
reduced in its limits by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878,
are estimated to consist of sixteen millions of Mahometans, and of five
millions of Christians. The Mahometans foi'm the vast majority
in Asia and Africa, but only one-half of the ])opulation in Europe.
Eecognised by the Turkish Government are the adherents of five
non-Mahometan creeds, namely: — 1. Latins, or Catholics, who use
the Koman Liturgy, consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians,
and Croats : 2. United Greeks; 3. United Armenians ; 4. Syrians
and United Chaldeans ; 5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin
in Mount Lebanon. These five religious denominations, together with
the Protestants and Jews, are invested with the privilege of possessing
their own ecclesiastical I'ule. The bishops and patriarchs of the
Greeks and Armenians, and the ' Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of
the Jews, possess, in consequence of those i'unctions, considerable
influence.
Throughout Turkey, the ^Mahometan clergy are subordinate to
the civil authorities, who exercise over them a power of control.
Magistrates may supersede and remove clergymen who misconduct
themselves, or who are uneqtial to the proper discharge of the duties
of their office. The magistrates themselves may also, whenever
they think proper, perform all the sacerdotal functions. Owing to
the fact that the Koran constitutes the code of law and charter
of rights, as well as the religious guide of the followers of Mahomet,
there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the
professors and interpreters of the law.
TURKEY. 461
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a
consequence, public schools have been long established in most
considerable Turkish towns, while ' medresses,' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater nmnber of the prin-
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited. The pupils are chiefly taught to read and
write the first elements of the Turkish language ; the class-books
being the Koran, and some commentaries upon it. In the * me-
dresses,' which are the colleges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils
are instructed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher and
write the different sorts of Turkish characters. The instruction
comprises philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and morals founded on the
Koran ; and these, v/ith theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on
history and geography, complete the course of study.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial affairs of the Ottoman Empire are in a state of
thorough disorganisation. Previous to the Russian invasion of 1877,
there existed a virtual state of bankruptcy, which became almost irre-
mediable through the enormous expenses of the war, followed by the
separation of some of the richest provinces of European Turkey
from the empire, with consequent diminution of the public re-
venue.
No account of the actual receipts and expenses of Turkey were
ever published by the Government. In the budget estimates for the
year of the Hegira 1291, corresponding with the financial year
beginning the 18th February 1874, and ending February G, 1875, the
total revenue was set down at 22,552,300/., and the total expenditure
at 22,849,610/., leaving a deficit of 297,310/. In the estimates for
the financial year 1875-76, the revenue was calculated at 19,106,352/.
and the expenditure at 23,143,276/., leaving a deficit of 4,036,924/.
Previous to the year 1873, it was the custom of the Government of
the empire to draw lap the budgets so as to exhibit either a surplus,.
or an even balance between receipts and disbursements. The actual
revenue and expenditure, as far as known, differed entirely from the
budget estimates of every year, there being no sm-plus, but immense
deficits.
According to the most reliable estimates, the actual expenditure
of the Government exceeded the actual revenue in recent years in
amounts varying from ten to thirty- six millions. It was reported
that the actual revenue for the financial year 1878-79 was not more
than 14,000,000/., while the expenditure for the same period, risen
to unusual dimen.sions on account of the Eussian Avar, reached at
least 50,000,000/., thus leaving a deficit of 36,000,000/. The present
462
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
annual revenue, since the war, and the partial dismemberment of
the Empire, cannot be calculated, at the utmost, at more than
12,000,000/., and may not reach 10,000,000/. The annual expendi-
ture, on the other hand, is estimated generally at not less than
16,000,000/., without taking into account the payment of interest on
the public debt.
The public liabilities of the Ottoman Empire are divided officially
into two categories, namely, the foreign or hypothecated Debts, con-
tracted, as their designation implies, abroad, and secured on special
sources of revenue ; and the Internal Debts, known luider a variety of
names, issued at Constantinojile alone, and therefore dependent only
on a compact between the I'orte and its subjects, and secured on
the general credit and resources of the empire. The nominal
amount of the foreign debts, contracted in the course of twenty
years, had reached the sum of 18 1,981,783/. at the end of 1874, when
the borrowing power came to an end. The following table gives the
year of issue, nominal capital, tlie interest per cent., and the issue
price, of the foreign loans of Turkey : —
Year of issue
Nominal capital
Interest
Issue price
£
per cent.
per cent.
1854
3,000,000
6
80
1855
5,000,000
4
102i
1858
5,000,000
6
85
1860
2,070,000
6
62 i
1862
8,000,000
6
68
1863
8,000,000
6
66
1865
36,363,363
5
47.'.
1865
6,000,000
5
65 i
1867
2,500,000
6
63
1869
22,222,220
6
60i
1871
5,700,000
6
73'
1872
11,126,200
9
98i
1873
28,000,000
6
581
1874
40,000,000
5
43i
Total .
182,981,783
The first foreign loan of Turkey, of 18.54, issued to meet the ex-
penses of the war with Eussia, was contracted witli Messrs. Dent,
Palmer, & Co., London, on the security of tlie tribute of Egypt, with
stipulation to be repaid by annual drawings in or before the year
1889. The second loan, of 1855, was brought out under the
guarantee of Great Britain and France. It is to be paid off at par
by annual drawings, the last of which will be in August, 1900, and it
is charged on the balance of the Egyptian tribute and on the customs
duties of Syria. The third loan, of 1858, was contracted with
TDEKEY. 463
Messrs. Dent. Palmer, & Co., and the Ottoman Bank, on the secu-
rity of the customs duties and octrois of Constantinople, and of the
general revenues of the empire. It was issued in two portions— -
3,000,000/. in 1858, and 2,000,000/. in 1859— andisto be repaid, at
par, by annual drawings before the year 1893. The fourth loan, of
1860, contracted with M. Mires, Paris, on the security of the customs
and other revenues of the empire, was intended to be forlG, 000,000/.,
but only 2,070,000/. could be issued, at the price of 621 The fifth
loan, of 1862, contracted -with the Ottoman Bank and ]Messrs. Devaux,
Paris, was seciu'ed on tlie tobacco, salt, stamp, and license
duties, and the general revenues of the empire ; while the sixth
loan, of 1863, contracted also by the Ottoman Bank, was issued on the
security of the Imperial customs and tithes. The seventh loan. o£
1864, to the amount of 40 millions Turkish liras, or 36,363,363/.
was raised with the professed object of attaining at a ' Conversion
and Unification of the Internal Debts of the Ottoman Empire.' The
contract for issuing this loan was made with Mr. Laing, represent-
ing a financial combination of the General Credit Company of
London, the Societe Generale of Paris, and a number of other banks.
The next, the eighth loan, of 1865, contracted through the Otto-
man Bank, was charged on the security of the sheep-tax of Eoumelia
and the Archipelagus, and the produce of the mines of Tokat.
The ninth, tenth, and eleventh loans, of 1867, 1869, and 1871,
contracted through the Societe Generale of Paris, Messrs.
Louis Cohen and Son, Paris, and Messrs. Dent, Palmer, & Co.,
London, were placed on the security of a variety of special taxes,
imposts, and tithes, as well as on the general revenues, ' present
and future,' of Turkey. The twelfth loan, issued in August,
1872, through Messrs. R. Raphael and Sons, London, was secured
on taxes already hypothecated, with the ' special privilege ' for the
bondholders to exchange their securities, at the rate of 550/.
payable for 1000/., for the 5 per cent, bonds of the ' General
Debt of the Ottoman Empire.' The thirteenth loan, issued
in September 1873, for a nominal amount of 28,000,000/.,
proved a failure for the time, the subscription not reaching
one-sixth of the required amount. But the fourteenth and
last loan, the first instalment of which, to the amount of
15,900,000/., was issued in September 1874, found numerous
subscribers.
The amount of the internal and floating debt of Turkey is stated
variously. In the report of the special budget commission certify-
ing the estimates for 1874-75, it was announced that the total
amount of this debt did not exceed 14,725,000 Turkish pounds,
or 13,000,000/.; but later reports, of 1878, estimate the total of these
liabilities at over 75,000,000/.
464 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
By a decree of the Government, dated October 6, 1875, the in-
terest upon the debt was reduced for a time to one-half of the
stipulated amount. The moiety of the interest on the debt promised
by this decree was not paid at the dates indicated, and by another
order of the Government, issued July 9, 187G, it was openly an-
nounced that no payments would be made 'until the internal
affairs of the Empire have become more settled.' To raise new
funds in the existing bankruptcy of the State, a decree for the
issue of paper money, called ' caimes,' or assignats, was issued by
the Government July 27, 1876. The first issue, in notes of five,
ten, twenty, fil'ty, and hundred piastres, was fixed at 3,000,000 Tur-
kish liras, but it was reported, at the commencement of the Rus-
sian war, that * the printing of " caimes" is going on uninter-
ruptedly, and new presses are put to work, to issue them in larger
numbers than before.' According to the best estimates, more than
ninety millions sterling of paper money had been issued by the end
of October 1878.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The military forces of the Ottoman Empire comprise three classes
of troops, namely: first, the Nizam, or standing army; secondly,
tlie Etayos, or first reserve; and thirdly, the Redif, or second reserve.
The Redif is again sub-divided into three classes, or bans. Military
service is compulsory on all able-bodied Mahometans who have
reached the completed age of eighteen, but substitution is allowed
on payment of a sum of about 50/. Non-Mahometans are not liable
to military service, but have to pay an exemption tax, levied alike
on men, women, and children, of all ages. Every able-bodied
Mahometan upon being drawn for military service has to pass four
years in the Nizam, or standing army, after which he is permitted
to proceed to his home for one year, and is then styled a soldier of
the Etayot ; at the expiration of this year he is transferred to the
Sinfi Evril, or 1st ban of the Redif, in which he has to remain four
years, his services only being called for in case of war. At the
end of the four years he is again liable for a further term of
four years in the Sinfi Sanni, or 2nd ban of the Redif, and after that
for a third term of four years in the Sinfi Salis, or 3rd ban of the
Redif. He is finally liable for 17 years' service in the regular army,
and should the nation be engaged in any great war, the government
can again call upon him to serve a further terra of five years in the
Mustahfiz, or general levy.
The actual strength of the Turki.sh army is but imperfectly known.
Ofiicial estimates, referring to the period just following the declara-
TURKEY. 465
tion of war by Russia in 1877, stated the numbers of the various
classes of the regular army as follows, on the war footing : —
Number.
Nizam 203,700
1st Ban of Redif 105,600
2nd Ban of Redif 53,500
3rd Ban of Eedif 40,000
Mustahfiz 85,000
Total . . 487,800
It is estimated that after the Treaty of Berlin, which separated a
great part of European Turkey and several provinces of Asia from
the Ottoman Empire, the strength of the regular army, under the
existing organisation, was reduced to 350,000 men.
In the organisation of the Turkish army, each regiment of infantry
consists of 20 battalions, namely, four battalions of Nizam, four
battalions of the 1st ban of Redif, four battalions of the 2nd ban
of Redif, and four battalions of the 3rd ban of Redif. The basis of
the organisation of the Turkish array is essentially territorial. All
the troops are divided into army corps, corresponding with the
political divisions of the empire. These divisions are subdivided
into military circles, called Merkiss, each of which is responsible
for a certain number of regiments and batteries.
Besides the regular army, the government has at its sen'ice a
number of irregular troops, drawn from Circassia, and other provinces
inhabited by nomad populations, and subject to little discipline. The
nvimber of these troops was estimated at 100,000 soon after the out-
break of t'he war with Russia.
2. Navy.
The fleet of war of Turkey consisted, at the end of the year 1878,
of fifteen large armour-clad ships, eighteen smaller ironclads, in-
cluding eleven monitors and gunboats for the Danube, and 45
other steamers. The fifteen large armour-clad ships comprise three
of the first class, or sea-going frigates ; five of the second class, or
sea-going corvettes ; and seven of the third class, or corvettes for
coast defence. The following is a tabulated list of the principal
armour-clad ships of the Turkish navy in existence at the end of
1 878. The columns of the table exhibit, similar to the description of
British, French, and German ironclads, after the name of each ship,
first, the thickness of armour at the water-line; secondly, the
number and weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated, or nominal
horse-poAver ; and fourthly, the tonnage, or displacement in tons.
H n
466
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Names of ironclads
First-class : —
Mesoudiy6 .
Nousi'etieh. •
Second-class : — '
Azizieh . , _»
Orkanieh , •
Malimoudieh
Osmanieli .
Athar-Tevfik .
Third-class : —
Fethi-Boulend .
Moukadem-Hair
Idjila-Lieh
Athar-Shefket .
Ncdjimi-Sliefkct
Avni-Illah .
Muiu-Zaffer
Aiinour
thickness at
water-liue.
Inches
12
12
1(1
10
10
10
9
G-nns
Niimber
Weight
ri2
18-toti"\
I 3
6*- ton J
/12
18-ton'\
I 3
6^-ton/
/ 1
1 2-ton "1
6i-ton /
115
Ul
12-ton -(
6i-ton/
f 1
12-ton \
115
6J-tonJ
Ul
12-ton^
6i-ton/
8
12-ton
4
12 -ton
4
12-ton
4
12-ton
r 1
1 2-ton "\
I 5
6J-tonJ
/ 1
12-ton \
I 5
6. Hon J
4
12-ton
4
12-ton
Inchcated
horse-
power
5,500
5,500
4,800
4,800
4,800
8,000
3,000
1,800
1,800
1,650
1,G50
1,500
1,200
1,200
Displace-
ment, or
tonnage
Tons
9,140
9,140
6,400
6,400
6,400
4,200
4,200
2,760
2,760
2,400
2,400
2,228
1,400
1,400
The largest armour-clad ships of the Turkish navy are the two
frigates, the Mesoudiye and the Nousretieh, the first constructed in
1875, by the Thames Ironwork and Shipbuilding Company at Black-
wall, near London, and the second, in 187G, at Constantinojole.
The two frigates are built on the same designs, each being 332
feet long, Avith extreme breadth of 59 feet. They are constructed
on the broadside principle, and have on the main deck a twelve-
gun battery, 148 feet long, the armour-plates of which are 12 inches
thick at, and ten inches thick above the water-line. The bow
also is strongly fortified, and fitted with a ram of great strength,
twenty tons in weight, adapted to pierce an opponent below the
armour in the most vulnerable part. Forward, a forecastle has two
6i-ton guns, firing ahead, while a poop aft has one gun of the same
calibre.
Among the older ironclads of Turkey, the most powerful is
the firigate ' Osmanieh,' built by Napier and Sons, Glasgow, in
1864. The ' Osmanieh ' is a ram, armour-plated from stem to
stern, 309 feet long, 56 feet broad, and of a burthen of 4,200
tons. The stem of the vessel projects about 4 feet beyond the
TURKEY.
467
upper deck at the water line. Two other notable ironclads are
the twin screw-steamers ' Avni lUah,' or ' Help of God,' and the
* Muin Zaffer,' or ' Aid to Victory,' the first built at the Thames
ironworks, and the second by Samtida Brothers, Poplar, in 1869.
Each of these vessels is 230 feet long, and 36 feet broad, of a
burthen of 1,400 tons, and with engines of 1,200 horse-power.
Both are clad in armour of an average thickness of 5^ inches,
and carry four 12-ton rifle Armstrong guns in a central battery.
The navy of Turkey was manned, in 1878, by 20,000 sailors
and 3,000 marine troops. The crews are raised in the same manner
as the land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary
enlistment. The time of service in the navy is eight years.
Area and Population.
The area and population of the Ottoman Empire are knoAvn only
by estimates, and not as the result of exact measurement and of a
general census. Previous to the Russian war of 1877-78, the total
area of the Empire was officially estimated at 1,742,874 English
square miles, on which lived 28,165,000 inhabitants. The results
of the war, sanctioned by the great European powers and embo-
died in the stipulations of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13,
1878, greatly rediiced the area and population of the Empire,
more particularly that of its most important part, in Europe.
By the Treaty, which created the semi-independent States of Bul-
garia and of Eastern Roumelia, gave Bosnia and the Herzegovina
to Austria- Hungary, and additions of territory to Roumania, Servia,
and Montenegro, the total estimated area of the Empire was reduced
to 1,116,848 English square miles, and the population to 21 millions.
The area and population of Turkey in Europe were estimated
as follows before and after the Treaty of Berlin : —
Areas
Engl. sq. miles
Population
Turkey in Europe before the Treaty .
Cessions made under the Treaty :
Bulgaria
Eastern Roumelia
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Eoumania, Servia, &c.
Total cessions . .
Actual Turkey in Europe . . .
138,264
8,315,000
24,360
13,500
28,125
10,251
1,859,000
751,000
1,061,000
369,000
76,236
4,040,000
62,028
4,275,000
The total area and poprJation of the Turkish Empire, and the
number of Mahometans within the population, in each of the
468
THE STATESMAN S TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
three geographical divisions, were estimated as follows, at the end
of 1879:—
Divisions
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
Total Population
Mahometans
Turkey in Europe .
Turkey in Asia
Turkey in Africa
Total .
02,028
710,320
344,500
4,275,000
15,715,000
1,010.000
2,100,000
13,068,000
1,000,000
1,116,848 1 21,000,000 | 16,168,000 1
Turkey in Europe is divided administratively into four vilayets,
or provinces, but which do not include the district of Constantinople,
which forms a separate government. The division of Turkey in
Asia was into 14 villayets previous to the war of 1877-78; but
two of these had to be ceded to Russia. By Art. 58 of the Treaty
of Berlin, it was stipulated that there should be annexed to Rus-
sia the formerly Turkish possessions in Asia, comprising ' the ter-
ritories of Ardahan, Kars, and Batoiim, with the port of Batoum,
as well as all the territories comprised between the former Russo-
Turkish frontier and a line beginning at the Black Sea, and ex-
tending to a point to the north-Avest of Khorda and to the south of
Artvin.' The provinces thus ceded to Russia are estimated to em-
brace an area of 5,G70 Engh square miles, with a population of
600,644, including 417,602 Mahometans.
By a Treaty, signed June 4, 1878, between the British Govern-
ment and that of the Ottoman Empire, entitled ' Convention of
defensive alliance between Great Britain and Turkey,' it was settled
that Asiatic Turkey should be placed under British protection, to
be defended, if necessary, ' by force of arms ' against any invader,
and that ' in return, the Sultan promises to England to introduce
necessary reforms, to be agreed upon later between the two Powers,
into the government, and for the protection, of the Christian and
other subjects of the Porte in these territories ; and in order to
enable England to make necessary provision for executing her en-
gagement, his Imperial Majesty the Sultan further consents to assign
the Island of Cyprus to be occupied and administered by England.'
Land in Turkey is held imder four different forms of tenure, namely,
1st, as ' Miri,' or Crown lands ; 2nd, as ' Vacouf,' or 2^ious founda-
tions ; 3rd, as ' Malikaneh,' or Crown grants ; and 4th, as ' Mulkh,'
or freehold property. The first description the ' miri,' or Crown
lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the
Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the
right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees,
but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the land in
question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner neglects to
cultivate it for a period of three years, it is forfeited to the Crown.
TURKEY.
469
The second form of tenure, the ' vacouf,' was instituted originally
to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the
people, by the erection of mosques and schools; but this object has
been set aside, or neglected, for several generations, and the 'vacouf
lands have mostly been seized by government officials. The third
class of landed pi-operty, the 'malikaneh,' was granted to the spahis,
the old feudal troops, in recompense for the military sen'ice required
of them, and is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form
of tenure, the ' mulkh,' or freehold property, does not exist to a
gi-eat extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land
in the neighbourhood of villages is ' mulldi,' which the peasants
piu-chase from time to time from the Government.
All consular and other reports agree in stating that the native
population of every part of the Turkish empire is fast declining, in
many provinces at such a rate that the formerly cultivated lands are
falling into the condition of deserts. Want of security for life and
property, an anarchical yet extortionate administration, and a general
absence of all moral and material progress, are given as the •orincipal
reason for the rapid decrease of the population.
Trade and Commerce.
There are no official returns regarding the foreign commerce of
the TiU'kish Empire. The average annual value of the imports of
Turkey in Europe was estimated, previous to the Russian war and
the Treaty of Berlin, at 18,500,000/., and of the exports at
10,000,000/. At present, the total value of the foreign commerce
is probably reduced by one- third, if not more. The commercial
intercourse of the empire is mainly with Great Britain, Italy, Austria,
and Greece.
The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of
the Turkish Empire, in Europe and Asia — exclusive of Egypt, for
which see page 635 — and Great Britain during the ten years from.
1870 to 1879 is shown in the followinGi table : —
Yeaxs
Exports from Turkey
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Turkey
£
£
1870
6,636,909
7,088,369
1871
7,038,510
5,996,634
1872
6,540,529
7,639,143
1873 '
6,068.925
7,733,487
1874
5,842,846
7,037,707
1875
6.555,714
5,889,905
187G
7.444,323
5,922,825
1877
6,852,108
5,624,910
1878
4,779,103
7,748,007
1879
3,473,466
7,208,240
470
THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The following table gives the value of the trade between Turkey in
Europe and Great Britain in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Turkey in
Europe to Great Britain
Imports of British Home
Produce into Turkey in
Europe
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
4,662,935
4,819,518
2,894,998
3,469,777
3,579,836
3,924,341
4,589,538
3,580,037
2,205,598
917,313
&
4,954,391
4,253,710
5,134,252
4,969,341
4,633,024
3,630,365
3,379,424
3,035,296
4,160,766
4,157,925
The staple article of exports of the Turkish Empire to the
United Kingdom, in recent years, has been corn. The corn exports
of 1879 Avere of the total value of 99,620/., of which amount
5,363Z. was for wheat; 28,304Z. for barley; G,831/. for maize,
and 50,128/. for other kinds of corn and grain. The exports
of corn and grain of all descriptions from the Turkish Empire to
Great Britain amounted to 2,505,276/. in 1871 ; to 1,445,476/. in
1872; to 2,319,480/. in 1873; to 2,305,375/. in 1874 ; to 2,909,014/.
in 1875; to 3,775,528/. in 1876, to 2,641,226/. in 1877, and to
1,070,461/. in 1878. Next to corn, in value, stand goat's hair,
valonia, opium, and raisins. Of goat's hair, the exports to the
United Kingdom, in the year 1879, amoimted to 541,812/.; of
valonia to 509,075/.; of opium to 396,123/.; and of raisins to
381,496/. All these exports showed a gradual falling off from
1874 to 1879.
The most important article of British imports into Turkey is
manufactured cotton. The imports of cotton and cotton yarn
amounted to 4,452,433/. in 1871; to 5,870,078/. in 1872; to
5,828,869/. in 1873, to 5,229,038/. in 1874 ; to 4,646,343/. in 1875 ;
to 4,875,008/. in 1876, to 4,605,840/. in 1877, to 6,087,637/. in 1878,
and to 5,963,985/. in 1879. Besides cotton goods, the only notable
articles of British exports are woollens, of the value of 264,267/.,
and iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 179,656/. in the
year 1879.
The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire is comparatively
small. At the end of June 1879, its total tonnage was estimated at
181,500 tons, but this included coasting and other vessels. The
shipping ' de long cours ' was reported at the same date to embrace
220 sailing vessels, of a total burthen of 34,500 tons, and 11
steamers, of a burthen of 3,350 tons.
TURKEY.
471
The foundation of a railway system constructed at the cost of the
State Avas laid in 1865, at the end of which year there were 46
English miles of railway open for traffic. At the end of 1869, the
number of miles open for traffic was 113, and at the end of June
1873 it had increased to 562. The total length of railways open
for traffic on January 1, 1877, was 1,137 miles, of w-hich 965
miles were in Europe, and 172 miles in Asiatic Tui-key. Through
the cessions of territory ordered by the Treaty of Berlin, the length
of the railways in Europe was reduced to 786 EngUsh miles, and
the total length in the Empire to 958 miles. The following is a list
of the various Imes in Europe and Asia wliich were open lor traffic
at the end of the year 1878 : —
1 Length :
Lines of Kailwaj- | EngUsh miles
Eiiropean Turlccy : —
Constantinople to Adrianople
Adrianople to Saremby .
Salonica to Uskub .
Uskuli to Mitrovitza
KuUeli to Degeaghatcli .
Trenova to Jamboli
Banjalouke to Nori
210
152
150
75
70
65
64
Total, European Tm-key ....
Asiatic Turkey: —
Smyrna to Aidin
Scutari to Ismid
Total, Asiatic Turkey
786
145
172
Total, Turkish Empire .
958
The line from Smyrna to Aidin, in Asia Minor, known as
the Ottoman railway, 145 miles long, w-as constructed by an
English company, imder guarantee from Turkey. New lines, of the
length of 174 miles were ordered, in 1875 and 1876, to be built at
the expense of the Government, but their construction was not pro-
ceeded with for want of funds.
The length of telegraph lines in Turkey on the 1st of January
1879, w^as 17,950 miles, and the length of wires, 31,782 miles. The
total number of despatches carried in the year 1878, was 1,344,702,
of which 530,019 were official despatches, 523,230 internal, and
291,453 international messages. The number of telegraph offices
was 417 on the 1st of January 1879. The receipts from the telegraphs
472 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
amounted to 245,321?., and the working expenses to 199,075Z. in
the year 1878.
An international postal service was established by the Govern-
ment in September 1876, up to which time the post-office of Turkey
was almost entirely managed by foreigners. There are no returns
respecting the work of the post-office, though it is known that the
number of letters, newspapers, &c., forwarded is very small in com-
parison with other countries. There wei-e 430 post-offices through-
out the Avhole Empire on the 1st of January 1878. The principal
of these offices, at Constantinople, belonged to Austria-Hungary,
Egypt, France, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, and Russia.
TRIBUTARY STATES.
I. EGYPT.
See Paut II. — Africa.
II. BULGARIA.
Reigning Prince.
Alexander I., born April 5, 1857, son of Prince Alexander of
Hesse, brother of the Empress of Russia (see page 152); entered
the German army in 1870, and the army of Russia in 1877. Elected
Prince of Bulgaria by imanimous vote of the Constituent Assembly,
April 29, 1879 ; assumed the government, June 28, 1879.
The Prince has the grant of an annual civil list of 0,000,000 lei,
or 24O,000Z., with maintenance of a palace, or ' konak,' at Sofia.
It is enacted by the constitution of 1879 that ' the Prince must
reside permanently in the Principality. In case of absence, he must
appoint a Regent, who will have his rights and duties determined
by a special law. The Princely title being hereditary falls on the
eldest son. In case the Prince succeeds in his minority, a Regency
will be appointed until his majority.'
Constitution and Government.
The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty of Berlin,
signed July 13, 1878. It was ordered by Art. 1 of the Treaty that
Bulgaria should be 'constituted an autonomous and tributary Principa-
lity under the suzerainty of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan. It will
TURKEY. 473
have a Christian Government and a national militia.' Art. 3 ordered,
' The Prince of Bulgaria shall be freely elected by the population
and confirmed by the Sublime Porte, Avith the consent of the Powers.
No member of any of the reigning Houses of the Great European
Powers can be elected Prince of Bulgaria. In case of a vacancy in
the Princely dignity, the election of the new Prince shall take place
under the siime conditions and with the same forms.'
By the constitution of 1879, the legislative authority is vested in
a single chamber, called the National Assembly of Bulgaria. The
members of it are elected by universal manhood suffrage, at the
rating of one member to every 20,000 of the population, ' counting
both sexes.' The Prince has the right of nominating, in addition, a
number of deputies equal to half the number returned by the popular
vote. The time of duration of the Assembly is four years, but it
may be dissolved at any time by the Prince, when new elections
must take place within four months.
The executive power is vested, under the Prince, in a Council of
seven ministers, namely, 1. Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public
Worship ; 2. Minister of the Interior ; 3. Minister of Public In-
struction ; 4. Minister of Finance ; 5. Minister of Public "Works-
and Agriculture ; 6. Minister of Justice ; and 7. IMinister of War.
It Avas ordered by Art. 9 of the Treaty of Berlin, that ' the
amount of the anniial tribute which the Principality of Bulgaria
shall pay to the Suzerain Court — such amount being paid into
whatever bank the Porte may hereafter designate — shall be fixed
by an agreement between the Powers Signatory of the present
Treaty at the close of the first year of the working of the new orga-
nisation. This tribute shall be calculated on the mean revenue of
the teiTitory c£ the Principality. Bulgaria must bear a portion
of the public aebc of the Empire, and when the Powers fix the tri-
bute they will take into consideration what amount of that debt
can, in fair proportion, be assigned to the Principality.'
Area and Population.
The boundaries of the Principality were fixed by the Treaty of
Berlin as follows: — ' The Principality of Bulgaria will include the
following territories — The frontier follows on the north the right
bank of the Danube from the ancient frontier of Servia up to a point
to be determined by a European Commission to the east of Silistria,
and from thence runs to the Black Sea to the South of Mangalia,
which is included in Eoumanian territory. The Black Sea forms
the eastern boundary of Bulgaria. On the south the frontier follows
upwards from its mouth the waterway of the brook near which are
situated the villages of Hodzakioj, Selam-Kioj, Aivadsik, Kulibe,
474 THE STATESMAN S TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Sudzuluk, crosses obliquely the valley of the Deli-Kamcik, passes
soiith of Belibe and Kemhalik and north of Hadzimahale after having
passed the Deli-Kamcik at 2^ kilom. above Cengei, reaches the
crest at a point situated between Tekenlik and Aidos-Bredza, and
follows it by Karnabad Balkan, Prisevica Balkan, Kazan Balkan, to
the north of Kotel as far as Demir Kapu. It proceeds by the ^^rin-
cipal chain of the Great Balkan, the whole extent of which it follows
up to the summit of Korica. There it leaves the crest of the Ballian,
descending southwards,' &c., &c. The accurate settlement of the
frontiers of the Principality was left to a European Commission, ap-
pointed by the signatories of the Treaty of Berlin.
The estimated area of the Principality of Bulgaria is 24,360
English square miles, and the population is calculated to number
1,859,000. Under the existing provisional arrangements, Bulgaria
is divided into nine provinces, namely, Widdin, Sistova, Rustchuk,
Varna, Tirnova, Sofia, Philippopolis, Slivno, and Skobha or Usklip.
Each of these is subdivided into several arrondissements, or circles.
The present capital of the Principality is the city of Sofia, with a
population of 18,000. The other principal towns are Varna, with
an estimated population of 16,000 ; Shumla, with 16,000; Rust-
chuk, Avith 15,000 ; Tirnova, the ancient capital of Bulgaria, with
15,000; Gabrova, with 15,000; and Widin, with 14,000 inhabi-
tants. Besides these, there ai-e 15 to 20 small towns of from
2,000 to 3,000 inhabitants each. The great majority of the popula-
tion live by the cultivation of the soil and the produce of their flocks
and herds.
Bulgaria formed an independent kingdom from the middle of the
seventh century till the year 1018, and again from 1,196 till the
middle of the fourteenth century. It then became subject to Hun-
gary, until it was conquered by the Tiurks in 1392. The great
majority of the people are adherents of the Greek Church, and speak
the Servian language.
Trade and Industry.
The principal article of trade is corn, of which 1,500,000 tons
are exported annually. The other exports consist of wool, tallow,
butter, cheese, hides, flax, and timber. The principal imports are
textile manufactures, iron and coals. The number of sheep kept is
very large, and their wool is exported chiefly to Austria, while the
finer qualities are shipped to France. The principal mineral pro-
ductions of the Principality are iron and coal. Deposits of coal
have been discovered in the neighbourhood of Widdin, Travua,
and between Varna and Baltchick on the Black Sea. ' But,' says
a British Consular Report of the year 1877, ' such has been the
TUKKEY. 475
inattention of the Government to this important subject that little,
amounting, in fact, to nothing, has been done to develop these
valuable productions of nature. In the hands of respectable com-
panies the working of these mines would be attended with very
favourable results.'
Bulgaria has one line of railway, from Eustchuk to the port of
Varna, on the Black Sea, 140 English miles in length. It was con-
structed by a private company for the Turkish Government, and
by Art. 10 of the Treaty of Berlin all the outstanding obliga-
tions of the railway fall to the charge of the Government of the
Principality.
JDiplomatic and Consular Eepresentatives.
1. Of Great Britain in BrLOAEiA.
Agent and Cotisid General. — Frank Cavendish Lascelles, formerly Consul in
the Philippine Islands ; appointed November 26, 1880.
There vere no Bidgarian representatives in Great Britain at the end of 1879.
ni. EASTERN ROUMELIA.
Constitution and Government.
Eastern Roumelia was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed
July 13, 1878. It was ordered by Art. 13 of the Treaty that
a State, or ' Province,' should be ' formed south of the Balkans,
wMch will take the name of " Eastern Eoumelia," and will remain
imder the direct poUtical and military authority of His Imperial
Majesty the Sultan, under conditions of administrative autonomy.
It will have a Christian Governor- General.' By Articles 15-17
of the Treaty it was further provided that ' the Sultan will have
the right of providing for the defence of the land and sea fron-
tiers of the province by erecting fortifications on those frontiers
and maintaining troops there. Internal order is maintained in
Eastern Eoumeha by a native gendarmery assisted by a local
militia. Eegard shall be had to the religion of the inhabitants
in respect to the composition of these corps, the officers of which
are named by the Sultan, according to the localities. His Imperial
Majesty the Sultan engages not to employ irregular troops, such as
Bashi-Bazouks and Circassians, in the garrisons of the frontiers.
The regular troops destined to this service must not in any case be
billeted on the inhabitants. When they pass through the province
they will not be allowed to sojourn there.' It was provided by Art.
16 of the Treaty: — The Governor-General wiU have the right of
summoning the Ottoman troops in the event of the internal or
external security of the province being threatened. In such an
476 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
eventuality the Sublime Porte shall inform the representatives of
the Powers at Constantinople of the decision, as well as of the
exigencies which justify it.' Finally, it was ordered by Art. 17
that ' the Governor-General of Eastern Roumelia shall be named
by the Sublime Porte, with the assent of the Powers, for a term
of five years.'
Governor-General. — Prince Alexander Vogorides (Aleko Pasha) ;
appointed May 18, 1879 ; installed in office May 30, 1879.
According to the constitution of 1879, drawn uy) by a national
convention, and consisting of 15 chapters, with 495 articles, tlie
legislative power is in the hands of a single chamber, called the
Provincial Assembly. It is partly official, partly elective, and partly
nominated by the Governor. The official members are the chief
judicial and ecclesiastical dignitaries, to the number of nine ; the
elective members numbering 36, and the nominated 10. Half of the
elected members vacate their seats every two years. The electoral
body consists of all men of Roumelian nationality who are of full
age and possessed of a certain property qualification, either indi-
vidually or through their parents. The minimum age of candidates
for election is 25, but otherwise their qualification is the same as
that of electors, public functionaries being excluded. The Assembly
meets annually, on the second Monday in October, at the capital.
During the administration of Eastern Eoumelia by Russia, till the
end of March 1879, a reserve of 12,000,000 lei, or 480,000Z., was
formed, and handed over to the new government, to be expended in
the execution of public works. It is estimated that tiie public
revenue m future years will amoimt to 22, GOG, 000 lei, or 904,240^
per annum, and the expenditure to 21,000,000 lei, or 840,000L,
leaving an annual surplus of 1, GOG, 000 lei, or 64,240Z.
Area and Population.
The boundaries of Eastern Roumelia were fixed by Art. 13 of the
Treaty of Berlin, as follows : — ' Starting from the Black Sea, the
frontier line shall run from its mouth along the valley of the stream,
near which are situated the villages of Hodzakioj, Selam Kioj,
Aivadsik, Kulibe, Sudzuluk, crosses obliquely the valley of Deli
Kamcik, passes to the south of Belibe and Kemhalik, and to the north
of Pladzimahale, after having crossed the Deli-Kamcik at a distance
of 2-^ kilometres above Cengei, reaches the crest of the mountains at
a point between Tekenlik and Aidos-Bredza, and follows it by the
Karnabad Balkan, Prisevica Balkan, Kazal Balkan, to the north of
Kotel up to Demir Kapu. The frontier passes by the principal
chain of the Great Balkans, which it follows throughout its whole
TURKEY. 477
length to the summit of Kosica. At this point the western frontier
of RoumeHa leaves the crest of the Balkans, descending southwards.
The area of Eastern Roumelia is estimated at 13,500 English
square miles, and the population, in official returns of the year
1880, is stated to amount to 817,513. Of this number 573,231 are
described as Bulgarians, 176,759 Turks, 42,516 Greeks, 19,524
Gypsies, 4,177 Israelites, and 1,306 Armenians. The city of
Philippopolis, the capital, contains 24,503 inhabitants, of whom
10,909 are Bulgarians, 5,558 Turks, 4,781 Greeks, 865 Gypsies,
1,134 Israelites, and 806 Armenians. Agriculture is the chief
occupation, but it is in a very backward condition, and there is
scarcely any trade.
Consular Representatives.
1. Of Great Britain ix Eastern Koumelia.
Consul-Geaeral. — Henry Michael Jones appointed November 4, 1880.
Eastern Eouraelia had no representatives in Groat Britain at tho end of
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Turkey in GitE>\.T Britain.
Ambassador. ~ Musurus Pasha, accredited Jan. 30, ISoG.
Secretaries. — Etienne Musurus Bey ; Paul Musurus Bey ; Yussuf Behdget
Bey.
2. Of Great Britain in Turkey.
Ambassador Extraordinari/.—Rt. Hon. George Joachim Goschen, born 1831,
son of Wilhelm H. Goschen. Esq., banker, of London ; educated at Rugby,
and at Oriel College, Oxford; member of tho firm of Friihlmg and Goschen,
bankers, 1853-64; Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 18G.5-66 ; Chancellor
of the Duchy of Lancaster, January to July 1866 ; M.P. for the City of
London since 1863; President of the Poor Law Board, 1868-71; First Lord
of the Admiralty, 1871-74. Appointed Ambassador Extraordinary to Turkey,
March 1880.
Secretaries. — Frederick Robert St. John ; Wm. B. Smyth ; "Walter Baring ;
A. Sandison.
Militari/ Attache. — Captain Swaine.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Turkish Empire, and
the British equivalents, are : —
Money. £ s. d.
The Turkish Lira, or gold Medjidio . . .0 18 0-64
Piastre, the gold official, 100 to the Lira . . 0 0 2-16
„ „ becklik, 105 to the Lira . . .00 2-06
„ „ copper, 110 to the Lira . . ,00 1-97
478 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
Large accounts are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set
down in 'purses' of 500 Medjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. The
'purse' is generally calculated as worth 4:1. 10s. sterling. There
exists a large amount of debased silver currency, to which were
added, during the years 1876 to 1879, vast quantities of paper money,
known as ca'ime, issued to such an extent as to become in the end of
merely nominal value, and altogether refused in commercial inter-
course.
The present monetary system of Turkey was established in the
reign of the late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on which account the name
of Medjidie is frequently given to the Lira, the unit of the system.
Weights and Measures.
The Okc, of iOO drams . . .= 2-8326 lbs avoirdupois.
„ Almiul . . . . .= 1-151 imperial gallon.
„ Killow = 0-9120 impoiiial bushel.
44 Okes = 1 Cantar or Kintal . = 125 lb. avoirdupois.
■39-44 Okcs = 1 cwt.
\m Okes = I TchcU , . .= 511-380 pounds.
1 Kilo = 20 Okes . . . = 0-36 imperial quarter.
816 Kilos = 100 imperial quarters.
The Andace (cloth measure) . = 27 inches.
„ Archill (land measure) . = 30 inches.
„ Bomim (land measure) . = 40 square paces.
The killow is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures
being definite weights rather than measures. 100 killows are
equal to 12*128 British imperial quarters, or o5"2G() hectolitres.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Turkey,
1. Official Publications.
Salname 1297. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire for 1879-80. 8.
Constantiiople, 1880.
Kisale-Nameh. Turkish Almanac for 1296 Iledjira. 12. Constantinople, 1880.
Tableau General des Eecettes et des Depenses de I'Exercise 1291 (du 1/13
Mars 1875 au 29/12 Mars 1876). Publie parte Ministere des Finances. Sup-
plement au No. 156 de La Turquie. Fol. Constantinople, 1876.
Report by Mr. Yice-Consul Jago on the finances of Turkey, dated Beyrout,
July 11, 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1877. 8. London,
1877.
Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Turkey. 1876. Fol. pp. 757.
London, 1877.
Correspondence, respecting the Conference at Constantinople. 1876-77.
Fol. pp. 380. London, 1877.
Treaty between Great Britain, Germany, A-ustria, France, Italy, Russia, and
Turkey, for the settlement of affairs in the East. Signed at Berlin, July 13,
1878. Fol. London. 1878.
TURKEY. 479
Reports by Mr. Tice-Consul Jago on the revenues and taxation of Syria ;
and by Mr. Consul Dickson on the trade of Damascus, dated May-July, 1876 ;
in ' Eeports from H.3I.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Skene on the trade and population of the province
of Aleppo ; by Mr. Acting-Consiil Freeman on the trade of Bosna Serai ; by
Mr. Vice-Consul Amazalak, on the commerce of Jaffa ; by Mr. Consul Gr.
Beyts, on the trade of Jeddah ; by Mr. Acting-Consul Pierides, on the
agriculture and industry of the island of Cyprus ; by Mr. Viee-Consul
Blakeney on the trade of Prevesa ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Billiotti on the
commerce of the island of Ehodes and the Sporades ; and by Mr. Acting
Consul S. Joly, on the commerce of Smyrna, dated January-May, 1877; in
' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1877. S. London, 1877.
Eeports by Sir. Consul-General Nixon on the trade and commerce of
Bagdad ; and by Mj. Consul Eeade on the trade of Eustchuk and the general
condition and administration of the vilayet of the Danube, dated May 1877 ;
in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeport by IMr. Consul-General Eldridge on the trade and commerce of Bey-
rout and the coast of Syria, dated August IG, 1877 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part L 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. Consul Sandwith on the trade of the Island of Crete, and hy
Mr. Vice-Consul Jago, on the commerce of Damascus, dated January-February
1879, in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Eeports by Mr. Vice-Consul Gatheral on the trade of Angora ; by Mr. Acting
Consul Freeman on the trade of Bosna Serai; by Mr. Vice-Consul Wrench on
the commerce and shipping of Constantinople and the finances of Turkey ; by
Mr. Consul Sand-svith on the commerce of Crete ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Willshire
on the trade of Dedeagatch ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Blakeney on the trade of
Prevesa; and by Mr. Consul Kirby Green on the trade and industry of Scutari
and North Albania, dated February-April 1878; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Henderson on the trade of Adana and of Aleppo ; by
Mr. Vice-Consul Dickson on the commerce of Beyrout ; by Mr. Consul Wrench
on the trade and commerce of Constantinople ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Willshire
on the trade of Dedeagetch ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Blakeney on the trade of
Prevesa; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Biliotti on the commerce of Trebizond,
dated February-April, 1879; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consids.' Part III.
1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Turkey ^vith Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
Nox-Officiai, Ptjelications.
Sath (Marquis of). Observations on Biilgarian Affiiirs. 8. London, 1 880.
Boleszny (A.), Kezikonyv az Al-Dunan, Szerb- es Bolgarpr-szagban utazok
szamara. 8. Pest, 1870.
Bone (Ami), La Turquie d'Europe. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.
Broph)^ (C. A.), and St. C^air (Capt.), The Ottoman Empire. 8. London, 1869.
Campbell (Hon. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. 8. London, 1877.
Clark (Edson L.), The Eaces of European Turkey : their History, Condition,
and Prospects. 8. New York, 1879.
480 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Creaky (Sir Edward Shepherd), History of the Ottoman Turks, from the
beginning of their Empire to the present time. New ed. 8. London, 1877.
Dunn (Archibald J.), The Eise and Decay of Islam. 8. London, 1877.
Farley (J. Lewis), The Decline of Turkey. 8. London, 1876.
Freeman (Edward A.), The Ottoman Power in Europe : its Nature, its
Growth, and its Decline. 8. London, 1877.
fi^mr^ (Grattan), Asiatic Turkey. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Goehlcrt (J. V.), Die Bevolkerung der europaischen Tiirkey. 8. Wien, 1866.
Hafiz Husseyn (Effendi), Hadikat-nl-dschevami. Description of the Mosks,
High Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.
Hamiiur (.los. von), Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung des Osmanischen
Eeichs. 2 vols. 8. Wien, I8I0.
Heuschling (P. F. X. T.), L'Empire do Turquie d'apres ses derniers traites.
8. Bruxelles, 1859.
/iA-cMfffr (0.), La dette ottomano. 8. Constantinople, 1872.
Kinglakc (Alexander William), The Invasion of the Crimea. 8. Edinburgh
and London, 1863-75.
Layarcl (Right Hon. Austen Henry), Tlie Condition of Turkey and her
Dependencies. Speeches delivered in the House of Commons. 8. London,
1854.
Michehcn (Edward H.), The Ottoman Empire and its Resources. Tables.
8. London, 1854.
MilUngen (Fred.), La Turquie sous le regne d' Abdul Aziz. 8. Paris, 1868.
Pao/i (Sim.), La Turquie devant I'Europe. 8. Paris, 1868.
Perrbi (Dr. T.), L'Islamisme, son institution, son influence, et son avenir. 8.
Paris, 1878.
Poole (Stanley Lane), The People of Turkey : Twenty Years' Residence
among r>ulgarians, Greeks, Albanians, Turks, and Armenians. By a Consul s
Daughter. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Bosen (G.), Geschichte der Tiirkei nouester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig,
1866-67.
Schweifjcr-Lcrchevftld (Daron Armand von), Untor dem Halbmondo. Ein
Bild des Ottomanischen Reichs und seiner Volker. 8. Jena, 1876.
7sc/«/m<6r^/(M.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 8. Bruxelles, 1859.
Ubicini (A.), Lettres siir la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1853.
Zinkeiscn (J. W.\ Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa. 7 vols.
8. Gotha, 1840-63.
PAET THE SECOND.
THE PRINCIPAL STATES OF
I. AMERICA.
II. AFRICA.
III. ASIA.
IV. AUSTRALASIA.
II
^-■JX-
,/.i>r^/.J/ .Hi
483
I. AMERICA.
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.
(CONFEDERACION ARGENTINA.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the Argentine Confederation, a gronp of states for-
merly known by the name of ' Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,'
bears date May 15, 1853. By its provisions, the executive power is
left to a president, elected for six years by representatives of the
fourteen provinces, 133 in nimiber ; while the legislative authority is
vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of
Deputies, the former numbering 28, two from each province, and the
latter 50 members. The members of both the Senate and the House
of Deputies are paid for their services, each receiving 700Z. per annum.
A vice-president, elected in the same manner, and at the same time
as the president, fills the office of chairman of the Senate, but has
otherwise no political power. The president is commander-in-chief
of the troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices ;
but he and his ministers are responsible for their acts.
President of the Confederation. — General Eoca, elected Presi-
dent September 1880, and installed in office October 12, 1880.
The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the
President, is divided into five departments, namely, of the Interior,
Foreign Affairs, Finance, War, and Education.
The president has a salary of 4,000/., the vice-president of 2,000/.,
and each of the five ministers of 1,800Z. each per annum.
The governors of the various provinces are invested with very
extensive powers, and to a certain degree independent of the central
executive. They are not appointed by the president of the
Confederation, but elected by the people for a term of three years.
Eevenue and Public Debts.
The public revenue assigned to the central government is derived
almost entirely from customs duties, which are very heavy, and all
other sources fiirnish comparatively little to cover the public e;xpen-
diture. The latter is made up chiefly of the cost of army and navy,
ii2
484
TUE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
and tlie service of the national debt. For some years past the
annual expenditure exceeded the annual revenue.
The estimated sources of revenue and branches of expenditure for
the year 1879 were as follows: —
Sources of Revenue
Branches of Expenditure
Pesos f uerto
Pesos f uerto
Import duties .
11,000,000
Interior .
2,014,793
Export duties .
2,500,000
Foreign Affairs
105,480
Warehouse duties
350,000
Finance .
912,943
Stamps .
750,000
Public debt
7,979,612
Telegraphs
50,000
Army
4,493,065
I'ost Office
300,000
Navy
616,972
Andine Railway
70,000
Justice
1,188,748
Tucuman Railway .
70,000
Gualeguay Railway .
10,000
Total expenditure
17,311,613
Miscellaneous receipts
1.789,120
3,462,322
Total reveuue
16,889,120
£3,377,824
The Budget for 1880 estimated the revenue at 18,762,001 pesos,
or .",752,412/., and the expenditure at 18,381,718 pesos, or
.3,676,34:o/. The interest on the public debt was calculated at
8,429,057 pesos, or 1,685,811/., being 450,000 pesos, or 90,000/.,
more than in 1879. The other principal items in the expenditure
Avere estimated as follow : — Internal administration, 3,452,000 pesos;
Department of Justice, 1,326,000 pesos; War, 4,416,000 pesos;
Marine, 650,000 pesos. The customs duties on imports and exports
were expected to yield, the first 13,000,000 pesos, and the latter
2,500,000 pesos. The probable railway receipts were i^et down at
050,000 pesos, and the receipts from the postal and telegraphic ser-
vices at 450,000 pesos, in the budget for the year 1880.
More than one-half of the total ex])enditure of the Confederation
is lor interest of the public debt, home and foreign. The internal
liabilities were stated to amount to 64,855,000 pesos, or 12,971,000/.,
at the end of 1878. The foreign debt, at the same date, amounted
to 8,497,200/.; it was entirely raised in England. The foreign debt
consists of three loans, negotiated in 1824, in 1868, and in 1871.
Of the first there was outstanding, in 1879, theamoiuit of 1,501,300/.,
of the second 1,853,600/., and of the third 5,142,300/.
The greater part of the foreign loan of 1868, to the amount of
1,950,000/., was isstied by Messrs. Baring Brothers, London, at the
price of 72^ for 100. It is to be repaid in 21 years. The most
important of these foreign loans, that of 1871, amounting originally
to 6,122,400/., was granted by Congress for the construction of
railways and other public works. It was issued in London at the
price of 88^, under promise to be redeemed by a sinking fund of 2^
per cent, before the end of 1892.
ARGENTINE CONFEDEBATION.
485
Besides the liabilities here enumerated, there was a floating debt
in treasury bills, and comprising also loans made to the national
government by the Provincial Bank, to the amount of 13,200,000
pesos, or 2,640,000/., at the end of 1877.
The above statement of the revenue, expenditure and debt of
the Argentine Confederation refers to the national or general govern-
ment, called upon to defray the expenses of the army and navy, of
the Foreign Department, and to meet other obligations imposed
upon it by the constitution. Each of the fourteen provinces, or
states, of the Confederation has a revenue of its own which is
derived by the imposition of local taxes. Buenos Ayres, the most
important state of the Confederation, requires annually above
1,000,000/. to meet the expenses of its government, law courts,
chambers, militia, country schools, and other piiblic institutions.
The liabilities of all the states are internal, with the exception of
Buenos Ayres, which contracted a foreign loan of 1,034,700/. in
June 1870 in England. The loan, issued at 88, with interest of 6
per cent., was to be redeemed at par in 33 years.
Army and Navy.
The army of the Confederation, now in course of reorganisation,
consisted, at the end of 187G, of 6,183 men, comprising 2,612 infantry,
3,189 cavalry, and 409 artillery. There were besides a militia and
national guard, numbering 19,867 men. The army was commanded
at the same date by 3 generals, 138 colonels, 140 majors, and 674
other officers, being a total of 955 commissioned officers, or one to
every 7 men, rank and file.
The navy of the Confederation consisted, at the end of the year
1876, of 26 steamers, as follows : —
steamers
Number
Guns
Horse-power
Tonnage j
Ironclads ....
Guuboats ....
Torpedos ....
Brigs
Transports ....
Total .
2
6
3
12
3
12
16
50
1,500
1,950
440
3,020
600
3,400 1
2,400 i
700
1,700
300 I
26
78
7,510
18,500 1
The navy was commanded, at the end of 1876, by two ad-
mirals, and 74 other officers, and manned by 2,900 sailors and
marines.
Area and Population.
The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces
actually composing the Argentine Confederation, their estimated
area, and the number of inhabitants, according to the last censuF,^
taken in 1869: —
486
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Provinces
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
Population
Littoral : Buenos Ayres
63,000
495,107
Santa Fe . . . .
18,000
89,218
Entre Rios ....
45,000
134,235
Corrientes ....
54,000
129,023
Andes : Rioja
31,500
48,746
Catamarea ....
31,500
79,962
San Juan ....
29,700
60,319
Mendoza ....
54,000
65,413
Central : Cordova ....
54,000
210,508
San Luis ....
18,000
53,294
Santiago del Estero
31,500
132,898
Tucuman ....
13,500
108,904
Northern : Salta
45,000
88,933
Jujuy
• ' ■ ■ ' Total .
27,000
40,362
515,700
1,736,922
The capital of the Confederation, Bvieno.s Ayres, had a population
of 177,790 in 18G9. There ai-e only five other towns, of from 10,000
to 28,000 inhabitants.
The increase of population in recent years has been due chiefly to
immigration. In each of the six years from 1871 to 1876 the immi-
gration and emigration were as follows :
Years
Immigrants
Emigrants
1871
20,928
10,686
1872
37,037
9,153
1873
76,332
18.236
1874
68,277
21,340
1875
42,060
21,578
1876
30,965
13,487
The immigrants of 1877 numbered 28,708, and those of 1878
numbered 35,87G. The great majority of the immigrants are natives
of Italy and of Spain.
Trade and Industry.
The imports into the Confederation consist chiefly of manufactured
cotton and woollen goods, machinery, coal, and iron, while the
exports are made up to the amount of more than one-half by wool
and tallow. The foreign trade is chiefly with Great Britain.
The commercial intercourse between the Argentine Confederation
and the United Kingdom is shoAvn in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of the Confederation to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into the Confederation in each of the
five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
AKaENTINE CONFEDERATION.
487
Years
Exports from the Argentine
Confederation to Great
Britain
Imports of British Home
Prodnee into the Argentine
Republic
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
&
1,359,783
1,664,029
1,699,376
1,099,938
828,365
£
2,386,002
1,543,532
2,092,100
2,317,638
2,063,254
The three staple articles of Argentine exports to the United
Kingdom are skins, tallow, and untanned hides. The value of the
skins, mainly sheep, amonnted to 145,245^., of the tallow to 110,042Z.,
and of the hides to 88,476/. in 1879. The imports of British pro-
duce into the Argentine Confederation consist chiefly of cotton and
woollen manufactures, and of iron. The value of the British cotton
manufactures imported in the year 1879 was 770,020/., that of the
woollens 298,890/., and that of iron, wroughtandunwrought, 282,480/.
A network of railways, constructed in part at the expense of the
State, has been in progress for several years. The following state-
ment gives the length, in English miles, together with the pro-
prietorship, of the various lines open for traffic, at the end of 1 878 :—
Eailways
Length
Engl, miles
Propriotorg
Western Railway: —
Buenos Ayres to Chivilcoy and Bra-
Provincial Government
gado
187
of Buenos Ayres.
Northern Railway : —
Buenos Ayres to Tigra
18
English Company.
Buenos Ayres and Ensenada Port
Railway : —
Buenos Ayre;^ to Ensenada, with branch
to Great Southern Railway
37
n
Central Argentine Railway : —
Rosario to Cordova ....
246
>'
Great Southern Railway : —
Buenos Ayres to Las Flores and Azul
270
„
Primer Entre Riano Railway : —
Gualeguay to Puerto Ruiz .
6
National Government.
Andine Railway : —
Villa Maria to Rio Cuarto . .
158
»»
Tucuman Railway : —
Cordova to Tueuman ....
341
i>
East Argentine Railway : —
Concordia to Monte Caseros
96
English Company.
Buenos Ayres to Campana
Total
50
1,409
488 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
There were besides, at the end of 1878, railways of a total length
of 1,568 miles sanctioned by the government, including an inter-
national line from Buenos Ayres to Chili, 894 miles in length.
The total cost of construction of the lines open for traffic at the
end of 1878, was 10,874,633/., being an average cost of 7,700Z. per
mile.
At the end of June 1879, there were 4,820 miles of telegraph lines
in operation, 3,346 miles belonging to the state, and 1,474 miles to
private companies. The total length of telegraph wires at the same
date was 9,830 miles. The number of telegraphic despatches was
214,714 in the year 1878.
The post-office, in the year 1878, carried 2,166,078 parcels and
packets, and 5,045,573 letters.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the Ahgentlne Confebehation in Gkeat Britaik.
Envoi/ ajid Minister. — Dr. Don Manuel E. Garcia, accredited May 17, 1879.
Secretary. — E. Ibarbalz.
2. Of Great Britain in the Argentine Confederation.
Envoy and MinUter. — Sir Horace Rumbold, Bart., formerly Charg6 d' Affaires
in Russia, 1869-70, and in Turkey, 1871-2 ; Mini.-iter Resident in Chili, 1872-
77, and in Switzerland, 1877-79. Appointed Envoy and Minister, October 10,
1879.
Secretary. — Edwin Henry Egerton.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Argentine Confederation,,
and the British equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Silver Pcsofiierto, or Silver Dollar, of 100 centesimos. — Average rate of
exdiangc, 4.?.
The Peso, paper currency. — Average rate of exchange, 2d.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal =101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroha ......= 25'oo „ „
„ Fancga = 1^ imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Confederation.
1. Official Publications.
Estadistica General del comercio esterior do la Repiiblica Argentina. Fol.
Buenos Aires, 1880.
Informe presentado a la Oficina de Estadistica de Buenos Aires. 8. Buenos
Aires, 1880.
Memoria del Ministerio del interior de la Republica Argentina presentada al
Congreso nacional de 1878. 4, Buenos Aires, 1880.
ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 489
Memoria presentada por el Ministro de estado en el departamento de hacienda
al Congreso nacional de 1880. 4. Buenos Aires, 1880.
Eegistro Estadistico de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Fol. Buenos Aires,
1879.
Eeport bj'Mr. F. R. St. John, British Secretary of Legation, on the financial
and commercial position of the Argentine Republic, dated Buenos Ayres, De-
cember 15, 1874: ; in 'Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part L 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. F. R. St. John on the commerce and finances of the
Argentine Republic for the year 1874, dated Buenos Ayres, March 15, 1876 ;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IL 1876.
8. London, 1876.
Report by the Hon. L. S. Sackville West on the finances of the Argentine
Republic, dated Buenos A;\Tes, July 15, 1877; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. George Earle Walby on Railways in the Argentine Republic,
dated Buenos Ayres, Nov. 10, 1877 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of the Argentine Confederation with Great Britain ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Almanaque agricola, pastoril e industrial de la Republica Argentina y de
Buenos Ayres. 4. Buenos Ayres, 1879.
Arcos (Santiago), La Plata. Etiide historique. 8. Paris, 1865.
Beck-Bernard (Charles), La Republique Argentine. 8. Berne, 1872.
Daireaux (Emile), Buenos Ayres, La Pampa, et La Patagonie. 18. Paris,
1878.
Bominguez (L.), Historia Argentina. 8. 4th edit. Buenos Ayres, 1870.
Hadfield (William), Brazil and the River Plate, 1870-76. 8. London, 1877.
Hudson (Damian), Registro estadistico de la Republica Argentina. 2 vols,
8. Buenos Aires, 1867.
Jordan (Wm. Leighton), The Argentine Republic : a descriptive and histo-
rical sketch. 8. Edinburgh, 1878.
Latham (Wilfrid), The States of the River Plate, their Industries and Com-
merce. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1868.
Mitre (Bartolome), Estudios historicos sobre la Revolucion Argentina. 4,
Buenos Ajtcs, 1864.
Moussy (H. de), Description geographique et statistique de la Confederation
Argentine. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1861.
Midhall (M. G. and E. T ), Handbook of tlie River Plate Republics. 8.
London, 1875.
Napp (R.), Die Argentinische Republik. 8. Buenos Aires, 1876.
Bkkard (Major F. Ignacio), The mineral and other resources of the Argentine
Republic in 1869. 8. London, 1870.
Sarrnieiiio (Domingo Faustino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of
the Tyrants. Translated by Mrs. H. Maun. 8. London, 1868.
Virgilio (Jacopo), Delle niigrazioni transatlantiche degli italiani e in especie
di quelle dei Liguri alle regioni del Plata, cenni economico-statistici. 8.
Genova, 1868.
490
^ BOLIVIA.
(Rep^blica Boliviana.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the republic of Bolivia, drawn up by Simon
Bolivar, liberator of the country from the Spanish rule, bears date
August 25, 1826 ; but important modifications of it were added in
1828, 1831, and 1863. By its provisions, the executive power
is vested in a President, elected for a term of four years ; while the
legislative authority rests with a Congress of two chambers, called
the Senate, and the House of Eepresentatives, both elected by univer-
sal suffrage. The President is assisted in his executive fimctions by
a President of the Coimcil, or Vice-president, appointed by himself,
and a ministry, divided into four departments, of the Interior and
Foreign AiFairs ; of Finance and Industry ; of War; and of Justice
and Public Worship.
President of the RepuUic. — Dr. N. Campero, nominated Presi-
dent June 1, 1880, as successor to General Daza, deposed in an in-
sui-rection occasioned by the failure of arms in the war against Chili.
The fundamental law of the republic, ordering the regular election
of the chief of the executive every four years, has seldom been carried
out since the presidency of Grand-Marshal Santa-Cruz, who ruled
Bolivia from May 1828, till his death, January 20, 1839. Subse-
quently the supreme power was almost invariably seized by some
successliil commander, who, proclaimed by the troops, instead of
chosen by the people, was compelled to protect his office by armed
force against miUtary rivals. From 1867 to 1870 there Avas an
almost uninterrupted civil war, which reached its height in 1869,
when General Melgarejo for a time assumed the government, after
an imsuccessful attempt at insurrection by a rival candidate to
the presidency. General Belzu, head of the government from March
22 to his execution, March 27, 1869. The next President was
General Ballivian, Avho died February 14, 1874, succeeded by Dr.
Thomas Frias, head of the government till the outbreak of a new
insurrection. May 4, 1876.
The seat of the government, formerly at the city of La Paz,
capital of the republic, was transferred in 1869 to the fortified town
of Oruro.
Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.
There have been no official reports of the actual revenue and
expenditure of the republic for several years. In the budget for
the financial year 1873-74 the receipts from all soiu-ces were
BOLIVIA.
491
calculated afc 2,929,574 pesos, or 585,915/., and tlie^ expenditure
at 4,505,504 pesos, or 901,101/., leaving a deficit of 1,575,930 pesos,
or 315,186/. The actual revenue for 1872-3 was estimated at
500,000/., and the expenditure for the same year at 900,000/.
About one-half of the public revenue is derived from a land-tax,
which the aboriginal, or Indian, population is forced to pay, and the
rest from import and export duties, and the proceeds of mines and
other State property. Direct taxes do not exist.
The public debt, consisting of an internal and a foreign debt,
was estimated, in June 1879, at 6,000,000/. The internal liabilities,
contracted at various periods by the government of the republic,
comprise a total of 12,900,000 pesos, or 4,300,000/., including a
* forced war loan,' raised in 1879, to equip the army in a campaign
against Chili. The foreign debt consists of a six per cent, loan of
1,700,000/. nominal capital — issued at the price of 68 — contracted
in England at the commencement of 1872. It Avas raised with the
object of constructing a line of railway to enable the National Bolivian
Navigation Company to open communication between the republic
and the Atlantic Ocean. This object, however, Avas not carried out,
and the greater part of the proceeds remained in England to furnish
means for lawsuits extending over years.
Bolivia has a standing army reported to number 2,000 men,
and commanded by 8 generals and 1,013 other officers, being one
officer to every two men. The anniial cost of the army amounts to
upwards of two thirds of the total public revenue.
Population, Trade, and Industry.
The area of Bolivia is estimated at 842,729 English square miles,
with a population of close upon two millions. The following table
gives, after official returns of the year 1861, the area of each of the
then existing nine provinces, with their estimated population : —
Provinces
La Faz de Ayacucho
Potosi
Oruro ......
Chuquisaca, or Sucre
Coehabamba
Beni ......
Santa-Cruz de la Sierra
Tarija
Atacama
Total
Area : English
square miles
43,052
54,300
21,601
72,796
26,810
295,417
144,083
114,489
70,181
Population
447,822
281,229
110,931
273,668
352,392
153,973
193,164
138,900
5,273
842,729
1,957,352
492
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
In 1866 a portion of the department of Cochabamba was separated
to form a new province named Malgareja, and a decree of 1867
ordered the formation of a province of Mexillones. No authentic
reports have been published concerning the area and population of
these newly-formed provinces.
The aboriginal, or Indian population of Bolivia, is variously esti-
mated at from 24,000 to 700,000 souls. A. small number of them
have been gained to Christianity.
The total imports into Bolivia in 1879 were valued at 70,000/.,
and the exports at 50,000/. Nearly one-half of the imports are
calculated to come from the United Kingdom, partly direct, through
the port of Cobija, and partly, to a gi-eater extent, through the port
of Arica in Peru. The exports comprise silver, Peruvian bark,
cocoa and coffee, and copper, tin, and other ores.
The direct commerce of Bolivia with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small, as, owing to the short extent of sea coast
possessed by the Republic, the imports and exports have to pass
in transit either through Peru, or by the recently opened route of
the National Bolivian Navigation Company, up the Amazon river
and its tributaries, through Brazil. The total value of the mer-
chandise sent to and received direct from Great Britain, in each ol
the five years 1875 to 1879, is shown in the subjoined table : —
Years
Exports from Bolivia
Imports of British Home
to Great Britain
Produce into Bolivia
£
£
1875
461.979
96,288
1876
413,119
198,266
1877
376,452
96,938
1878
601,026
73,395
1879
306,123
53,477
The principal exports of Bolivia to Great Britain are copper,
cubic nitre, and guano. In the year 1879 the value of the exports of
copper, both ore and regulus, amounted to 88,301/. ; of nitre to
159,003/., and of guano to 44,937/. The British imports into
the republic consist chiefly of cotton goods, of the value of 6,420/.,
and of woollens, of the value of 4,327/. in 1879.
The republic has but one seaport, the town of Cobija, or Cobija-
Puerto, on the Pacific. Till within the last few years, the vast agri-
cultural and mineral resources of the country were entirely dormant
for want of means of communication, but more recently an attempt
has been made to construct roads and railways. A line of railway
connecting La Paz, capital of the republic, with the port of Aygacha,
on the lake Titicaca, was opened for traffic in 1872, and a second line,
BOLIVIA. 493
from Autofiigasta to Sular, was completed in September 1874. The
completion of several other lines, in course of construction in 1879,
was abandoned in consequence of the outbreak of the war with Chili.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Bolivia in Great Britain.
Oonsid-Ge7ieral. — Luis Quintas y Seoane, accredited July 11, 1877.
2. Of Great Britain in Bolivia.
rice-Consul. — Rugh R. Steavenson, appointed April 15, 1873.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Bolivia, and the British
equivalents, are —
Monet.
The Peso, or Dollar, of 100 Centomas . = Approximate value 3«.
The Bolivian dollar is theoretically Avortli 4s. 2d., Imt, for a number
of years, the coins issued from the GovernnKmt mint at Potosi have
been 25 per cent., and more, below the standard.
Weights and Measukks.
The Lilirn = l-ou lbs. avoirdupois,
,, Quintal = 101-44 „
'■' i^ot wine or spirits . = C'VO Imperial gallons.
„ Gallo>i = 0-74 "„
„ Vara = 0-927 yards.
„ Square Vara . . . . = 0-859 square yards.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia.
1. Official Publication.
Trade of Bolivia with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the voar 1879.' Imp 4
London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Church (Col. Geo. Earl), Papers and Documents relating to the Bolivian
Loan, the National Bolivian Na^•igatio^ Company, &c. 8. London. 1873.
JDafewcr (M.), Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca, 1851.
Grandidicr (P.), Voyage dans TAmerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.
Mathews (Edward D.), Up the Amazon and Madeira Eivers, through
Bolivia and Peru. 8. London, 1879.
Reck (Hugo), Geographic und Statistik der Republik Bolivia. In Dr.
Petermann's 'Mittheilungen,' parts VII. and VIII. 4. Gotha, 1865.
iSpe«ce (James Mudie), The Land of Bolivar. 8. London, 1878.
7'schudi (J. J. von), Eeisen durch Siidamerika. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1856.
Ursel (Comte C. d'), Sud-Am6rique: Styours et vovagcs au Bresil en Bolivia
&c. 12. Paris, 1879.
494
BRAZIL.
(Imperio do Brazil.)
Reigning Emperor.
Pedro II., born December 2, 1825, the son of Emperor Pedro I.
and of Archduchess Leopoldina of Avistria ; succeeded to the throne
on the abdication of his father, April 7, 1831 ; declared of age, July
23, 1840; crowned, July 18, 1841. Married, September 4, 1843, to
Empress TJierem, born March 14, 1822, the daughter of the late
King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies.
Davfjliter of the Emperor.
Princess Izahcl^ bom July 29, 1846; married, Oct. 15, 18C4, to
Prince Louis of Orleans, Comte d'Eu, born April 28, 1842, eldest son
of the Due de Nemours, of the ex-royal house of Bourbon-Orleans.
Offspring of the union are two sons : — 1. Prince Pedro, born Oct. 15,
1875. 2. Prince Louis Philippe, born Jan. 26, 1878.
Sisters of the Emperor.
I. Princess Januaria, born March 11, 1822 ; married, April 28,
1844, to Prince Louis of Bourbon, son of the late King Francisco I.
of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union are two sons : — 1. Prince
Luis, born July 18, 1845. 2. Prince Felippe, born Aug. 12, 1847.
IL Princess Francisca, born August 2, 1824; married, May 1,
1843, to Francois, Prince de Joinville, born Aug. 14, 1818, son of
the late King Louis Philippe of the French. Offspring of the union
are two children: — 1. Princess Fran9oise, born August 4, 1844;
married, June 11, 1863, to her cousin Robert d'Orleans, due de
Chartres, born Nov. 9, 1840, of which union there are offspring five
children. 2. Prince Pierre, due de Penthi^vre, born Nov. 4, 1845,
lieutenant in the navy of France.
The Emperor is a scion, in the direct male line, of the House of
Braganza, the female line of which is ruling over Portugal. In
1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil ; in 1815, the colony
was declared a * kingdom ; ' and, the Portuguese Court having re-
turned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled at Rio de
BRAZIL.
495
Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Don Pedro, eldest son of King
Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ' Perpetual Protector ' of Brazil.
He proclaimed the independence of the country on Sept. 7, 1822,
and was chosen ' Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Protector '
on the 12th October following. Having decided to abdicate in
1831, he left the crown to his only son, the present Emperor
Pedro II.
The Brazilian empire derives from Portugal the principles of
hereditary succession to the crown, which exclude the Salic law,
and allow females to occupy the throne.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Brazil bears date March 25, 1824. It
establishes four powers in the State — the legislative, the executive,
the judicial, and the 'moderating' power, or the royal prerogative.
The legislative power is vested, for the affairs of the empire, in a
general legislative assembly, and for provincial affairs in the provincial
assemblies. The general legislative assembly consists of two Houses,
the Senate and the Congress. The members of both Houses are
elected by the people, but under different forms. Senators are chosen
for life at electoral meetings expressly convened, each of which has
to nominate three candidates, leaving the choice between them to the
sovereign or his ministers. A senator must be forty years of age, a
native-born Brazilian, and possessing a clear annual income of 1,600
milreis, or 160Z. Senators receive a salary of 3,600 milreis, or
360/., each session. The Senate numbers 58 members.
The members of the House of Congress are chosen by indirect
election, for the term of four years. For this purpose, the country
is divided into electoral districts, where every 30 voters appoint
one elector, and a number of the latter, vaiying according to popu-
lation, nommate the deputy. The qualification for a voter is an
annual income, of any sort, of 200 milreis, or 20Z. The electors
must have an income of 400 milreis, or 40Z. a year, as a qualifica-
tion ; and the deputies must have an income of 800 milreis each
or 80/. per annum. All voters, inscribed on the lists, are bound to
give their votes, under a penalty. Minors, monks, and servants are
not allowed a vote ; and naturalised foreigners, as well as persons
not professing the Roman Catholic religion, are incapable of being
elected deputies. The latter receive a salary of 2,400 milreis, or
240Z., each session, besides travelling expenses. The House of
Congress numbers 122 members.
The annual session of the legislative assembly has to commence on
May 3, and ordinarily extends over foiu- months. Each House nomi-
nates its own officers. The two Houses sit in general assembly at the
496 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
opening and close of the session for the deliberation of important
naeasures ; and on these occasions the president of the Senate takes
the chair, and the senators and deputies sit in mixed order. The
two Houses sit apart during the rest of the session, in the execution
of the ordinary duties of legislation. The Chamber of Deputies has
the initiative in the assessment of taxes, in matters concerning the
army and navy, and in the choice of the sovereign of the realm,
should the latter act become necessary. The Senate has the exclu-
sive privilege of taking cognisance of offences committed by members
of the Imperial family, and by senators and deputies, if committed
during the session. It is also invested with the right of convoking
the legislative assembly, shoiild the Emperor fail to do so, within two
months after the period fixed by law.
The executive power is vested in the sovereign, assisted by his
ministers and a council of state. The ministers are responsible for
treason, corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the con-
stitution, or the liberty, security, and property of the citizens. From
this responsibility they cannot escape Tipon the plea of orders fi-om
tlie sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convocation
of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly ; the nomination
of bishops, governors of provinces, and magistrates ; the declaration
of peace or war; and the general execution and superintendence of all
measures voted by the legislature. The ' moderating' power, like-
wise vested in the sovereign, gives him the authority, not only to
select ministers and senators, but to temporarily withhold his sanction
from legislative measures, to convoke extraordinary legislative as-
semblies, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, and to grant amnes-
ties and pardons. The ministry is divided into seven departments.
The following were th-; members of the cabinet appointed
March 29. 18-SO : —
President of the Council and Minister of Finance. — Don Antonio
Saraiva.
Minister of the Empire. — Barcn Homem de Mello.
Minister of War. — Lieutenant Visconde de Pelotas.
Minister of Marine. — Don J. R. Lima Duarte.
Minister of Justice. — Don M. P. Souza Dantas.
Minister for Foreign Affairs. — Don P. L. Pereira de Souza.
Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works. — Don
M. Buarque de Macedo.
The ministers are assisted by a Council of State, consisting of
twelve ordinary and twelve extraordinary members, all named by
the Emperor for life. The twelve ordinary members are constantly
consulted on matters of administration and international questions,
but the whole twenty-four are convened only on special occasions.
The councillors of state, ordinary and extraordinary, are mostly
BKAZIL.
497
ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if of age, is by right a coun-
cillor of state.
At the head of eacli province is a president appointed by the central
GoA'ernment. Each province has also its local parliament or Provin-
cial Chamber, and a general council, called the Legislative Assembly
of the province. The members of the latter are nominated by the
same electors who choose the deputies and senators to the general
Legislative Assembly, while the members of the Provincial Chambers
are elected directly by the voters. The election of members of the
Provincial Chambers is for two years. The Legislative Assemblies of
the provinces exercise, with some restrictions, as to political matters,
the same power witliin their districts as the Congress for the Avhole
empire.
Churcli and Education.
The established religion of the empire is the Eonian Catholic,
but according to Article 5 of the constitution, all other religions are
tolerated, ' with their domestic or private form of Avorshij), in build-
ings destined for this purpose, but without the exterior form of
temples.' No person can be persecuted for religious acts or motives.
The Eoman Catholic clergy is maintained by the State ; funds,
however, are voted for the construction of chapels and for the sub-
sistence of ministers of different religions.
The bishops, and all other ecclesiastical officers are, depending
the confirmation of the Apostolic See, appointed by the Emperor,
and no Decree of Council, nor letters apostolic, nor any other
ecclesiastical statutes, can be executed in the empire without the
consent or placlt of the Emperor, or of the General Assembly.
Marriages of Protestants celebrated in foreign countries or in the
empire, according to its civil law, are respected in all their legal
effects.
Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a metropolitan
archbishopric, the seat of Avhich is at Bahia, 11 suffragan bishops,
12 vicars-general, and 1,297 curates. For the private instruction of
the clergy there are 11 seminaries, in general subsidised by the State.
Pul)lic education is divided into three distinct forms, or classes,
namely, primal-y ; secondary, or preparatory ; and scientific, or
superior. The primary instruction in the capital is under the charge
of the General Assembly, and in the provinces under the Provincial
Assemblies. According to the constitution primary education is
gratuitoi;s, and it ' wid become compulsory as soon as the Govern-
ment considers it opportune.' Notwithstanding the efforts of the
legislature in recent years for the spread of education, it is still in a
very backward state, and the public schools were frequented in
1874 by only 1 40,000 pupils.
K K
498
THE STATESMAN y YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue of the empire is raised to the extent of more than
one-half by customs duties, laid on exports as well as imports. The
direct taxes, which contribute about one-fifth to the total ordinary
receipts, are principally imposed on land, house rent, trades and
occupations, and transfer of property. To cover deficits, common in
recent years through vastly increased expenditure for military piu--
poses, the Government raised loans and issued lionds and paper
money entered in the finance accounts as extraordinary receipts.
The following tables give an abstract of the sources of actual
revenue, and the branches of actual expenditixre in the financial
year ending on the 30th Jmie 1875 : —
Sources of Revenue, 1874-75
Import and Export Duties
Shipping Dues .....
Railways, Posts, and Telegniphs
Stamps and Licenses
Land tax .
Mines, Lotteries, and State cstaLlislnnents
Miscellaneous receipts
Extraordinary receipts incl. Ljans
Deposits
Total revenue
Branches of Expenditure, 1874-75
Ministry of War
,, Foreign Aifairs ....
,, the Interior (incl. civil list l,291,o60)
„ Marine ......
„ Finance incl. public debt 30,495,860)
„ .Justice ......
,, Public Works, Agriculture, &c.
Total expenditure ,
234,35,5
419,275
803,308
464,973
563,006
655.345
155.920
584,053
784,208
106,664,443
£10,066,444
19,663,046
1,310,634
8,305,552
21,103,084
43.728,681
5,209,723
26,522,553
125,843,273
£12,584,327
The budget estimates for the year ending June 30, 1876, stated
the receipts at 107,133,070 milreis, or 10,713,307/., and the expendi-
ture at 102,634,053 milreis, or 10,263,405/. In the budget estimates
laid before the House of Congress, for the year ending June 30,
1879, the revenue was set down at 102,200,000 milreis, or
10,220,000/., and the expenditure at 107,732,068 milreis, or
BRAZIL.
499
10,773,206/. The branches of expenditure in the budget estimates
of the year 1878-79 were as follows : —
Branches of Expenditure
1878-79
Ministry of the Interior
„ of Justice
,, of Foreign Affairs . . . , .
,, of Marine .......
of War
„ of Finance ......
„ of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public ~1
Works /
Total . . j
Milreis
7,696.008
6,531.443
1,033,353
10,935,460
15,175,688
49,497,173
16,862,943
107,732,068
£10,773,206
In the budget for the financial year 1879-80 the revenue was set
down at 117,273,800 milreis, or 11,727,380/., and the expenditure
at 116,675,690 milreis, or 11,667,569/., leaving a siu-plus of
598,910 milreis, or 59,810/.
There were large deficits during recent financial years, caused
partly by the war against Paraguay, terminated in 1870, the cost
of which was over 50,000,000/. The deficits were covered by in-
creased taxation and by loans contracted at home and abroad.
According to a report of the Minister of Finance, laid before the
House of Congress in the session of 1879, the total debt of Brazil,
home and foreign, amounted to 786,116,837 milreis, or 78,611,683/.
at the end of April 1879. The annual charge on the State for
sinking fund and interest was 37,550,000 milreis, or 3,755,000/.,
being more than a third of the national revenue.
The following is a list of the foreign loans of Brazil, contracted
till the end of 1878 :—
Loans of Years
Original Amount
Paid off
Balance, Dec. SI, 1870
£
£
£
1852. . . 1,040,600
505,800
534,800
1858 .
1,526,500
1,006,600
519,900
1859.
1 508,000
248,700
259,300
1860.
1 1.373,000
679,200
693,800
1863.
j 3,855,300
1,447,900
2.407,400
1865.
6,963,600
889,200
6,074,400 j
1871.
3,459,600
156,900
3.302,700 '
1875.
5,301,200
—
5,301,200
Total . . 1 24,027,800
4,934,300
19,093,500 !
The foreign loan of 1871 was conb-acted in England, at 5 per cent.
500 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK. 1881.
interest, and issued at the rate of 89 per cent. The redemption
of this and other foreign loans is to be effected by a sinking fund of
1 per cent, per annum, to be applied by purchase of bonds in the
market when the price is under par, and when at, or above par, by
drawings by lots. The loan of 1875, also at 5 per cent., was issued at
the price of 96^, also with a sinking fund of 1 per cent, per annum.
The wiiolc of tlie foreign loans of Brazil were contracted through
the banking house of Rothschild & Co., and on the security of ' all
the I'esources of the Empire.'
The internal debt of Brazil amounted, according to the statement
of the Minister of Finance in 1879, to 505,000,000 mih-eis, or
50,500,000/., at the end of 1878. Tlie debt is chiefly represented
by bonds, called Apolicec, inscribed to the holder, and the payment of
its capital and interest, which is provided for by an annual vote of
Congress, is under the charge of the sinking fund department {Caixa
da Amortisacao)., independent of the Government, directed by a
committee, presided over by the Minister of Finance, and composed
of a general inspector and five large Brazilian bondholders.
Besides the funded home and foreign debt, Brazil has an ever-
growing floating debt, consisting in part of Treasury bills, but the
largest portion of it in paper money, issiied by the Government.
The floating debt amounted at the end of the war Avith Paraguay
to 8.800,000/., and the outstanding total, at the end of 1879, was
estimated at 01,000,000/.
Army and Navy.
The army is formed partly l)y enlistment and partly by conscription.
In extreme cases impressment is resorted to. Liberal bounties and
■Tyrants of land, at the end of fourteen years of service, are lield out as
inducements to enlist, and prociu'e large numbers of soldiers. Ex-
emption from military service may be obtained by either personal
s\ibstitution, or on payment of the sum of 120/. to the Government.
The nominal strength of the standing army is fixed at 20,000 on
the peace- footing, and at 32,000 on the Avar-footing. There Avere
r.ctually under arms, according to official reports, at the end of the
year 1878 : —
Men
lufaiitry, 21 battalions 9,864
< 'avah-y, 5 regiments and 2 Iiattalioiij^ . . . 2,481
ArHllery, .3 „ 4 ., . . '. 3,280
ytaff and special corps 427
Total . . I6,().o5
Theio was formerly also a r.ational guard, but it was dissolved m
IsTr; to undergo i-eorganisation.
BRAZIL.
501
The navy of Brazil conj^istcd, at tlie end of June 1879, of 57
steamers, as follows : —
steamers
Number
Oiins Horse-power Crew
Ironclads
Frigates ....
Corvettes
• ninljoats . .
Transports
18
1
8
00
7
68 I 5,060 1,381
12 350 ' 169
61 1,670 1,303
47 1.067 933
— 1 1,880 181
Total .
57
188 ' 10,027
3,967
All the ironclads of the Brazilian navy are comparatively small
ships. It was decided in 1872, to order the construction of a very
powerful ship of this class, and one, called the ' Independenzia,' was
built in the Thames Shipbuilding Works, and launched in October
187G. However, financial distress made it necessary to sell the
' Independenzia,' and, after having been offered to Russia, it was
pnrchased by the British Government, in March 1878, for the sum
of 640,350?., the cost of construction having been 604,000/ At
present, the largest armonr-clad ships of the Brazilian navy are the
' Javary ' and the ' Solimoes.' The other ironclads of the fleet are
very small vessels, constructed chiefly for co.'ist defence.
The navy was commanded, at the end of June 1879, by 1 admiral,
2 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals, 8 chiefs of divisions, 16 post
captains, 30 captains of frigates, 60 commanders, 146 lieutenants,
88 sub-lieutenants, and manned by 4,200 able-bodied seamen, the
best recruited from the schools of Imperial Marinheiros and sailor
apprentices. There are live naval arsenals, at Rio de Janeiro, Para,
Pernambuco, Bahia, and Ladario de IVIotto Grosso.
Area and Population.
The area of the empire is estimated at 8,515,848 geographical
square kilometres, or 3,275,326 English square miles, with a popu-
lation of 9,448,233, in 1872, giving on the average, about three
inhabitants to the square mile. A partial census of the population
of the Empire, embracing eleven out of the twenty provinces, was taken
in 1872. The subjoined table gives the area and population of each
of the tAventy provinces of the empire, according to the official
returns of the census of 1872, the eleven provinces in which actual
enumeration was made being marked by an asterisk (*), Avith the
numbers of population of the other nine provinces filled in after
government estimates. . .
502
THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Provinces
Area :
Eng. square miles
Population
Amazonas(*)
753,439
57,610
Pari
412,441
280,000
Muranhao
141,645
380,000
Piaiihj- .
81,776
219,000
, Cearu(-")
o0,260
721,686
' Kio Grande do Norte (*)
.
20,129
233,979
1 Paraliyba
. : 20,341
365,000
Pernambuco (*)
46,255
841,539
1 Alagoas (*) .
11,641
348,009
i Sergipe .
12,038
280,000
Baliia
204.794
1.450,000
Espirito Santo (*) .
17,029
82,137
Rio de Janeiro
18,489
1,050,000
Santa Catliarina (*)
18,923
159,802
Eio Grande do Sul .
110,211
455,000
Minas Geraes .
237,472
1,500,000
1 Matto Grosso (*) .
668,625
60,417
Govaz(*)
263,362
160,395
Parana (*) . .
108,556
126,722
' San Paulo (*) .
90,537
837,354
'
Total .
•
3,287,963
9,608,650
In addition to tiie above there is a wanderini? population of
aborigine.*;, officially estimated to number about a million souls.
The three largest towns in the Empire are Eio de Janeiro, the
capital, Bahia, and Pernambuco. At the end of 1872, the popu-
lation of Eio de Janeiro was 274,972; of Bahia, 129,109; and of
Pernambuco, 116,G71.
Brazil is the only country in America where slavery legally
exi.'^ts. But the number of slaves has greatly decreased since the
year 1850, when they were estimated at two millions and a half.
According to an official return published in May 1874, the number
of slaves at that date Avas 1,016,262, distributed as follows : —
Number of
Number of
Districts and Provinces.
Slaves.
Districts and provinces.
Slaves.
Municipality of Eio de Janeiro 47,260
Maranhao
45,121
Provinces : —
Pari
15.683
Eio de Janeiro
207,709
Amazouas
996
Espirito Saiito . .
18,126
S. Paulo .
82,843
Bahia
103,095
Parana
8,012
Sergipe
25,351
Santa Catliarina
10.641
Alagoas . ...
33,242
Eio Grande do Sul .
83.760
Pernambuco
66,499
Minas Geraes .
208,103
Parahyba .
14.172
Goyaz
1,819
Eio Grande do Norte .
6,087
Matto Grosso .
2,253
Ceara
17,899
Piauliy
17.691
Total .
1.016,262
BEAZIL. 503
A law for tlie gradiial emancipation of ihe vast slave poyAilation
passed the Senate and Congress in the session of 1871. The law,
which received the Imperial sanction on the 28th of SeptemlDer 1871,
talking effect from this date, enacts that children henceforth born of
slave women shall be ' considered of free condition ' — considerados
de condicdo livre. Such children are not to be actually free, hoAV-
ever, but are bound to serve the owners of their mothers for the
term of twenty-one years under the name of apprentices. The
apprentices must work, under severe penalties, for their hereditary
masters, but if the latter inflict on them excessive bodily punish-
ments— castigos excessivos — they are allowed to bring suit in a
criminal court, which may declare their freedom. A final provision
of the Act emancipates the slaves who are state property, to the
number of 1,600, with the proviso that ' the slaves liberated by
virtue of this law remain for five years under the inspection of the
Government.' They are bound to hire themselves oixt — Elles sao
oln-igados d contractar sens servigos — under penalty of being com-
pelled, if living in vagrancy, to labour in the public establishments.
The population of Brazil is made up of an agglomeration of
many races. While Brazil remained, a colony of Portugal, but
few Avomen accompanied the emigi-ants to South America. The
earliest European settlers intermarried and mixed with Indian
women ; and afterwards an extensive intermixture of race occurred
Avith the Africans who Avere bought for slaA'ery. In the northern
provinces the Indian element preponderates, AA'hile in Pernambuco,
Bahia, Eio de Janeiro, and INIinas the negroes are niunerous. At
the seaports, the chief part of the population is of European descent.
Trade and Commerce.
The total A^alue of the imports into Brazil in the year 1878
iimounted to 8,947,960^., being an increase of over 200,000/. on the
previous year. The exports in 1878 Avere of the value of 9,23.3,600/.,
l)eing a decrease of 870,000/. as compared Avith the exports in 1877.
Coffee Avas the principal item in the list of exports in 1878, the total
quantity exported amounting to 2,980,000 bags, of an average Aveight
of 120 lbs, each, the value of Avhich was estimated at 8,701,950/.
The groAvth of the production of coffee in Brazil has been very rapid ;
in 1S30 the quantity exported did not exceed 392,000 bags. The ex-
ports of Brazil go mainly to Great Britain and to the United States.
The amount of the commercial intercourse of Brazil Avith the
United Kingdom is shoA\'n in the subjoined table, which gives the
value of the exports of the Brazilian Empire to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produ-^.e into
Brazil during each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
504
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Exports from Brazil to
Imports of British Home
1 Years
Great Britain
Produce into Brazil
£
&
' 1870
6.127,448
5,366,834
1871
6,693,426
6,274.105
1872
9,4o(),249
7.519,719
1 1873
7,399,974
7,544,669
1874
7,003,131
7.678,453
1875
7,418,60.3
6,869,491
1876
5.178,386
5,919,758
; 1877
6.344,961
5,958,655
1 1878
4,650,48.)
,5,577,952
1879
4,749,816
5,685,054
Tlic two great staple articles of Brazilian exports to the United
Ivingdcm are raw cotton and nnrefined sugar. The value of the
cotton exports to Great Britain was 2,793,101/. in 1870 ; 2,980,644/,
in 1871; 4,729,91-3/. in 1872; 2,851,733/. in 1873; 2,761,837/.
in 1874; 2,343,995/. in 1875; 1,497,225/. in 1876 ; 1,433,840/.
in 1877; 568,178/. in 1878; and 427,964/. in 1879. The quan-
tity in 1879 was 152,185 cwts. Of .sugar, exported in an unrefined
state, the value was 1,468,181/. in 1870; 1,416,020/. in 1871;
2,269,605/., in 1872; 2,082,560/. in 1873; 1,742,242/. in 1874;
2,305,652/. in 1875; 1,220,362/. in 1876; 2,367,165/. in 1877;
1,567,604/. in 1878 ; and 1,692,088/. in 1879. The quantity in
1879 Avas 1,860,707 cwts.
The most important article of British imports into Brazil is manu-
factured cotton, the value of which was 2.787,63.3/. in 1870;
3,072,569/. in 1871; 3,919,297/. in 1872; 3,057,873/. in 1873 ,-
3,115,321/. in 1874; 3,489,823/. in 1875; 2,997,639/. in 1876;
2,855,197/. in 1877; 2,577,926/. in 1878; and 2,810,190/. in 1879.
Wrought and unwrought iron, of the value of 606,691/. ; linens,
of the value of 152,010/.; and woollen manufactures, of the value
of 376,405/. in 1879, form the other principal articles of British im-
ports into Brazil. Exceptionally, there figiu-ed among the chief Bri-
tish imports of 1874 another article, telegraphic wii-e and apparatus,,
of the value of 835,655/. It sank to 67,601/. in 1875 ; rose again
to 119,529/. in 1878; and fell again to 11,780/. in 1879.
The customs duties upon all articles of British manufacture are
veiy heavy, averaging from 40 to 50 per cent. In a British Consu-
lar report from Eio de Janeiro, dated December 19, 1874, it is stated
that ' the practice of sucking the marrow out of the agricultural or-
ganization, by th6 imposition of enormous export duties, has rendered
the accumulation of capital an impossibility.'
The emjiire possessed, at the commencement of 1879, railways
of a total length of 1 ,438 Engli.sh miles, ojjen for traffic. The prin-
cipal railways are — tlie Pedro Segundo_, 226 miles ; the San Paulo,
BRAZIL. 505
85; the Baliia, 75; tlie Pernambuco, 7G ; the Cantagallo, 21;
and theMaua, 15 miles. There were railways of an aggregate length
of 950 miles in course of construction at the end of June 1879, the
total including the completion of the Pedro Segundo line, one sec-
tion of which, as far as Sitio, 226 miles from Rio de Janeiro, was
opened by the Emperor on the 20th of March, 1879. The latter
line, intended to connect the Eastern and Western provinces of the
Empire, reached at Sitio its culminating point, the gorge of Joao
Ayres, in the Serra da Mantiqueira, at the elevation of 3,4G2 feet
above the sea, afterwards entering the more level western slope. It
is expected to be completed, in its whole length, at the end of 1884.
A connnencement has been made, in recent years, to establish a
system of telegraphs. There Avere, at the beginning of the year
1879, lines to the extent of 4,250 miles in the Empire. The num-
ber of telegraph offices was 104 at the same date.
The post-office carried 14,702,144 letters in the year 1878, of
which number about one half came from or to Rio de Janeiro, the
capital. There were 1,068 post-offices at the end of 1878.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Brazil in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron de Penedo, accredited June 26, 1873.
Secretary. — Chevulier .Toao Arthur de Souza Corrca.
2. Of Gkeat Britain in Brazil.
Envoy and Minister. — Francis Clare Ford, C.B., C.M.G., formerly officer in
the 4th Lifrht Dragoons ; successively Secretary of Legation and Charge
d' Affaires in Japan, at Buenos Ayres, at Copenhagen, at Brussels, and at St.
Petersburg. Appointed Envoy and Minister to Brazil, June 3 879.
Secretaries. — James Plaister Harriss-Gastrell ; F. E. II. Elliot.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Brazil, and the British
equivalents, are : —
IVIONET.
The Milrcis of 1,000 Uti.-i . Average rate of exchange, 2s.
The standard of value is the gold Octava of 22 carats, equal to
4 milreis. English sovereigns are legal tender to the amount of
8,890 reis since the year 1857. Gold and silver coins have almost
disappeared in recent years in Brazil, and the only circulating
medium is an inconvertible paper ciu-rency, consisting of Treasury
notes, called ' sedulas ' of a milreis and upwards, depreciated in
value — specie bearing a premium of 60 to 75 per cent — together
■with copper and bronze coins.
Co6 THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
AVeights and Mp:AsrEEs.
The Frencli metric system, which became compulsory in 1872,
was adopted in 18G2, and has been used since in all official
departments. But the ancient Aveights and measures are still partly
employed. They are : —
The Libra . , . = ' 1-012 lbs. avoii-dupois.
„ Arroha. . . = 32-38 „
„ Quintal . . = 129-5i „
The Alqueirc (of Rio) . = 1 imperial busliel.
„ Oitava . . . = 55-34 grains.
Besides the above, the weights and measures of Portugal are also
in use in some parts of the empire.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Brazil.
1. Official Publications.
Almanak do Ministerio da Marinha, 1880. 8. Rio de .Taneiro, 1880.
Almanak Militar para o Anno de 1880. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1880.
Collec(,-ao das Leis do Imperio do Brazil e Collec(,-ao das Decisaoes do Governo
do Imperio do Brazil. 8. Rio de Janeiro, 1864-80.
Empire of Brazil at the Universal Exhibition of 1876, at Philadelphia. 8.
Rio de Janeiro, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Victor A. W. Drummond, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on
Vhe finances and the commerce of Brazil, dated Riode Janeiro, Jnne 1, 1875j
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV.
1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Victor A. Drummond, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on
the trade of Rio de Janeiro and the public debt of Brazil in 1874, dated Rio de
Janeiro, March 9, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Nicholas R. O'Conor, on the general condition, finances, and
economic progress of Brazil, dated Rio de Janeiro. May 15, 1877 ; in " Report
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1877- 8.
London, 1877-
Report by Mr. Consul Lennon Hunt on the trade and commerce of Rio de
Janeiro, dated October 1873; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Con.suls on the Manu-
factures, Commerce, &c., of their Consular Districts.' Part I. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.
Report by Mr. Consul INIorgan on the trade of Bahia for 1874 dated Feb.
26, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures and Com-
merce of their Consular Districts.' No. III. 1876. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Consul Lennon-Hunt on the trade of Rio de Janeiro and the
commerce and finances of Brazil, dated Rio de Janeiro, Dec. 19, 1874; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Reports by Mr. Consul Morgan on the trade and commerce of Bahia ; by
Mr. Consul Morgan on the trade of the province of Sergipe ; and by Mr.
Acting-Consul Austin on the commerce of Rio de Janeiro, and the finances
and population of Brazil, dated Jan.-Feb. 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by jVIr. Consul Morgan on the commerce of Bahia ; by Mr. Actnig
Consul Au-stin on the commerce and shipping of Rio de Janeiro ; and by Mr.
Consul Dundas on the trade and industry of the province of San Paulo, dated
BRAZIL, 507
Jiinuary-March 1877; in 'Eeports from H.^M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877.
8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Consul Morgan on the commerce of Bahia, dated Jan. 7, 1879 ;
in -Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Reports by Mr. Vice- Consul Wucherer on the trade of Maceio ; by Mr.
Consul Brocklehurst, on the commerce and shipping of Para, ; by Mr. Vice-
Consul Shalders on the trade of Paraiba ; and by Mr. Cousid Walker on the
commerce and shipping of Pcrnambuco, dated Jan. -April 1877 ; in ' Eeports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Brazil with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
Year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Agassis (Louis), Journey in Brazil. 8. London, 1868.
Bigg-Withir (Thomas P.), Pioneering in South Brazil. 8. London, 1878.
Burmeister (Hermann), lleise nach Brasilieu. 8. Berlin, 18o3.
Burton (Capt. R. F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1869.
Canstatt (0.), Brazilien, Land und Leute. 8. Berlin, 1877.
Codman (J.), Ten Montlis in Brazil. With Notes on the Paraguayan War.
S. Edinburgh, 1870.
Fletcher (Rev. Jas. C.) and KlJdcr (Rev. D. P.), Brazil and the Brazilians.
9th ed. 8. London, 1879.
Hadficld (William), Brazil and the River Plate, 1870-76. 8. London. 1877.
■ Keller (Franz), The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Fol. London, 1874.
Laemmert (Eduardo von), iUmanak Administrative, mercantil e industria, da
eorte e provincia do Rio de Janeiro para o anno de 1880. Rio de Janeiro, 1880.
Lahure (N. do), L'Empire du Bresil. 8. Paris, 1862.
Moraes (Dr. Mello), Chorographia historica, chronographica, genealogica,
uoliiliaria e politica do Imperio do Brazil. Rio do Janeiro, 1865.
Mulkall (Michael G.), Rio Grande de Sul and its German Colonics. 8.
London, 1873.
Orfo7i (James), The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across the Continent of
South America. 8. London, 1870.
Pereira (Da Silva), Situation sociale, politique et economique de I'empire du
Bresil. 18. Paris, 1865.
Pvnenta (Bueno), Direito publico brazileiro. 4. Eio de Janeiro, 1872.
I'ibas (Antonio Joaquin), Direito administrativo brasileiro. 4. Rio de
Janeiro, 1874.
Eodriguc- ( Jos6 Carlos), Constitui^ao Politica do Imperio do Brasil, seguida
do acto addicional, da lei da sua interpretacao e de outras analysada. 8. Rio
de Janeiro, 1868.
Saint- Ad olphc (Milliet de), Diccionario Geografico do Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1870.
<SW^s-ioH/7eA«5«^s (W. de) Notes d'uu Voyage ail Bresil. 8. Bruxelles, 1875.
Scully (William), Brazil, its Provinces and Chief Cities; the Manners and
Customs of the People : Agricultural. Commercial, and other Statistics. New
ed. 8. London, 1868.
Urscl (Comte C. d'), Sud-Amerique : Sejours et voyages au Bresil, &e. 12.
Paris, 1879.
Wallace (Alfred R.), Travels on the Amazon and Eio Negro. 8. London, 1 870.
Wappaens (Dr. Johann Eduard), Handbuch der Geographic und Statistik
von Brasilicn. 8. Leipzig, 1871.
5o8
CANADA.
(Dominion of Canada.)
Constitution and Government.
The Dominion of Canada consists of the provinces of Ontario
Quebec — formerly U^sper and Lower Canada — Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Manitoba, British Cokimbia, and Prince Edward Island.
They were united under the provisions of an Act of the Imperial
Parliament passed in March 18G7, known as ' The British North
America Act, 1867,' which came into operation on the 1st July, 18(37,
by royal proclamation. The Act orders that the constitution of the
Dominion shall be ' similar in principle to that of the United King-
dom ;' that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign
oi G)-eat Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a
Govei'nor-General and Privy Council ; and that the legislative
poAver shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called
the ' Senate,' and ' the House of Commons.' Provision is made in
the Act for the admission of Newfoundland, still independent pro-
vince of British North America, into the Dominion of Canada.
The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Dominion
are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor- General under
the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of the constitution, there
are 77 senators, namely, 24 from the Province of Ontario, 24 from
Quebec, 10 irom Nova Scotia, 10 from New Brunswick, 2 from
Manitoba, 3 from British Columbia, and 4 from Prince Edward
Island. Each senator must be 30 years of age, a born or naturalised
subject, and possessed of property, real or personal, of the value
of 4,000 dollars in the province for which he is appointed. The
Plouse of Commons of the Dominion is elected by the people, for five
years, at the rate of one representative for every 17,000 souls. At
present, on the basis-: of the census returns of 1871, the House of
Commons consists of 20G members, namely, 88 for Ontario, 05
for Quebec, 21 for Nova Scotia, 10 for New BrunsAvick, 4 for
Manitoba, 0 for British Columbia, and 6 lor Prince Edward Island.
The members of the House of Commons are elected by consti-
tuencies, varying in the different provinces. In Ontario and
Quebec a vote is given to every male subject being the owner or
occupier or tenant of real property of the assessed value of 300
dollars, or of the yearly value of 30 dollars, if within cities or
towns, or of the assessed value of 200 dollars, or the yearly value
CANADA. 509
of 20 dollars, if not so situate. In New Brunswick a vote is given
to every male subject of the age of 21 years, assessed in respect of
real estate to tlie amount of 100 dollars, or of personal property, or
personal and real, amounting together to 400 dollars, or 400 dollars
annual income. In Nova Scotia the franchise is with all subjects
of the age of 21 years, assessed in respect of real estate to the value
of 150 dollars, or in respect f if personal estate, or of real and personal
together, to the value of 400 dollars. Voting in Quebec, Ontario,
Nova Scotia, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island,
is open : but in Nev; Brunswick votes are taken by ballot.
The Speaker of the House of Commons has a salary of 4,000
dollars per annum, and each member an allowance of 10 dollars per
diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a session lasting longer
than this period, the sum of 1,000 dollars, with, in every case, 10
cents per mile for travelling expenses. The sum of 8 dollars per
diem is deducted for every day's absence of a member, unless the
same is caused by illness. Tliere is the same allowance for the
members of the Senate of the Dominion.
The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate
parliament and administration, Avith a Lieutenant-Governor at the
head of ihe executive. They have full powers to regulate their
own local affairs, dispose of their revenues, and enact such laAvs as
they may deem best for their own internal welfare, provided only
they do not interfere with, or are adverse to, the action and policy
of the central administration under the Governor-General.
Governor- General. — Rt. Hon. Sir John Douglas Sutherland
Campbell, Marquis o? Lome, K.T., G.C.M.G., bom August G, 1845,
eldest son of the eighth Duke of Argyll ; educated at Eton, and
Trinity College, Cambridge ; returned to Parliament for Argyllshire,
February 1868; married March 21, 1871, to Princess Louise,
daughter of Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland (see page
189). Appointed Governor-General of the Dominion of Canada
and of British North America, October 14, 1878; assumed the
Government, December 7, 1878.
The Governor-General has a salary of 10,000/. per annum. He
is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867,
by a Council, composed of thirteen head? of departments.
' The present Council, formed October 17, 1878, with alterations
in 1879 and 1880, consists of the following members: —
1. Prime Minister, and Minister of the Interior. — Rt. Hon. Sir
John Alexander Macdoncdd, K.C.B., D.C.L., born in Sutherland-
shire, Scotland, January 11, 1815; returned to Parliament, 1844;
first Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada, from 1867 to 187o.
2. jNIinister of Railways and Canals. — Hon. Sir Charles Tiipper,
C.B., M.A., born at Amherst, Nova Scotia, July 2, 1821 ; Presi-
5IO THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
dent of the Council 1869 to 1872 ; Ministei- of Inland Revenne,
1872-73; Minister of Customs, 1873; Minister of Public Works,
1878-79.
3. Minister of Finance. — Hon. Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley, C.B.,
born at Gagetown, New Bruns^yick, May 8, 1818 ; Minister of Cus-
toms, 1867 to 1873 ; Minister of Finance, 1873 ; Lieut.- Governor
of New Brunswick, 1873-78.
4. President of the Council. — Lieut.-Col. Hon. Louis Franeois
Roderique J/«.sso?i, born at Terrebonne, province of Quebec, Novem-
ber 7, 1833 ; Minister of Militia and Defence, 1878-80.
5. Minister of Justice. — Hon. James 3PDonald, Q.C., born at
East River, Pictou, Nova Scotia, July 1, 1828 ; Chief Railway Com-
missioner for Nova Scotia 1863-64 ; Financial Secretary, 1863-67.
6. Minister of Militia and Defence. — Hon. Sir Alexander Caviphell,
Q.C., K.C.M.G., born in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England, in
1822; Postmaster-General, 1867-73, and 1879-80; Minister of
the Interior, 1873.
7. Minister of Marine and Fisheries. — Hon. James Colledge Pope,
born at Bedeque, Prince Edward Island, June 11, 1826; Premier
of P.E.L from 1865 to 1868, from 1870 to 1872, and also in 1873.
8. Minister of Agriculture.' — Hon. John Henry Pope, born in
Eastern ToAvnship, province of Quebec ; Minister of Agriculture,
1871-73.
9. Minister of Public Works. — Hon. Hector Louis Langevin, C.B.,
Q.C., born at Quebec, August 25, 1826; Secretary of State, 1867-
69 ; Minister of Public Works, 1869-73 ; Postmaster-General
1878-79.
10. Secretary of State. — Hon. James Cox Aikhis, born at Peel,
Ontario, March 30, 1823; Secretary of State, 1869-73.
11. Minister of Customs. — Lieut.-Colonel IMackenzie Bowell, J. P.,
born at Rickinghall, Suffolk, England, Dec. 27, 1823.
12. Minister of Inland Revenue. — Hon. Joseph Philippo R. A.
Caron, born at Quebec in 1843; appointed October 30, 1880.
13. Postmaster- General. — Hon. John 0^ Connor, Q.C., bom in
Boston, Mass., U.S., January 1824 ; President of the Council,
1872-73 and 1878-80.
Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of 7,000
dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with the exception of the recognised Prime
Minister, who has 8,000 dollars, or 1,600Z. per annum. The body of
ministers is officially known as the ' Queen's Privy Council for the
Dominion of Canada.'
Church and Education.
There is no State Church in the Dominion, and in the whole of
British North America. The Church of England is governed by
nine bishops ; the Roman Catholic Church by four archbishops, and
CANADA. 511
fourteen bishops ; and the Presbyterian Church in Canada — formed in
1875 by the union of two formerly distinct bodies — by presby-
teries, synods, and an annual assembly presided over by moderators.
The number of members of each religious creed in the Dominion was
as follows at the census of April 3, 1871 : —
Roman Catholics . . 1,492,029
Presbyterians . . 544,998
Anglicans . . . 494,049
Wesleyans and Methodists o67.091
Baptists . . . 239,343
Lutherans . • . 37,935
Congregationalists . 21,829
Miscellaneous creeds . , 65,857
Of 'no religion' . . 5,575
No creed stated . . . 17,055
Total . 3,485,761
The census returns, besides the broad religious divisions here
given, signalise a multitude of sectarian creeds, including ' Second
Adventists," Disciples,' 'Bible Christians,' ' Junkers,' 'Mennonists,'
' Universalists,' and ' Mormons.' Roman Catholicism prevails most
extensively in the province of Quebec, formerly Lower Canada, the
number of its adherents there, in 1871, amounting to 1,019,850, or
nearly 85 per cent, of the total of the Dominion. In the province
of Outai'io, formerly Upper Canada, the number of Roman Catholics,
in 1871, was 274,162 ; while the Church of England niunbered
330,965, and the Presbyterians 356,442 adherents.
The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have separate school laws,
adapted to the religious elements prevailing in either. Each township
in Ontario is divided into several school sections, according to the
requirements of its inhabitants. The common schools are supported
partly by government, and partly by local self-imposed taxation, and
occasionally by the payment of a small fee for each scholar. All
teachers must pass an examination before a county board of educa-
tion, or receive a license from the provincial Normal School, em-
powering them to teach, before they can claim the government
allowance. — (Official Communication.)
Revenue and Expenditure.
The financial accounts of the Dominion of Canada are made up
under three different headings, namely, first ' Consolidated Fund.'
comprising the general sources of revenue and branches of expendi-
ture ; secondly, ' Loans ' in revenue, and ' Redemption ' with ' Pre-
miums and Discounts,' in expenditure ; and, thirdly, ' Open Ac-
counts.' The total actual revenue, under these three divisions, Avas
as follows in the financial year ending June 30, 1879 : —
Dollar Cents
Consolidated Fund 22,517,382 14
Loans 23,189,908 33
Open Accounts 6,771,874 62
Total .... 52,479,165 00
;£10,495,83S
512
THE STATESMA?; S YEArv-BOOK, 1881.
Tlie actual sources of revenue, comprised under the division
called Consolidated Fund, embracing all the ordinary receipts, were
as foIloAvs in tlie financial year ending June 30, 1879 : —
SouiiCES OF Eevexue, Coxsoi.idated Fund.
Customs .....
Exi'ise .....
P.IU Stamps ....
Post Office, including Ocean Postage
Pul)lic Works, including Rriilways
IntPrest on Investments (Permanent)
Ditto ditto (Temporary)
Xortheru Eailway Interest Account
Ordnance Lands ....
Casual Premium and Discount
Bank Imposts ....
Fines, Forfeitures, and Seizures .
Tonnage Dues (River Police)
„ (Mariners' Fund)
Steamboat Inspection .
Fisheries .....
Cullers' Fees ....
Militia .....
Penitentiaries ....
Miscellaneous Receipts
Superannuation ....
Dominion Lands, IManitoLa .
Dominion Steamers
Gas Inspection and Law Stamps .
Insurance Inspection .
Weights and Measures
Total Revenue, Consolidated Fund
Dollars
12,900,659
5,390,763
185,190
1.172,418
1.863,149
521,494
71,005
40,849
47,621
460
2,853
32,148
21.361
37,757
12,331
17,738
24,715
16,031
53,115
15,325
41,959
23,828
1,612
3,172
6,134
13,685
Cents
29
17
89
14
07
63
41
56
23
82
03
81
65
39
16
34
45
14
10
77
20
09
09
36
38
97
14
22,517.382
£4.503.476
The total actual expenditure, under tlie three divisions before
named, -vvith the addition of ' Premiums and Discoimts,' Avas as
follows in tlie financial year ending Jime SO, 1S79 : —
Dollars Cents
Consolidated Fund .....
Redemption
Premiums and Discounts ....
Open Accounts ......
24,455,381 56
14.032,240 69
676,225 30
8,292,574 37
Total
47,456,421 92
fg, 491, 284
The actual branches of expenditure comprised under the division
called Con.solidated Fund, embracing all the ordinary disburse-
ments, were as follows in the financial year ending June 30,
1879:—
CANADA.
5'3
Branches of ExrEXDixruE.
Interest on PuLlie Delit
Cliarges of Management
Sinking Fund
Premium, Diseovait and Exchange
Subsidies to Provinces
Civil Government
Administration of Justice
Police .....
Penitentiaries
Legislation ....
Geological Survey
Arts, Agriculture, and Statistics
Immigration and Quarantine
Marine Hospitals
Pensions ....
Super:! nnuation .
31ilitia and Defence
PuIjHc Works .
Ocean and River Steam Service
Lighthouses and Coast Services
Fislieries ....
Steamboat Inspection .
Insurance Inspection .
Miscellaneous.
Indian Grants
D<iminion Lands .
Mounted Police, N.W.T. .
Customs ....
Excise ....
Weights and Measures
Inspection of Staples .
Adulteration of Food .
Culling Timber .
Post Office ....
Public Works .
Minor Eevenues .
Total Expenditure Consolidated Fund
Dollai-s
7,194,734
27r),oo!)
1,037.219
2,3G4
3.442,764
861,170
y77,8S6
11,122
308,482
748,007
110,78.5
63,068
212,224
58,237
107,79-3
ll3,o31
777,698
1,013,593
598,876
447,566
82,319
13,157
8,537
101,602
498,327
91,773
344.823
719,711
211,064
84,004
622
7,797
44,670
1,784,423
2,680.979
27,888
24,464,401
£4,892,880
14
37
70
(16
34
85
58
OS
61
58
92
28
C5
34
04
63
90
10
76
92
07
38
10
15
29
29
77
29
71
97
94
02
02
88
10
26
56
The estimates of expenditure under tlie Consolidated Fund ibr
the financial year ending June 30, 1881, amounted to 25, 517, 000
dollars, or 5,103,400/., and of total expenditure to 25,207,203
dollars, or 5,041,440/. For the financial year ending Jime 30,
1880, the estimates ol expenditure on the Consolidated Fund were
23,427,882 dollars, or 4,685,570/., and the total expenditure
39,016,140 dollar.s, cr 7,923,228/.
The pttblic debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefiy on account of
L L
514
THE STATESMANS YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
public works, and the interest of -wliich forms the largest branch of
the expenditure, was as follows on July 1, 1879 : —
Ft;^rDED and unfunded Debt.
Payable in London.
Imperial Guarantee, 4 per cent. .
Intercolonial Loan, 5 per cent.
Consolidated Canadian Loan Bonds, 5 per cent.
,, ,, ,, Stock, 5 per cent.
Canadian Bonds (old) 5 per cent.
„ „ 6 per cent.
Nova Scotia Bonds, 6 per cent. .
New Brunswick Bonds, 6 per cent.
British Columbia Bonds, 6 per cent. ,
Prince Edward Island Bonds, G per cent.
Dominion Loan of 1874, 4 per cent.
„ 1875, 4 per cent.
1876, 4 per cent. .
1878, 4 percent.
Tayahle in Canada.
Canada Bunds (old) 5 per ecTit. ,
Canadian Bonds (old) 6 per cent.
Nova Scotia, 6 per cent. ....
New Brunswick, 6 per cent.
Prince Edward Island, 6 per cent.
Bonds convertible into Stock, 6 per cent.
Dominion Stock, 6 per cent.
„ 5 per cent.
Savings Banks, Post Office, 4 per cent.
,, ,. 5 per cent.
„ Toronto, 4 per cent.
„ Winnipeg, 4 per cent. .
„ Nova Scotia, 4 per cent.
„ New Brunswick, 4 per cent.
„ British Columljia, 6 per ct-nt.
„ Nova Scotia Suspense Account
„ „ Interest Account
„ New Bruns'wick Suspense Account
„ „ Interest Account
,, Prince Edward Island, 4 per cent
Indemnity to Seigneurs and Townships, 6 per cent
Notes, Canada . .....
,, Nova Scotia .....
Unpaid Warrants, Prince Edward Island .
Overdue Debentures, Province of Canada .
Total Funded and Unfunded Debt
Dollars
Cents
30,660.
2,433,
21,768,
9,605,
20,
12,428,
1,082,
4,491,
924,
1,091,
19,466,
4,866,
12,166,
7,300
000 00
333 34
802 99
799 51
440 06
980 06
833 35
446 67
666 67
,106 54
,666 67
666 66
,666 66
.000 00
),264 75
),201 32
158,745,580
£31,749,116
To the existing debt was added, in 1879, a four per cent, loan of
VjOOOjOOOZ., one-half of which bears the guarantee of the British
CANADA. 515
government. Out of this loan 1,547,000/. is to be employed in re-
deeming the six per cent, bonds, leaving 1,453,000Z. to be devoted to
the various public works of the Dominion. Among these are the
deepening and extension of the Welland and St. Lawrence Canal and
the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway.
The interest and sinking fund, with j-edemption and management,
of the debt in the financial year ending Jiuie 30, 1878, amounted
to 13,202,966 dollars, or 2,640,593/. In the financial estimates for
the year 1878-79, the total expenditure on account of the debt was
set down at 15,501,674 dollars, or 3,100,335/., and in the provisional
estimates for 1879-80 the same Avas calculated at 14,282,413 dollars,
or 2,856,483/.
Army.
In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Government —
the strength of which was reduced, in 1871, to 2,000 men, form-
ing the garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an ' Imperial
-station' — Canada has a largo volimteer force, and a newly-
organised militia, broiight into existence by a statute of the first
Federal Parliament, passed in March 1868, ' to provide for the
defence of the Dominion.' By the terms of the Act, the militia con-
sists of all male British subjects between 18 and 60, who are called
out to serve in four classes, namely : — 1st class, 18 to 30, unmar-
ried ; 2nd, fi-om 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3rd, 18 to 45, married ;
4 th, 45 to 60. Widowers without children rank as unmarried, but
v.'ith them, as married. Tlie militia is divided into an active and a
reserve force. The active includes the volunteer, the regular, and the
marine militia. The regular militia are those who voluntarily enlist
to serve in the same, or men balloted, or in part of both. The
marine militia is made up of persons whose usual occupation is on
Kiiling or steam craft navigating the Avaters of the Dominion.
A'olunteers have to serve for three years ; and the regular
iuid maiine militia for tAvo years. On the 1st of January 1879, the
active niilitia comprised a force of 45,152, officers and men, orga-
nised as folloAVs : — cavalry, 2,637 ; field artillery, 1,438 ; garrison
jirtillery, 3,479 ; engineers, 282 ; infantry and rifles, 37,316. The
reserv^e militia comprised 655,000 rank and file at the same date.
Under the Act of 1868, amended in 1871, Canada is divided into
tAveh'e military districts, four of Avhich are formed by Ontario, three
Jij Quebec, one by NoA-a Scotia, one by Ncav BrunsAvick, one by
]\Ianitoba, one by Prince EdAvard Island, and one by British
Columbia. Taa'o schools of military instruction for artillery are
established in each of the proA^inces of Ontario and Quebec, and
one in each of the provinces of NeAV BrunsAvick and Nova Scotia.
Tliere is, besides, a royal military college at Kingston, Ontario.
L L 2
5i6
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, li
Area and Population,
Tlie population of Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at
240,000; in 1825 it amoiinted to 581,920; in 1851 to 1,842,265;
and in 18C1 to 0,000,501. The last census, taken April 3, 1871,
stated the area and population of the Dominion as follows : —
Provinces
Area :
Eng. sq. miles
Population, 1871
Males.
Females.
Total.
Ontario
Quebec
New Brunswick .
Nova Scotia .
Manitoba
British Columbia .
Prince Edward Island .
Nortii-west Territory .
Total
107,780
193,355
27.322
21.731
13,96'J
356,000
2.133
2,650,000
828,590 792.261
596,041 595,475
145.888 ! 139.706
193.792 ! 194,008
6,277 1 5.808
47.121 46,900
1.620,851
1,191,516
285,594
387.800
12,145
33,586
94,021
■ 60,500
3,372,290
— i —
3,686,013
By an Order in Council issued in Autjust, 1880, all British pos-
sessions in North America not already included in the Dominion^
comprising all islands with the exception of Newfoundland and its
dependencies, are to he considered as forming part of the Dominion
of Canada from September, 1, 1880.
The last census of Newfoundland, taken at the end of 1869, stated
the total ])opulafion at 146,536 — comprising 75,547 males, and
70,989 females — living on an area of 40,200 English scpiare miles.
The population of the Dominion consisted at the census of 1871
to the extent of more than four-fifths of natives of Briti.sh North
America. These numbered 2,900,531, of whom 1,138,794 were
natives of Ontario ; 1,147,664 of Quebec ; 360,832 of Nova Scotia ;
245,068 of New Brunswick ; 405 of Manitoba and British Columbia ;
and 7,768 natives of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland.
Of alien-born inhabitants of the Dominion the most numerous
at the census of 1871 Avere 485,526 natives of the United Kingdom.
The population of the principal cities of the Dominion and of
Briti.sh North America was as follows at the census of 1871 : —
Ontario
rXoronto
j Hamilton 26,716
■j Ottawa 21,545
I London 15,826
DoMixiox OF Caxada.
46,092
Quebec
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick
/Montreal
\ Quebec
Halifax
St. John
107.225
59,695
29,582
28,988
Newfoundland
British North America.
St. John's .
22.583
CANADA.
517
The increase of population in recent years has been chiefly
through immigration fh)m the United Kingdom. The following
table shows the total number of immigrants, and the number who
actually settled in the Dominion of Canada, in each of the ten
years from 1SG9 to 187<S.
1 Years
Total Number j^.^,^^,,^^ ^^
Years
Total Number
of Immi-
grants
Number of
Settlers
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
57,202 18,630
44,313 24,706
37,949 27,773
52,608 36,578
99,059 50,050
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
80,022
43,458
31,650
35,285
41,033
39,373
27,382
25,633
27,082
29,807
The number of immigrants, as well as of settlers, is inclusive of
those arrived from the United States.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of the Dominion of Canada is chiefly with the United
"States and Great Britain, the greater part of the imports being
derived from the United States, and the greater part of the ex-
ports going to Great Britain. The following statement gives the
total value of exports, and of imports, and the total value of imports
entered for home consumption in the Dominion, in each of the
ten fiscal years, ending June 30, from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years ended
Jime 30
Total Exports
Total Imports
Imports for
Home Consumption
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars j
1870
73.573,490
74,814,339
71,237,603
1871
74,173,018
96,092,971
86,947,482 i
1872
82,639,663
111,430,527
107,709,116
1873
89,789,922
1-28,011,282
127,514,594
1874
89,351.928
128,213,582
127,404,169
1875
77,880,979
123,070,283
119,618,657
1876
80,966,435
93,210,346
94,73S,218 1
1877
75,875,393
99,327,962
96,300,483
187S
79,323,667
93,081,787
91,199,577
1879
71,503,535
81,961,251
80,338,432
The following tabular statement exhibits the commercial inter-
course of the Dominion of Canada with the United Kingdom, giving
the total value of the exports to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish jDroduce and manufactures into the
Dominion, in each of the ten years, ending Dec. 31, 1870 to 1879 : —
518
THE STATESMAN 8 YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Years
Exports from the Dominion of
Canada to Great Britain
Imports of British Ifome Produce
into the Dominion of
Canada
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
■ ■ £
7,855,518
8,023,115
8,652,238
11,117,122
11,336.812
9,615,927
10,324,705
11,186,195
8,874,257
9,834,236
£
6,260,613
7,766,559
9,637,133
8.112.751
8,849,747
8.414,099
6,902,723
7-000,419
5,926,908
6,040,524
The two staple articles of exports from the Dominion of CanacJu
to the United Kingdom are breadstufis and wood. In the yeai-
1(S79, the total exports of corn and flour amounted to 4,266, ")olAy
of wiiich 2,615,002/. was for wheat; 165,885/. for oats; 582,436/.
for maize, or Indian corn ; and 348,696/. for Avheat-meal and Houiv
the remainder comprising pease, Oatmeal, and other kinds of bread-
stufis. The value of the exports of Avood and timber to Great
Britain in 1879 was 2,823,115/., made up chiefly of hewn timber,
of the value of 697,315/., and of sawn wood, of the value of
2,059,290/. The principal articles of British produce imported
into the Dominion in the year 1879 were iron, wrought and im-
Avrought, of the value of 690,403/. ; Avoollen manufactures, of the
value of 809,290/. ; and cotton goods, of the value of 690,403/.
Not included in the above returns is the trade with the provnice
of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as yet not included
within the Dominion. The exjoorts from Newfoundland and La-
brador to Great Britain, chiefly fish and train oil, amounted to
656,575/., and the imports of British produce to 509,618/. in tho
yeav 1878. The principal articles of British imports into NeAvfound.-
land and Labrador in 1878, Avere apparel and haberdashery, of the
A'alue of 98,463/. ; and cotton manufactures, of the value of 62,853/.
The tonnage of shipping registered in each of the Provinces of
the Dominion on December 31, 1878, Avas as folloAvs : —
Vessels
Tons
No\-a 8coti:i ....
. 3.003
553,368
New Brunswick ....
, 1.142
335,965
Quebec • . .
. 1.976
248,349
Ontario . '.
958
135,440
Prince Edward Island .
322
54,250
British Coluin};ia and Manitoba .
68
5,643
Total ....
7,469
1,333,015
CANADA.
519
The total enumerated in the preceding table comprised 834
steamers, measuring 116,620 tons. During the year 1878, there were
340 new vessels, of 101,506 tons, built in the Dominion.
The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways of a total
length of 5,574 miles at the end of June 1878. There were at the
same period lines of a total length of 1,996 miles in course of construc-
tion, and 3,000 miles more had been surveyed, and concessions granted
by the Government. Partly included in the latter class is a rail-
way crossing the whole of the Dominion, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, to the construction of which the British Government con-
tributes a grant, in the form of a guaranteed loan of 2,500,000/.
On January 1, 1879, there were in the Dominion 5,378 post-
offices. The number of letters and post-cards sent through the post-
office during the year ended June 30, 1878, was 53,685,000; and
of newspapers, posted from offices of publication, 3,720,480 lbs. in
weight, and of others 6,252,740 in nvimber. A uniform rate of
postage of three cents has been established over the whole Dominion.
Ecsiclent Minister of the Dominion of Canada iu Great Britain. — Hou. Sir
A. T. Gait, K.C.M.G. ; appointed May 1, 1880.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Canada are : —
Money.
The Dollar of 100 cents. Average rate of exchange = 4.'?.
The decimal system of currency was introduced into the Dominion
of Canada and British North America by Act 34 Vict. cap. 5. It
is ordered by the Act that the unit of account shall be the dollar of
100 cents, the value of which dollar shall be on the basis of 486
cents and two-thirds of a cent to the pound of British sterling
money. The value of the money of the United Kingdom is fixed
by law as follows : — The sovereign, of the weight and fineness now
established, four dollars and eighty-six and two-third cents ; the
crown piece, one dollar and twenty cents ; the half-crown piece,
sixty cents ; the florin, forty-eight cents ; the shilling, twenty-four
cents ; the sixpence, twelve cents.
Weights and Measures.
A new and uniform system of weights and measures Avas intro-
duced into the Dominion of Canada by Act 36 Vict. cap. 48, assented
to May 23,1873, entitled ' an Act respecting Weights and Measures.'
The Act orders that ' the Imperial yard shall be the standard measui-e
of length ; ' that ' the Imperial pound Avoirdupois shall be the stan-
dard measure of weight ; ' that ' the gallon known as the " Imperial
gallon " shall be the standard measure of capacity for liquids ; ' that
520 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the standard or unit of measure for the sale of gas by meter, the
ciibic foot containing fiSf^-^^^- lbs. avoirdupois u-eight of distilled
Avater weighed in the air at the temperature of 62 deg. Fah. ; the
barometer being at 30 inches; ' and that ' the bushel measure known
as the " Imperial bushel " shall be the standard measure of capacity
for commodities sold by dry measure.' Of old weights and measures
usually employed, the chief are: —
]Vinc gallon
Ale qallon .
Bi'shcl
= ()-83333 gallon.
= 1-()169.) „
= 0-9692 impin-ial busliel.
]3y Act of l^nd Vict. cap. ] 0, it was further pi'ovided :^That in
contracts for sale and delivery of any of the undermentioned articles
the bushel shall be determined by weighing, unless a bushel by
measure be specially agreed upon, the weight etpiivalent to a bushel
l)oinGf as folloAvs : —
Wheat .
. GO lbs.
Indian corn .
• -'^G ,,
Rye
. 56 ,.
Peas
. 60 ,.
Malt .
. 36 .,
Oats .
. 34 „
Beans .
. 60 .,
Klax .seed .
. 50 .,
Hemp .
. -14 „
Blue Ki-ass seed
. 14 .,
Castor beans
Potatoes
Turnips
Carrots
Parsnijts .
Beets
Onions
Clover seed
Timothy
Biiekwheat .
40 lbs.
60
60
48
48
By the same Act the British hundredweight of 112 pounds, and
the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundredweight was
declared to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000 pounds avoirdupohs,
thus assimilatinfr the weif^hts of Canada and the United States.
Statistical and ether Books of Reference concerning Canada
and British North America.
1. Official Purlications.
Annual Report of the Department of tlie Interior for tbe year ended June
30. 1879. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Annual Report of the Minister of Piiblie "Works for the fiscal year ending
.Tune 30, 1879. 8. Ottawa. 1880.
Estimates of Canada for tire fiscal year ending June 3ii, 1881. 8. Ottawa,
ISSO.
Finances of Canada: Budget Speech delivered in the House of Commons of
Canada, March 9, ISSO, by S.^ L. TiUey, Minister of Finance. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Public Accounts of Canada, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1879.
Printed by order of Parliament. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Railway Statistics of Canada, 1877-79. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Report (Twelfth) of the Department of Marine and Fisheries for the year
ended June 30, 1879. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
CANADA. 521
Pieport of the Minister of Agriculture for the calendar year 1879. 8.
Ottawr.,, 1880.
Report of the Minister of Justice. 8. Ottawa, 1879.
Eeport of tlie Minister of Public "Works for the year ended June 30, 1878.
8. Ottawa, 1879.
Iseport on the state of the 3Iilitia for the year 1879. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Report, Returns, and Statistics of the Inland Revenues of the Dominion of
Canada, for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1879. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. XIV. 8. London, 1880.
Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion of Canada, for tlie
fiscal year ending June 30, 1879. 8. pp. 1012. Ottawa, 1880.
Eeport of the Minister of Railwavs and Canjils for the fiscal year ending
.Tune 30, 1879. 8. Ottawa, 1880.
Reports on the Trade and Commerce, the Militia Establishment, Immigra-
tion, and Taxation of the Dominion of Canada; in 'Papers relating to H.M.'s
Colonial Possessions.' Parts I. and II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Trade of the Dominion of Canada, of Newfoundland, and of Labradore,
with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom
with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1879.' Imp. 4,
London, 1880.
2. Nox-Officiax Publications.
Canadian Almanac for 1880. Thirty-third year. 8. Toronto, 1880.
Faillon (Abbe), Histoire d'- la Colonic francaise en Canada. 2 vols. Fol.
Montreal, 1865. '
Hou'c (Hon. Joseph), Confederation considered in relation to the interests of
the Empire. 8. London, 18GG.
Macjie (Matthew), Vancouver Island and British Columbia ; their History,
Resources, and Prospects. 8. London, 186.").
il/«rs/;fl// (Cliarles), The Canadian Dominion. 8. London, 1871.
Martlnchde (Lieut.-CoL, C.B.), Recollections of Canada. With Illustrations
by Lieutenant Carlile, R. A. 4. London, 1873.
Molinari (G. de) Lettres sur les Etats-Unis et le Canada. 12. Paris, 1877.
Monro (Alex.), History, Geography, and Statistics of British North America.
12. Montreal, 1864.
Morgaji (Henry J.), The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1879.
13th edition. 32. Ottawa, 1880.
Philpot (Harvey J.), Guide Book to the Canadian Dominion. 16. London,
1871.
Bee (W. Fraser), Columbia and Canada. Notes on the Great Republic and
the New Dominion. 8. London, 1878.
Ilau'iings (Thomas), The Confederation of the British North American Pro-
vinces : their Past History and Future Prospects. 8. London, 1866.
Russell (Wm. Henry), Canada : its Defences, Condition, and Resources. 8.
London, 186.3.
CHILI.
(Eepi^blica de Chile.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Chili threw off the allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810.
The constitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
establishes three authorities in the State — the legislative, the execu-
tive, and the judicial. The legislative power is vested in two assem-
blies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
is composed of twenty members, elected for the term of nine years ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, chosen for a period of three years,
consists of one representative for every 20,000 of the population. The
executive is exercised by a president, elected for a term of five years.
President of the Ilepuhlic. — Don Anibal Pinto ; elected President
of the Republic, as successor of Don Federico Errazuriz, September
17, 1876.
The president of the republic is chosen by indirect election. TIu-
people, in the first instance, nominate their delegates by ballot, and
the latter, in their turn, appoint the chief of the State. The salary of
the president is fixed at 22,500 pesos, or 4,500Z.
The president is assisted in his executive functions by a Council of
State, and a cabinet, or ministry, divided into five departments.
The Council of State, appointed by the president of the republic,
consists of the ministers for the time being, tAvo judges, one eccle-
.siastical dignitary, one general or admiral, and five other members.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue is mainly derived from customs duties, while
the chief branches of expenditure are for the national debt and
public works. The following table shows the total actual revenue
for the year 1875, and the estimates of revenue and expenditure for
each of the three years, from 1876 to 1878 : —
Tears
Revenue
E.xpenditure
1875
1876
1877
1878
Pesos
16.255,100
24,561,670
16,805,830
20,443.977
&
3,251,020
4.912,334
3,361.160
4,088,795
Pesos
21.720,075
24.622,960
16,892,810
21,375,728
&
4.344,015
4,924,592
3,378,562
4,275,145
The public revenue is derived, to the extent of more than one-
half, from customs duties, the remainder coming chiefly from State
CHILI.
raihvays and various monopolies. The cliief branch ol' expenditure
is for public works and interest of the debt.
The public debt of the republic consisted, at the end ol S( ptcmber
1 878, of the following home and foreign liabilities : —
Internal Debt —
Capital
Interest
Pesos
Pesos
1 3 per cent, debt of I860 .
.
3,150,775
94,523
! 8 „ „_ _ „ .
2,323,000
196.784
16 ,, Meigg's loan .
1,472,000
93,840
6 „ Garland ., .
1.288,000
78,540
3 and 6 per cent, loans, various dates
Total internal debt . -f
Foreign Debt — *-
8,682,247
345,219
16,916,022
£3,383,204
808,906
£161,781
1 3 ner cent, loan of 1842 .
1,704,000
54,360 1
■if „ „ 1858 .
6,122,000
275.535
7' „ ., 1866 .
4,785,000
346,220
6 „ „ 1867 .
8.872,500
547,500
0 ., Eailway loan of 1870
4,797,500
245,400
5 „ „ „ 1873
10,700,000
749,000
5 „ „ „ 1875
Total foreign debt
Total debt
{
9,500,000
610,000
46,481,000
£9,296,200
2,828,015 i
£565,603
63,397,022
3,636.921 j
^
£12,679,404
£727,384 1
To the internal debt of Chili there was added, in May 1879, a
'forced war loan' of 6,000,000 pesos, or 1,200,000/., and .subse-
(juently there were large issues of paper money, of unknown amount,
to defray expenditure tor the army.
The whole of the foreign loans of Chili were contracted in Eng-
land, the loans of 1842 and 1858 through the house of Baring
Brothers, and the loans of 1866 and 1867 through the house of
jMorgan & Co. The railway loan of 1870, was contracted at the
price of 83 ; that of 1873, at the price of 94, and that of 1875, at
the price of 88^ per cent. The whole of these three loans are to be
redeemed at par by a sinking fnnd of 2 per cent. ; but the payments
on account of this fund were suspended on the 1st of May, 1879,
after the outbreak of a war Avith Bolivia and Peru.
Army and Navy.
The army of Chili, raised by conscription, supplemented by volun-
tary enlistment, was reported to number 3,200 men at the end of
September 1878, the forces comprising 2,000 infantry, and 1,200
cavalry and artillery. A law passed in 1875 fixed the total strength at
524 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881,
0,573 men. On the outbreak of hostilities with the allied republics
of Bolivia and Peru, in the .spring of 1879, the total number of men
under arms was raised to 22,000.
The navy of Chili consisted, at the end of September 1879, of ten
small steamers, of from 120 to 300 horse-power, and two lai-ge and
poAverful ironclads, called * Almirante Cochrane' and 'Valparaiso.'
The two ironclads arc sister ships, of the same design and dimen-
sions, and were constructed at Earl's Shipbuilding Company's works,
Hull, England, after the designs of Mr. E. J. Reed, former chief
constructor to the British Admiralty, the ' Almirante Cochrane ' being
launched in 1874, and the 'Blanco Encalada' in 1875. Each
of these ironclads is 210 feet long, and 45 feet in breadth, of
2,200 tons measurement, and of 2,500 hoi-se-power. Each ship is
protected throughout its Avhole length in the neighbourhood of
the water-line by a stout belt of armour and teak backing 8 feet
Avidc. The armour-plates are 9 inches thick at the water-line.
The battery is amidships, and it is armed with six 12^ ton rifled
guns. The teak backing is of an average thickness of 10 inches,
and the whole of the armour and backing is fastened to a double
thickness of skin plating, supported by massive angle iron frames
on the inside, and longitudinal angle iron girders on the outside,
which are combined with the teak backing and give a further sup-
port to the armour. The range of fire in both the ' Almirante Coch-
rane ' and the ' Blanco Encalada ' is peculiar, for, although they
have the same appearance as ordinary broadside ships, they are able
with the three guns on each side to fire over all the points of the
compass. This advantage was obtained by placing each of the fore
and aft guns at the corners of the battery, and recessing the side of
the ship so as to enable the foremost guns to fire right forward and
in a line with the keel, and in like manner the aft guns fire right
titt. The corners of the batteries are made of an octagonal shape, so
that the same guns Avhich fire right forAvard and aft can be brought
into the broadside position and command any angle between that
and the line of the keel. The midshij:) guns on each side are made to
fire on the broadside, and also to support the fire of the forward
guns. A third ironclad was captured in the war against Peru, the
turret shij:* ' Huascar ' (see page 562), during the naval engagement
in the Bay of Mejillones, fought October 8, 1879.
Area and Population.
The area of t-he republic is estimated to embrace 132, GOG English
square miles, with a popiilation niunbering 2,0G8,447 souls in 187o.
The republic is divided into sixteen provinces, of the following
area and population, according to the returns of the last census
taken April 19, 1875 : —
CHILI.
525
rrovinces
Area : English
Population
square miles
187.5
Chiloe
2.400
64,536
Llanquihue
.
8.108
48,492
Valdivia
.
10,039
37,481
Arauco
13,714
140,896
Concepcion
3,861
151,365
Nuble .
.
4,247
136,880
Maule .
~l
4 285
r 118,457
Linares
i
X 118,880
Talca .
3,185
110,359
Curico .
2,947
92,110
Colchagua
3,516
146,889
Santiago
9,272
362,712
Valparaiso
1,426
176,682
Aconcagua
5.374
132,799
Coqnimbo
19,112
157,463
Atacania
41,120
72,446
Total
•
132,606
2,068,447
Not iuchided in the above table are three new provinces, or
settlements, formed subsequently to the census, by a law of October
13, 1875. They are the province of Biobio, the territory cf Angol,
and the settlement of Arauco. The number of inhabitants of these
districts is returned at 215,121, bringing the total population of
Cliili up to 2,283,508. The land of the Araucanians, a vast dis-
trict on tlie southern frontier, claimed 1jy the republic, is calculated
to embrace 120,000 Eng. square miles, within Avhich live about
70,000 inhabitants.
The two largest towns of Chili are Santiago, the capital, and
Valparaiso, its port; the first of which had 129,807, and the second
97,775 inhabitants at the census of 1875.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign trade of Chili increased but very little in recent
years. The total value of the imports in 1877 was 29,212,764
pesos, or 5,842,553/., while that of the exports in 1877 was
29,717,372 dollars, or 5,943,474/. Trade is carried on mainly with
Great Britain, -while France stands next in the list, followed by
Germany, the United States, and Peru.
The commercial intercourse between Chili and the United Kino--
dom is shoAvn in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
yalue of the total exports to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Chili, in each of the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
526
THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Years
Exports from Chili
to
Great Britain
Imports of
British iiome Produce
into Cliili
IS 75
1S76
1877
1878
1879
£
4,196,096
3,584.598
3,279,808
2,199,355
3,738,158
£
2,207,418
1,945,791
1,501,400
1,190,893
950,286
The staple article of export from Chili to the United Kingdom
is copper. In the year 1879 the value of the total exports of copper
to Great Britain amounted to 2,400,027/. Of this total, the copper
ore was valued at 8,355/., regulus at 417,305/., and uuAvrought or
partly wrought copper at 1,974,367/. Next to copper, the most im-
portant articles exported to Great Britain are silver ore, of the value
of 91,220/. ; and wool of the value of 110,308/., in the year 1879.
The principal articles of British produce imported into Chili are
cotton and Avoollcn manufactures and iron. In 1879, the total imports
of cotton fabrics -were of the value of 415,502/. ; of woollens,
60,573/.; and of iron, wrought and vuiwrought, 90,593/.
The commercial navy of Chili consisted, end of Sejitember 1878,
of 87 vessels, of 22,434 tons, including 22 steamei's, of 9,641 tons.
Chili was among the first States in South America in the construc-
tion of railways. At the end of Jixne 1878, the total length of lines
open for traffic was 977 English miles, while 209 miles more were in
course of construction.
The post-office carried 6,632,110 letters, 693,850 parcels, and
8,639,563 newspapers in the year 1878. There were 335 post-
offices open at the end of the year. The postal revenue was 297,860
pesos, or 59,572/., and the expenditure 24(>,940 pesos, or 49,388/.
in the year 1878,
The length of telegraph lines was reported, at tlie end of
1878, at 2,650 miles, the whole of them, with the exception of a
short line from Santiago to Valparaiso, belonging to the state. The
number of telegraph offices at the same date was 89, of Avhich 7-'>
belonged to the state. In the year 1878 the telegraph carried
138,180 messages.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Chili in Gkeat Britaix.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Alberto Blest-Gana, accroditrd ^larcli 6, 1868.
Secretaries. — Carlos Mori a Vicuna; Carlos Zaiiartu.
2. Of Great Britain in Chilt.
Minister and Consitl- General. — Hon. Fx'anci.s John Pakenhara, formerly
Secretary of Legation in Denmark ; appointed Minister March 8, 1878.
CHILI. 527
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Chili are : —
MOXEY.
The Pesos, or Dollar = 100 Centavos , Average rate of exchange, is.
Weights axd Me-Ysihes.
The Ommcc. . . . . = 1-014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra = 1-014 lb.
„ Quintal . . . . = 101-44 „
„ Vara = 0-927 yard.
„ Square Vara . . . = 0-859 square yard.
The metric system of France has been legally established in Chili,
but the Old "weights and measures are still in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chili.
1. Official Publications.
Anuario Estadistico. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1880.
Estadistiea comereial de la Kcpublica de Cliile. 8. Valparaiso, 1880.
]\Iemoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento del Interior presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1880. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1880.
Quinto Censo general de la poblacion de Cliile, levantado el 19 de Abril de
1875. 4. Valparaiso, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Horace Rumbold, British ^Minister, on the progi-ess and
general condition of Chili, dated Santiago de Chile. Decenil ler 187u ; in • Eeports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Legation.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consid Drummond-Hay on the tinancial position of Chili,
dated Valparaiso, August 11, 1876; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I.
1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Grierson on the trade of Coquimbo ; and by Mr.
Consul Drummond-Hay on the trade and commerce of Valparaiso and of
Chili, dated Jan.-March 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consids.' Part IV.
1876. 8. London. 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Grierson on the commerce of Coquimbo, dated June.
1877 ; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877-
Trade of Chili with Great. Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Asia-Biiruaga (Francisco S.), Diccionario geografico de la Eepiiblica de
Chile. 8. New York, 1868.
Fonck (Dr. Fr.), Chile in der Gegenwart. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Lines (G. Eose). The progress and actual condition of Chile. 8. London, 1875.
Menadier (J.), Estadistiea comereial comparativa de la Eepiiblica de Chile. 4.
Valparaiso, 1873.
Pissis (A.), Geografia Fisica de la Eep. de Chili. 8. Paris, 1875.
Rosales (E. P. Diego de), Historia General de cl Eeyno de Chile. 3 vols.
S. Valparais , 1877-78.
Wappdus (Prof. J. C), Die Eepubliken von Siid-Amerika, geographisch
and statistisch, 8. Gottingen, 1866.
528
COLOMBIA.
(ESTADOS UnIDOS DE COLOMBIA.)
Constitution and Government.
The federative republic of Colombia, officially styled the United
States of Colombia, was formed by the Convention of Bogota, con-
cluded Sept. 20, 18G1, by the representatives of nine states previously
apart of New Granada. A constitution, bearing date May 8, 18G3,
vests the executive authority in a president elected I'or two years,
while the legislative j^ower rests with a Congress of two Houses,
called the Senate and the House of Eepresentatives. The Senate,
numbering 27 membei-s, is composed of representatives of the nine
states, each deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives,
numbering GG members, is elected by imiversal suffrage, each state
forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000
inhabitants, and a second for every additional 20,000. Besides the
central government thus created, each of the nine states has its own
legislature and chief executive officer, the latter called Governor in
all except Panama, which gives him the title of President.
The President of Colombia has at his side a Vice-President,
acting as chairman of the Senate, and his executive functions must
be exercised through four ministers, or secretaries, responsible to
Congress. His biennial term of office begins on the 1st of April,
ending the last of March.
President of the Repiihlic. — General li. Nunez^ electcxl for the
biennial term commencing April 1, 1880.
The first head of the executive government of Colombia, after
its establishment as a federative republic, was General Thomas
Mosquera, Avho acted as Dictator from Sept. 20, 1861, till the pro-
clamation of the constitution of 18 Go, luider which Don Manuel
Murillo Toro Avas elected President for two years, commencing April
1, 18G4. General INIosquera was chosen his successor, but before
his term of office had expired he came into conffict with the Con-
gress of the republic, and on the 23rd of May was deposed and
imprisoned, his place being filled provisionally by the Vice-Presi-
dent, General Santos Gutierrez, who was subsequently elected Presi-
dent for the next term. From 1872 to 1875 the Executive under-
went constant changes in consequence of uninterrupted civil
warfare.
Seat of the central government is the federal city of Bogota.
COLOMBIA.
529
Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.
Tlie revenue of the central government for the financial year
ending the 31st of August 1876, amounted to 3,749,480 pesos, or
769,897/., and the expenditure to 2,858,532 pesos, or 571,706/.,
leaving a surplus of 890,953 pesos, or 178,190/. The following
table gives the estimated sources of revenue and branches of expen-
diture for the financial year ending August 31, 1878 : —
Eeceipts 1877-78.
Pesos.
Expenditure 1877-78.
Pesos.
Customs .
3,000,000
Home Department .
240,023
Mint
12,000
Justice
27,832
, Post Office
60,000
Foreign Affairs
63,700
Telegraphs
40,000
Public instruction
331,120
i National property
50,000
Pensions .
116,220
i Panama railway
250,000
Army
1,138,160
' Salt mines
1,280,000
Finance .
1,150,430
Church property
6,800
Public "Works
2,179,300
Miscellaneous .
10,000
Post Office
433,986
1 Sabanilla railway
100,000
National Debt
1,372,994
Miscellaneous .
30,000
Treasury .
Church
76,034
6,633
i
; Total
Miscellaneous
133,500
4,838,800
Total
7,269,932
i
£967,760
£1,453,986
The public debt was reported to amount to 53,085,644 pesos, or
10,617,129/., at the end of 1877, three-fourths of which sum was
due to British creditors, Avho hold as security on mortgage the
chief .source of revenue of the republic, that derived from the
customs. The interior debt was estimated to amount to 20,500,000
pesos, or 4,100,000/. at the end of 1877.
The federal army, by the terms of the constitution, is to number
2,000 men on the peace-footing. In case of war, each of the states
is bound to furnish a contingent of one per cent, of the population,
raising the total strength of the army to about 27,000 men.
Area and Population.
The area ol the republic is estimated to embrace 504,773 English
square miles, of which 330,756 square miles are north of the equator,
and the remainder south of the equator. According to a rough
enumeration taken in 1871, the population at that date waa
2,913,343, divided as follows, between the nine states of the
Confederacy : —
M M
530
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
States
Area : English
square miles
Population
Antioquia
Bolivar
Boyaca .
Cauca .
Cundinamarca
Magdalena .
Panama
Santander
Tjlima .
22,316
21,345
33,351
257,462
79,810
24,440
31.571
16,409
18,069
504,773
365,974
247,100
482,874
435,078
409,602
85,255
220,542
425,427
230,891
Total
2,902,743
The most important of the nine states of Colombia, the state of
Panama, comprises the whole isthmus of that name, known histori-
cally as the Isthmus of Darien. The extreme length of the state
from east to west is about 300 geographical miles, but the sinuosities
of the coast give about 400 miles on the Atlantic and 600 on the
Pacific Ocean. In the year 1809 a treaty was concluded between
the government of the Eepublic and that of the United States of
America, which gave to the latter the exclusive right to construct
an inter-oceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien, at any point
which may be selected by the United State,--.
Trade and Commerce.
The total imports and total exports were as luilows in eaeli ol'the
two years 1875 and 1876 : —
Years
Imports 1
Exports
1875
1876
Pesos j & 1
0,949,028 ' 1,389.805 i
7,328,928 1,465,785
Pesos :C
9.984,386 1,996,877
14,477,897 1 2,895,579
The foreign trade of Colombia is mainly with Great Britain and
the United States. Far more important than the direct commerce
is the transit trade, passing through the two ports of Panama and of
Colon, or Aspinwall, which, united l)y railway, connect the Atlantic-
■with the Pacific Ocean. The transit trade across the Isthmus of
Panama is of the estimated value of 17,000,000/. per annum, about
two-thirds representing the trade from the Pacific to the Atlantic,
and one-third that in the opposite direction.
The following table gives the total value of the exports sent iroin
Colombia to Great Britain, and of the imports of British Iinme
produce entered into Colombia, in each of the five years from
1875 to 1879 : —
COLOMBIA.
531
Exports from
Imports of British
Years
Colombia
Home Produce into
to Great Britain
Colombia
£
&
187.5
962,205
919.143
187G
681,913
783,183
1877
472,021
912,110
1878
932,936
1,031,952
1879
926,114
882.190
Of the exports from Colombia to Great Britain the most impoitaut
articles in 1879 were Peruvian bark, of the value of374,144Z.,
raw cotton, of the value of 255,16GZ., and coffee, of the vahie
of 82,024/. At the head of the articles of British home produce
imported into Colombia in 1879 were manuflictured cotton goods,
of the value of 56G,7oO/. The other principal articles imported
from Great Britain in 1879 were linen manufactures, of the value of
60,988L ; and Avoollens, of the value of 55,410/.
At the end of June 1878, the republic had railways of a total
length of 66 Engl, miles, the principal line, 47 miles in length, tra-
versing the Isthmus of Panama, from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Ocean.
The Post-office of Colombia carried 418,560 letters and 731,500
newspapers in the year 1876.
There were 1,378 miles of telegraphs at the end of 1876. The
number of despatches was 97,325 in the year 1876.
Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.
1. Of Colombia ix Geeat Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — General S. Camargo.
Secretary. — A. Gutierrez.
2. Of Geeat Bbitain in Colombia.
Minister and Consul- General. — Lieut.-Coloncl Charles Edward Mansfield;
Consiil-General at Warsaw, 1865-76 ; Diplomatic Agent and Consiil-General
for Koumania, 1876-78 ; appointed Minister, May 12, 1878.
Secretanj. — C. O'Leary, V.C.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Colombia, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Peso, or doUar, of 10 reals: approximate value, 4.~-.
The currency is almost entirely imported, the gold coins consisting
of doubloons of Spain, equal to 16 dollars, of British sovereigns,
condors, and half condors, and the silver of pesos, reals, half reals,
and quarter reals. There are no home-struck copper coins. In
2! M i^
?J-^
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
foreign mercantile transactions, tlie French five-franc piece, equal
to one peso, is most generally in use.
Weights akd Measures.
The metric system of France was introduced into the republic in
1857, and the only weights and measures recognised by the
Government are the French. In custom-house business the
kilo"-ramme, equal to 2,205 pounds avoirdupois, is the standard.
In ordinary commerce, the arroba, of 25 pounds, the quintal, of
100 pounds, and the carga, of 250 pounds, are generally used.
The Colombian libra is equal to 1-102 pounds avoirdupois. As
regards measures of length, the English yard is mostly employed,
but in liquid measure the French litre is the legal standard.
Statistical and other Books of Beference concerning Colombia.
1. Officiai. Publicatioxs.
Eeport by Mr. Robert Bunch, Britisli Minister Eesident, on the trade, popu-
lation, and general condition of the United States of Colombia, dated Bogota,
April 8. 1875 ; in ' Reports of II.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part IV. 1875. London, 187o.
Report by Mr. O'Leary, Secretary of Legation, on the finances, trade, and
navigation of the United States of Colombia, dated Bogota, September 1877 ;
in ' Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1 878.
8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. Crompton, acting-Consul, on the condition of British trade
in the district of Panama, dated Panama, January 1, 1875 ; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IL 187o. 8. London, 1875.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Treifry, on mining industry in the State of
Tolima ; and by Mr. Vice Consul White on the gold mines of the State of
Antioquia, dated March 10-30. 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Mallet on the trade and commerce of Panama, dated
March 31, 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8.
London, 1877-
Trade of Colombia with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1870.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Hall (Col. F.), Columbia ; its Present State in respect of Climate, Soil, ^c.
8. Philadelphia. 1871.
Hassaurek (F.), Four Y^ars among Spanish Americans. 12. New York,
1867.
3/«;t (N.), Reise nach Centi-alamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Mosqvera (General), Compendio de geografia general, politica, fisica yspecia
dos Statos Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.
P'jM'/cs (J.), New Granada: its internal resources. 8. London, 1863.
Samper (M.), Ensayo sobre las revoluciones politicas y la eondicion de las
republicas Colombianas. 8. Paris, 1861.
Zrlfncr (A dc), La ville et le port de Panama. S. Paris, 18(38.
533
COSTA RICA.
(RepiJblica de Costa Eica.)
Constitution and Government.
Thi: republic of Costa Rica, an independent state since the year
1821, and forming part from 1824 to 1839 of the Confederation of
Central America, is governed under a constitution bearing date
December 22, 1871. By its tenns the legislative power is vested
in a congress of one chamber, called the Congreso Constitucional,
chosen in electoral assemblies, the members of which are returned
by universal suffrage. The members of tlie Congreso Constitucional
are elected for the term of four years, one half retiring every two
years. The executive authority is in the hands of a President,
elected in the same manner as the Congress for the term of four
years. He is assisted in his functions by two Vice-Presidents,
elected annually in May, for the term of one year, by the Congress.
President oj the Re-public. — Tomas Guardi;i, elected ^ro tempore
August 1878.
There have been constant changes in the executive in recent
years, owing to civil wars and insurrections, which did not allow
many Presidents to serve the i'ull term of office.
The administration is carried on, under the President, by lour
ministers, viz., of the Interior and Justice ; of Public Instruction and
Foreign Affairs; of Finance and Commerce; and of Public Works.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
Ihc actual public revenue of Costa Kica for the year ending
April 30, 1875, amounted, according to government returns, to
2,588,027 dollars, or 517,605/., and the expenditure to 2,781,106
dollars, or 556,221Z., leaving a deficit of 193,079 dollars, or 38,616/.
In the budget estimates for the year ending April 1877, voted by
Congress, the revenue was estimated at 2,379,432 dollars, or
475,886/., and the expenditure at 2,512,972 dollars, or 502,594/.
The revenue is drawn mainly from three sources, namely cus-
toms, the spirit monopoly, and the tobacco monopoly, the first of
which was estimated to produce 731,540 dollars, or 146,308/., the
second 740,412 dollars, or 148,082/., and the third 376,155 dollars,
or 75,231/., in the financial year ending April 30, 1877.
Costa Rica has no internal debt. The foreign debt of the republic
consists of a six per cent, loan, of the nominal amount of 1,000,000/.,
contracted in* England in 1871, and a seven per cent, loan, of the
nominal amount of 2,400,000/. — issued at 82— contracted in 1872.
53i
THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The government of the republic ceased payment, both of interest
and sinking fmid, vipon the first loan in 1872, and as regards the
second loan, the Parliamentary Committee on Foreign Loans re-
ported in 1875 that ' except the sums retained in England out of
the proceeds, the bondholders never received anything whatever in
respect of the principal or interest of the debt.'
The area of the repiiblic is calculated to embrace 26,040 English
square miles, including some disputed territories on the northern
frontier. There exist only vague estimates as regards the population,
calculated to number i'rom 180,000 to 190,000 souls, but stated at
tvirice the amount in government returns. Nearly one-third of the
inhabitants are aborigines, or ' Indians.' The population of European
descent, many of them pure Spanish blood, dwell mostly in a small
district on the Rio Grande, around the capital, the city of San Jose.
The following table gives the estimated value, in pounds sterling,
of the total exports and the total imports of Costa Rica in each of the
five years from 1874 to 1878 : —
Years.
Exports.
Imports. 1
.-e
A 1
1874
912,800
570,000
1875
911,210
572,300 j
1876
1,061,482
623,510
1877
1,001,481
610,162
1878
681,891
521,740
The exports consist almost exclusively of coffee, the quantity ex-
ported in the year 1878 amounting to 5,519,080 pounds, valued at
3,409,455 dollars, or 681,891?. In the year 1876, the exports of
coffee amounted to 24,163,500 pounds, of an estimated value of
4,073,420 dollars, or 934,685Z.
Tlie commercial intercourse of Costa Rica is chiefly with the
United Kingdom, but it is not reported on in the ' Annual State-
ment ' published by the Board of Trade, which throws the statistics
of the republic together with other states, under the general head-
ing of ' Central America.' For the value of the imports and exports
thus given, see Guatemala, page 541.
A line of railway, from Alajuela to Limon, 114 miles in length,
destined to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, was in progress
in Costa Rica during the year 1879. The first portion of the line,
between Alajuela and Cartago, 42 miles long, Avas opened for
traffic in INIarch 1873, but the Avorks came to a standstill from 1874
to 1879, owing to want of funds.
At the end of June 1879, there were telegraph lines of a total length
of 320 kilometres, or 200 English miles, with 10 telegraph offices.
COSTA RICA. 535
Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.
1. Of Costa Eica. in Great Britain.
Charr/e d' Affaires. — Don Manuel M. Peralta, accredited February 5, 1876.
Consul •General. — John A. Le Lacheur.
2. Of Ghjiat Britain ix Costa Eica.
Minuter and Consul- Gcjieral. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and meastires of Costa Eica, and the British
eqtiivalents, are : —
Money.
Tlie Dollar, of 100 Centavas . . approximate value, 4s.
Weights and Measures.
The Libra . . . . = 1'014 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Quvital , . . . = 101-4()
,, Arroha . . . . = 2o'3o „
,, Fanega . . . . = li Imperial bushel.
The old -weights and measures of Spain are in general tise, but
tlie iutrodtiction of the French metric system is contemplated.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publications.
Informe presentado por el secretario de estado eu los despachos de hacienda
y commercio al Congreso constitucional. 4. San Jose, 1879.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Meugens on the trade and commerce of Costa Eica for
the vear 1878, dated San Jose, February 13, 1879 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Central America with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement
<_if the Trade of the United Kingdom w-ith Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Belli/ (Felix), A travers rAmerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1872.
Boi/te (Frederick), Eide across a Continent : a personal narrative of Wander-
ings tlirough Nicaragua and Costa Eica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Frohcl (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
J/r«v (N.), Eeise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans I'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Peralta (Manuel M.), La Eepublique de Costa Eica. In ' Le Globe, joiu-nal
de geographic.' 8. Geneve, 1871.
Feredta (Manuel M.), Costa Eica; its climate, constitution and resources.
AVith a survey of its present financial position 8. London, 1873.
Sclierzer (Karl, Eitter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
Frcistaaten. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Sclierzer (Karl, Eitter von). Statistisch-commerziclle Ergebnisse einer Eeise
um die Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.
Wagner (Moritz), Die Eepublik Costa Eica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig,
1856."'
536
ECUADOR.
(Rep6blica del Ecuador.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Ecuador Avas constituted May 11, 1830, in con-
sequence of a civil war ■which separated the members of the Central
American Free- state Ibunded by Simon Bolivar on the ruins of the
Spanish colony and kingdom of New Granada. By its constitution,
dating March 31, 1843, the executive is vested in a President,
elected for the term of four years, while the legislative power is
given to a Congress of two Houses, the first consisting of 18 senators
and the second of 30 depmties, both elected by universal suffrage.
The Congress has to assemble on the 15th September of every year
at Quito, the capital and seat of the government, Avithoiit being
summoned by tlie government. The nomination of the President
takes place, in an indirect manner, by 900 electors, returned by the
people for the purpose. The electors appoint, together with the
head of the executive, a Vice-President, who, in certain cases, may
be called upon by Congress to succeed him before his term of
office has come to an end. The Vice-President also fills the func-
tions of Minister of the Interior.
President of the liepuhllc. — Don Jose de Vcintemilht, elected
President September 8, 187G; appointed Dictator, for an unlimited
j)eriod, by a Convention, July 10, 1878.
The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of three
ministers who, together with himself and the Vice-President, are
responsible, individually and collectively, to the Congress. There
is no power of veto Avith the President, nor can he dissolve, shorten,
or prorogue the sittings of Congress. By the terms of the consti-
tution no citizen can enjoy titular or other distinctions, nor are
hereditary rights or privileges of rank and race allowed to exist
within the territory of the republic.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The public revenue in the year 1870 was reported to have
amounted to 331,000/.; and the expenditvire to 480,000/. About
one-half of the revenue is derived from customs duties on imports
at the port of .Guayaquil, which produced 1,174,058 dollars
currency, or 1(57,723/. in 1876. At the commencement of 1877 the
liabilities of the republic amounted, according to returns of that date,
to 3,274,000/., made up of a foreign debt of 1,824,000/., contracted
in England in 1855, and internal liabilities amounting to 1,450,000/.
ECUADOR.
537
The standing army is reported to number 1,200 men, while the
navy consisted in 18713 of three small steamers.
The following table gives the estimated area and population of each
of the ten provinces according to official returns of the year 1875 : —
Provinces ^"'^ ^ E"g|'s^
square miles
Population
Chimborazo | 5,544
110,860
Los E,ios
. 1 11,310
61,922
Esmeraldas .
7,439
8,000 •.
Guayas .
. : 11.502
87,427
Imbabura
11,623
77,379
Leon and Azuay
7,378
225,243
Loja .
10,320
60,784
Manavi .
. i 5,761
59,098
Oriente
168,460
73,143
Pichincha
9,035
102,281
Indians, unsettled
—
200,000
Total
248,372
1,066,137
Not included in the above statement are the Galapagos, or Tor-
toise Islands, with an area of 2,950 English square miles, but nearly
deserted, which belong to Ecuador.
The capital of the republic, Quito, has an estimated population
of 80,000.
The foreign commerce of Ecuador is mainly with the United
Kingdom, and centres in Guayaquil. The total value of the exports
of Ecuador to Great Britain, and of the imports of British produce
into Ecuador, was as follows in the five years 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Ecuador
to Great Britain
Imports of Britisli
Home Produce into
Ecuador
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
233,980
244,517
185,791
299,784
523,172
130,205
225,273
251,875
200,111
281,985
The chief articles of export from Ecuador to Great Britain in the
year 1879 consisted of Peruvian bark of the value of 201,609/.,
and cocoa, of the value of 254,273/. Of the imports of British jjro-
duce into Ecuador, cotton goods, to the vahie of 191,701/., formed
the principal article in 1879.
53i> THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1, Of Ecuador in Great Britaix.
Minister. — General Salazar, accredited May 24, 1873.
Secretary. — William La'V'ino.
2. Of Great Britain ix Ecuador.
Minister and Consvl- General. — Frederic Douglas-Hamilton, appointed
December 12, 1S72.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The chief coin is the dolhir, also called piaster, of the apjn'oxi-
mate value of 4s. ; but the money in circulation is chiefly that of
France, Great Britain, and the United States. By a law of
December 6, 1856, the Frencli metrical system of weights and
measures was made the legal standard of the rejsublic.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.
1. Offici.vl Publications.
Report by 'Slv. Yiee-Consiil Smith on the commerce of Ecuador, dated
Guayaquil, Feb. 18, 1871; in ' Commercial Eeports.' No. IV., 1871. 8.
London, 1871.
Report of Mr. Vice-Consul Smith on the commei'ce of Ecuador, dated
Guayaquil, April 18, 1872; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. III.
1872. 8. London, 1872.
Report hy Mr. Vice-Consul Smith on the trade and sliipping of Ecuador,
dated Guayaquil, Nov. 14, 1872 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I.
1873. 8. London, 1873.
Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Chambers on the trade and commerce of
Ecuador, dated Guayaquil, Feb. 17, 1877; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1877. 8. Loudon, 1877.
Trade of Ecuador with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Offici-u:- Publications.
Flcraminq (B.), Wanderungen in Ecuador. 8. Leipzig, 1872.
GerstUcJar (Fricdrich), Achtzehn Monate in Siid-Amerika. 3 A'ols. 8.
Leipzig, 18G3.
5c/m'aro;« (T.), Reise nmdie Erde. Vol. III. S. Braunschweig, 1861.
Ternciux-Cornpans (L.), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduite de I'espagnol.
(Velasco: Hi.storia del reino de Quito.) 2 toIs. 8. Paris, 1840.
ViUaviccncio (D.), Geografia de la Repiiblica del Ecuador. 8. New York,
1858.
Jf'fl^wer (Moritz Friedrich), Reisen in Ecuador; in 'Zeitschrift fiir allge-
meine Erdkunde.' Vol. XVI. Berlin, 1864.
539
GUATEMALA.
(EepiJblica de Guatemala.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Guatemahi, establislied on April 17, 1839,
after having formed part for eighteen years of the Confederation of
Central America, is governed under a constitution proclaimed
October 2, 1859. By its terms the legislative power is vested in a
Congress of two chambers, called the Council of State and the House
of Representatives, the first consistmg of 24 and the second of 52
members. Both chambers are elected for four years, the House of
Representatives by the people, and the Council of State by the
House. The executive is vested in a President, also elected for four
years. Since the year 1871, Avhen the priestly party was driven
from poAver, there have been repeated Presidential elections.
President of the Repuhlic. — General Rufino Barrios, elected
May 1874.
The administration is carried on, under tlie President, by the
Ijeads of four departments, of Foreign Affairs, of Interior and
Finance, of Public Works, and of War.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The public revenue in the year 1878 amounted, according to
official returns, to 4,50o,52o dollars, or 900,705/., and the total ex-
penditure to 4,428,298 dollars, or 885,659/., leaving a surplus of
75,225 dollars, or 15,046/. The sources of revenue and brandies
of expenditure Avere as follows in the year 1877 : —
Sowrces of Revenue I Dollars
Import Duties ........ 1,427,390
Export Duties 166,364
Spirit Licences. ....... 743,594
Tax on sugar-cane plantations ..... 55,265
Extraordinary and Miscellaneous Eeceipts . . 2,069,403
Surplus of 1876 41,507
Total Ilevenue . . 4,503,523
i £900,705
540 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Branches of Expenditure
Interest of public deLt
Army . .
Pensions . . . . .
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
,, Interior and Financ
,, Public Works
Public Instruction .
Miscellaneous expenses
Dollars
Total Expenditure
1,176,780
1,072,207
119,720
33,712
787,816
410,813
200,230
627,020
4.428,298
£885,659
The total debt of Guatemala on January 1, 1879, was returned at
4,303,227 dollars, or 872,645Z. The liabilities consist of the
remnant of an English loan contracted in 1828 ; of an English loan
of 500,000/., raised in 1869, of another loan contracted at the end
of 1876 ; and of several interior loans. There is besides a floating-
debt of unknown amount.
The army of Guatemala, the cost of which, as shown in the above
statement, is not far from one-fourth of the total public expenditure,
consi.sts, nominally, of 3,22.5 men, rank and file. There is, liesides,
a militia of 13,000 men.
The area of Guatemala is estimated at 41,830 English square
miles. According to a rough enumeration taken on January 31,
1872, there were at that date 1,190,754 inhabitants, of whom
360,008 of European descent, and 830,146 aborigines or ' Indians.'
Guatemala is administratively divided into seventeen provinces, of
which three, Escuintla, Solola, and Suchitepegtiez, are on the Pacific
ocean, one, Yzabal, borders tlie Atlantic, and the rest are inland.
Capital of the republic and seat of the government is Santiago de
Guatemala, or Guatemala la Nueva, with 45,000 inhabitants, a tenth
of them of European origin. The former capital, Santiago de Cabal-
leros, or Guatemala la Antigua, which had once a population of
60,000, was partly destroyed by fire and earthquakes in 1773, and
has now only 20,000 inhabitants.
The commercial intercour.se of Guatemala is chiefly with Great
Britain and the United States, the exports consisting of indigo,
cochineal, coffee, and various other articles of agricultural produce,
and the imports chiefly of textile fabrics. The estimated value of
the total exports was 3,773,185 dollars, or 754,637/., in 1877, and
was estimated at 4,000,000 dollars, or 800,000/., in 1878. The
total imports were of the estimated value of 2,750,000 dollars, or
550,000Z , in 1878. The foreign trade is almost entirely with Great
Britain and the United States.
The value of the commercial intercourse of the republic with the
GUATEMALA.
541
United Kingdom is not reported in the ' Annual Statement ' pub-
lished by the Board of Trade, which summarizes, under the heading
' Central America,' the commerce of the five states of Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador, with Great
Britain. The commercial intercourse of the whole of ' Central
America ' with the United Kingdom is shown in the following
table, Avhich gives the value of the exports from ' Central America '
to Great Britain, and that of the imports of British produce into
' Central America ' in each of the five years 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from Central America
to Great Britain
Imports of British Produce
into Central America
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
1,308,889
934,772
1,380,361
968,438
1,385,940
£
846,653
715,732
930,248
732,018
722,628
The principal articles exported from Central America to Great
Britain in the year 1879 were coffee, of the value of 1,147,975/., and
indigo, of the value of 139,844/. The staple article of British
pi'oduce imported into Central America consists of cotton manu-
factures, the value of these imports amounting to 475,280/. in 1879.
The Post-office carried 164,828 letters and 42,268 newspapers in
the year 1877. There are no railways, but a line of telegraphs
1,120 miles in length, with 45 offices, existed at the end of 1877.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Guatemala ix Gkeat Beitaix.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Crisanto Medina, accredited February 22, 1879
Consul-General. — Benjamin Isaac, accredited December 27, 1879.
2. Of Great Britain ix Guatemala.
Minister and Consid- General — Sidney Locock. appointed May 23, 1874.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of (^xuatemala, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Dollar or Piaster, of 100 Ccntavas . . approximate value, 45.
Weights and Measures.
The Libra = 1-014 lbs. avoirdupois.
., Quintal = 101-40
., Arroha .....— 25-35 ,,
„ Fanega = U imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use.
542 THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Guatemala.
1. Official Publications.
Mensage dirigido pur il exmo. Senor Presidents de la Eep. do Guatemala
a la camara de representantes. 4. Guatemala, 1879.
Eeport by JIi'. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d' Affaires, on the finaiiei;il
position of the Eopnblie of Guatemala, dated Guatemala, January 12, 1870;
in 'Eeportsby H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1871.
London, 1871.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Magee on the trade, manufactures, and navigation of
the Eepublic of Guatemala, dated November 4, 1873, in ' Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c., of their consular districts.'
Parti. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Eeport by Mr. Sidney Locock, British Charge d'Aftaires, on the imports
and exports of Guatemala in 1874, dated Guatemala, July 7, 187-J ; in
' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV. 187-0. 8.
London, 1875.
Tables of Imports and Exports of Guatemala; iu 'Statistical Tables relating
to Foreign Countries.' Part XII. Fol. London, 1878.
Trade of Central America with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom for the year 1879-' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baily (J.), Central America 8. London, 1850.
Bernouilli (Dr. Gustav), Briefe aus Guatemala. In Dr. A. Petcrmann's
'Mittheilungeu.' 4. Gotha, 1868-69.
■ Bir?iou//li (Dr. Gustav), Ecise in der Eepublic, Guatemala. In Dr. A. Petir-
mann's 'Mittheilungeu.' 4, Gotha, 1873.
Frobel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Lafcrrim (J.), De Paris a Guatemala, Notes de voyage au Centre- Amriiijue.
8. Paris. 1877.
Marr (Wilhelm), Eeise nach Central- America. 2 vols. 8. Hambm-g, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans I'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Schcrzer (Karl, Eitter von), Wanderungen dixrch die mittelamerikanisclieu
Freistaaten. 8. Braimschweig, 1857.
Squicr (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868. .
W'V^cit/iawi (J. W. Boddam), Across Central America. 8. London, 1877.
543
HAITI.
(Republique de Haiti.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Haiti, formerly a French colony, is governed
under a constitution proclaimed June 14, 1867. By its terms the
legislative power rests in a National Assembly, divided into two
chambers, respectively called the Senate and the House of
Commons. The latter is elected by the direct vote of all male
citizens for the term of three years, while the members of the
Senate are nominated for two years by the House of Commons from
a list presented by the electoral colleges. The executive power
is in the hands of a President, who, according to the Constitution,
must be elected by the people, but in recent years has generally
been chosen by the united Senate and House of Commons, sitting
in National Assembly, and in some instances by the troops, and
by delegates of parties acting as representatives of the people. The
nominal term of office of the President is four years ; however, it
is generally cut short by insurrections.
President of the Republic. — General Salomon, elected October 23,
1879, as successor to General Boisrond- Canal, president from 1876
to 1879.
The administration of the republic is carried on, under the
President, by fom- heads of departments.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The public revenue and expenditure are kno-\vn only by estimates,
long-continued civil war having brought extreme disorder into the
finances of the republic. It was reported that the receipts from
customs, chief source of revenue, amounted to 4,195,000 piastres,
or 839,000/., in the year 1877. The total pubhc revenue is
calculated to have amomited in recent years to about 900,000/., and
the expenditure to 1,400,000/.
There is a large floating debt, consisting chiefly of paper money
issued by successive governments, the greater mass enormously depre-
ciated by frequent repudiation, and by forgery on a vast scale. There
is also a foreign debt, consisting of a loan of 11,949,840 francs, or
477,994/., contracted at Paris in 1825, and of other liabilities
incurred towards France, the total amounting to 32,049,840 francs,
or 1,281,994/. No interest has for years been paid on this debt.
544
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Nevertheless, the govemment issued, in June 1875, with partial
success, a new foreign loan of 83,453,000 francs, or 3,338,120/.,
through the house of Marcuard & Co., Paris, the avowed object
being to extinguish the old debt, both home and foreign, and to
employ the remainder for the construction of two lines of railway.
The army, under a ' law of reorganisation ' passed by the National
Assembly in 1878, consists, nominally, of 6,828 men, chiefly infantry.
There is a special ' Guard of the Government,' numbering G50 men,
commanded by 10 generals, Avho also act as aides-de-camp to the
president of the republic.
The area of the republic, which embraces the western portion of
the Island of Haiti — the larger but less populated eastern division
forming the republic of San Domingo (see pp. 569-71) — is estimated
at 10,204 English square miles. A census of the population does
not exist ; the inhabitants, the moiety of whom are negroes and
the rest French-speaking mulattoes, with very few of European
descent, are calculated by the best authorities to number about
572,000, while official estimates give them at 800,000. Capital
of the republic is Port-au-Prince, with 22,000 inhabitants, situated
on a large bay, and possessed of an excellent harbour.
The commercial intercourse of the republic is chiefly with the
United States and Great Britain, the former contributing about 45
per cent, and the latter 40 per cent, to the aggregate imports and
exports. The total annual imports in the three years 1875 to 1877
averaged 1,180,000/., and the exports 1,300,000/. The principal
articles exported are coffee, mahogany, and logwood.
There is no report of the exact value of the commercial intercourse
of the republic with the United Kingdom in the 'Annual Statement,'
published by the Board of Trade, which throws Haiti together with
San Domingo. But as the population of the latter state is only
about one-fovu:th of that of Haiti, an estimate may be made of the
respective distribution of exports and imports during the five years
1875 to 1879, given in the following table : —
Years
Exports from Haiti and San Do-
mingo to the United Kingdom.
Imports of British Produce into
Haiti and San Domingo.
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
&
443,837
409,961
247,376
187,367
104,239
&
693,290
356,447
383,203
333,507
151,006
The chief articles of exports to the United Kingdom in 1879
were coffee, of the value of 22,373/., and cocoa, of the value
of 29,450/. In previous years, raw cotton Avas also exported in
HAITI. 545
considerable quantities, but the value of these exports sank from
76,786/. in 1872, to 25,493/. in 1873, to 17,224/. in 1874, and to
238/. in 1879. The staple article of British produce imported into
Haiti and San Domingo consists of cotton manufactures, valued at
100,496/. in 1879.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Haiti in Great Bkitaix.
Charge d' Affaires. — Charles Seguy Villevaleix, accredited May 1876.
2. Of Great Britain in Haiti.
Minister and Co«4-«/-Ge?jera/.— Major Robert Stuart, appointed Oct. 28, 187-1.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Haiti, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Piastre, or dollar. . . approximato value, 4s.
French gold and silver coins are in current use.
Weights and Measvees.
The weights and measures in use are those of France.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Haiti.
1. Official Pvblications.
Eeport hy Mr. Consul-Geueral St. -John on the commerce and shipping of
Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince, December 22, 1872 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Con-
suls on British Trade abroad.' Part I. 8. London, 1873.
Eeport by Major Robert Stuart, British Minister, on the commerce and
shipping of Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince, Feb. .5, 1876 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Pait IL 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Major Robert Stuart on the Island of Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince,
Februarys, 1877 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part n. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Major Robert Stuart on the commerce, industry, and finances of
Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince, April 1878 ; in -Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy a,nd Legation.' Part III. 1878. 8. London. 1878.
Trade of Hayti and San Domingo with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Ardouin (Beaubrun), Etudes sur Thistoire de Haiti. 10 vols. Paris, 1853-61.
Bonncau (Alex.), Haiti, ses progres, son avenir. 8. Paris, 1862.
Handelmann (J.), Geschichte von Haiti. 8. Kiel, 1856.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at
Hayti. 8. pp. 511. London, 1873.
Madioi!. (N.), Histoire de Haiti. 3 vols. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1847.
Aae< (K.), Hisloire des Caziques de Haiti. 8. Port-aii-Princo, 18/J5.
N N
546
HONDURAS.
(Rep6^blica del Honduras.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Honduras, established in 1839, on the dissolu-
tion of the Confederation of Central America, is governed under a
charter proclaimed in November 1865. It gives the legislative
power to a Congi-ess of two Houses, called the Senate and the
Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of seven members,
three of whom are elected annually, and the Chamber of Deputies
of fourteen members, one-half of whom are elected annually. The
executive authority rests with a President, elected for four years.
President of the Repuhlic. — Don Marco Aurelio Soto, elected
President May 29, 1877, as successor of Don Crecencio Gomez,
President from 1876 to 1877.
There have been no regular elections of Presidents in recent
years, and none served the full term of office. The predecessor of
Don Crecencio Gomez, Don Ponciano Leiva, succeeded Don Celeo
Arias, elected 1872, who fled from the capital and was driven from
power in February 1874, in consequence of an invasion of the
republic by the troops of San Salvador. The same troops deposed,
in a preceding invasion. May 1872, General IMedina, predecessor
of Don Celeo Arias, elected President in 1870.
The administration of the republic is carried on by a Council of
State, composed of two ministers, appointed by the President, one
senator elected by both Houses of Congress, and the Judge of the
Supreme Court.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The finances of the republic are in great disorder owing to
prolonged civil strife, aggravated in 1872 by wars with Guate-
mala and San Salvador, which continued, with short interruptions,
till the end of June 1876, when exhaustion on all sides brought
about a peace. Semi-official reports state the total public revenue in
recent years at 388,000 dollars, or 77,600/., about one-third derived
from customs duties, and another third from the government mono-
poly of sale of agviardiente, or native rum. The expenditm-e for
several years exceeded the revenue, and the deficits were covered by
loans.
iroNDUEAS. 547
The foreign debt of Honduras amovinted to a total of 5,990,108/.
at the end of 1876. It consists of three loans: the first contracted
at the London Stock Exchange in 1867, for the nominal amount of
1,000,000/. ; the second issued in London and Paris in 1868, for the
nominal amount of 2,490,108/. ; and the third, negotiated at the
London Stock Exchange in 1870, for the nominal amount of
2,500,000Z. The first and third loans were .at 10 per cent., and
issued at the price of 80, and the second loan was at 6 per cent.,
and issued at 75. All the loans were raised for the professed object of
constructing an interoceanic railway from Port Cortez, or Puerto
Caballos, on the Atlantic, to the Bay of Fonseca, on the Pacific,
232 miles in length. But only a short section of the line, on the
Atlantic side, 53 miles in length, was constructed in 1875, and then
lying abandoned — the contractors having received on account of
the works 689,745/., being but apart c^f the amount due — and there
was no further attempt at the time to open the railway. The in-
terest in aiTear on the three loans amounted, at the end of 1875, to
1,230,164/., bringing the total indebtedness, in respect to principal
and interest, to 7,220,272/. If paid, the interest and sinking fund
on the three loans would amount to an anniial charge of 695,700/.
on the pubhc revenue of Honduras — 130,000/. in respect of the first ;
240,700/. in respect of the second; and 325,000/. in respect of the
third loan — or more than seven times the estimated total receipts of
the government of the republic.
In May 1872 the government of Honduras issued at the London
Stock Exchange the prospectus of a ' ten per cent, ship railway loan '
of 15,000,000/., 'for the purpose of ada]3ting the present inter-
oceanic railway, now in course of construction, to a ship railway
across the republic of Honduras,' that is ' a railway capable of
conveying shij^s of large tonnage, witliout disturbing the cargo,
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to and fi-om Puerto
Caballos on the former, and the Bay of Fonseca on the latter.' The
loan was to be in 150,000 bonds of 100/. each, issued at the price
of 80, and repayable in fifteen years. It met with no subscribers.
The area of the republic, divided administratively into seven depart-
ments, is calculated to embrace 39,600 English square miles, with a
population of 250,000 souls, or nine inhabitants to the square mile.
Both area and population are only known through estimates, no
enimieration having as yet taken place. The bulk of the inhabitants
consists of aboriginal ' Indians,' and the sparse European-descended
population, mainly of Spanish origin, is in the small ports on the Pacific
coast and in the town of Santa Rosas, in the tobacco districts of
Gracias. Capital of the republic is the ancient town of Clomayafrua,
with 9,000 inhabitants, situated nearly in the centre of the state,
and chief station on the planned interoceanic railway.
548 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
The exports of Honduras consist chiefly of mahogany, hides,
tobacco, cattle, and indigo, the total value estimated at about
1,000,000 dollars, or 200,000/. per annum, while the imports com-
prise cotton goods, silks, and hardware. The resources of the
country are at j^resent wholly undeA'eloped. There are no official
returns of the value of either the imports or exports, owing partly
to the customs at the principal ports being farmed out to individuals
whose interest it is to conceal all facts concerning their revenue.
The commerce is mainly with Great Britain, but the value is not
given in the 'Annual Statement' of the Board of Trade,^ which
merges Honduras into ' Central America.' (See page 541.)
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of HoNDfRAS IN Gkeat Britain.
Consid-Gcncral. — G. Kattengcll, accredited April 24, 18G9.
2. Of Great Britain in Honduras.
Minister and Coi/st'l-Gcncml.— Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Honduras and the British
equivalents, are as follows: —
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 cents : approximate value, 45.
Weights and Measures.
iThe^..oi«(f«^-™ • • = 3| imperial gallons.
„ Square l^ara . . . = 1-09 vara = 1 yard.
„ Fanega . . . .=11 imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concernirg Honduras.
1. Official Publications.
Gaceta Official de Honduras. Comayagua, 1879.
Trade of Central America with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Frohel (Julius), Seven Years' Travel in Central America. 8. London, 1853.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 18C3.
PeUdier (Consul E.), Honduras et ses ports. Documents officiels sur le
chemin de fer interoceanique. 8. Paris, 1869.
7?«VAffrrf^ (M.), Cfntro-America. 8. Braunschweig, 1851.
Scherscr (Karl, Eitter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
I-'reistaaten Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
/SgM/cr (E. G.), Honduras: descriptive, historical, and statistical. 8. London,
187u.
549
MEXICO.
(RefOblka Mexicaxa.)
Constitution, and Government.
The present constitution of Mexico bears date February 5.
1857. By the terms of it Mexico is declared a federative republic,
divided into States— 19 at the outset, but at present 27 in num-
ber, with 2 territories — each of Avhich is permitted to manage its
own local affairs, while -the -whole are boimd together in one
body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers of
the supreme government are divided into three branches, the legisla-
tive, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power is vested in a
Congress consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate, and
the executive in a President. Representatives, elected by each state,
at the rate of one member for 80,000 inhabitants — 331 in 1879 —
hold their places for two years. The qualifications requisite are,
twenty-five years' age, and eight years' residence in the state. The
Senate consists of two members for each state, of at _ least thirty
years of age, Avho are elected by a plm-ality of votes in the State
Congress. The members of both Houses receive salaries of 2,000
dollars a year. The President and Vice-President are elected by
the Congress of the States, and hold office for fom- years. Congress
has to meet annually from January 1 to April 15, and a council of
Government, consisting of the Vice-President and half the Senate,
sits during the recesses.
President of the Eepublic— Genera] Gonzales; installed President
of the Republic, as successor of General Porfirio Diaz, December
1, 1880.
The President was installed in power in consequence o£ a revolution
which overthrew his predecessor, elected 1872, and re-elected 1876.
The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President, by a council of six ministers, heads of the departments
of Justice, Finance, the Interior, Army and Navy, Foreign Affairs,
and Public Works.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Tlie public revenue is derived to the extent of more than two-
tliirds from customs duties, laid both on exports and imports, while
nearly one-half of the total expenditure is for the maintenance of the
army. The finances of the state have been for many years in great
disorder, the expenditure exceeding constantly the revenue. The
following statement represents the accounts of actual revenue and
expenditure for the financial year ending June 30, 1875 : —
550
THE t<TATESMA>, S lEAU-EOOK, 1881.
Sources of Kkvenue.
Customs and harbour duties .
Taxes .
Stamps .
Sale of national lands
Post offices and mint
Miscellaneous receipts
Total revenue
Branches of Expenditure.
Congress and executive power
Supreme Court of Justice
r\[inistiy of the Interior
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of War .
Ministry of Foreign Affiiirs .
Justice and education .
Public Works
Dollars
11,567,582
2,805,691
2,531,220
362,565
926,154
513,825
/ 18,707,037
\ £3,741,407
Dollars
1,107,782
315,310
1,997,345
4,219,363
10,691,967
208,760
912,395
5,49Ji,8o3
S 24,949J75
I £4,985,955
Total expenditure
In the budget estimates for the financial year ending June oU,
1879, the total revenue Avas calculated at 10,128,807 dollars, or
3,225,761/., and the total expenditure at 22,108,046 dollars, or
4,421,G09Z., leaving a deficit of 5,979,239 doUars, or 1,195,848/.
There were deficits for the last twenty years.
The public debt of Mexico, both internal and external, was esti-
mated, in 1879, at 425,500,000 dollars, or 85,100,000/. But no
official I'eturns regarding it have been published since the reign of the
Emperor Maximilian I., in 1865, when the total debt was stated to
be 63,471,450/., bearing an annual interest of 3,945,094/. In the
subjoined statement an abstract is given of these returns bearing
date August 1, 1865 : —
Old English Throe per Cent. Loan, as per settlement
of 1851
Three per Cent. Stock created 1864, for settlement of
overdue coupons of old loan .....
Six per Cent. Anglo-French Loan of 1864
Six per Cent. Lottery Loan of 1865 ....
Interest £600,000, Lottery Prizes £120,000, Sinking
Fund £250,000
Six per Cent. Internal Mexican Debt, circa
Admitted Claims of Foreigners bearing interest at
6 per cent I 6,000,000
Amount due to Frencli Government for wnv expenses I
at 31st March, 1865 ! 13,000,000
Annual Payment to Franco on account of War Ex- 1
penses, as per Paris Convention of 186 1
Capital
10,241,650
4,864,800
12,365,000
10,000,000
7,000,000
Annual
interest
£
307,205
145,944
741,900
970,000
420,000
360,000
— 1,000,000
Total
63,471,450 3,945,049
MEXICO.
:>:>
The actual Government of the republic does not recognise any
portion of the above liabilities, except the Six per Cent. Internal
Mexican debt, the interest of which has not been paid for a great
number of years.
Area and Population.
The area of Mexico and number of inhabitants ax-e chiefly known
through estimates. The most reliable of these, based on partial
enumerations made by the Government of the republic in 1874,
state the area of Mexico to embrace a territory of 743,948
English square miles, with a total population of 9,343,470. The
following table, drawn up after a report published in the ' Diario
Oficial' of Mexico, June 7, 1875, gives the area and population of
each of the 27 states composing the republic, with addition of the
territory of Lower California, and the Federal district of Mexico, seat
of the central Government : —
state
Area: English
square miles
Population, 1873
States : — Aguascalientes .
2,895
89,715
Campeche
25,832
80,366
Chiapas ,
16,048
193,987
Chihuahua .
83,746
180,668
Coahuila
i 50,890
98,397
Colima .
1 3,743
65,827
Durango
42,510
185,077
Guanajuato .
11,411
900,000
Guerrero
24,550
320,069
Hidalgo
' 8,163
404,207
Jalisco .
39,168
966,689
3Iexico .
7,838
663,557
Michoacan
25,689
618,240
Morelos
1,776
150,384
Nuovo-Leon .
23,635
178,872
Oaxaca .
33,591
648,779
Puebla .
12,021
697,783
Queretaro
1 3,207
153,286
San Luis Potosi
27,500
460,322
; Sinaloa .
36,198
168,031
Sonora .
79,021
109,388
Tabasco .
11,851
83,707
Tamaulipas .
30,225
140,000
Tlaxcala
1,620
121,663 !
Vera Cruz
26,232
504,950
Yucatan
29,567
422,365
Zacatecas
1 22,998
397,945
Territories : — Lower Californif
61,562
23,195
Federal District of Mexico
461
315,996
Total
•
743,948
9,343,470
00
!;2
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881,
It is calculated that five millions, or rather more than one-half,
of the population of the republic of Mexico, are piu-e ' Indians,' the
rest comprising a mixture of various races, the white, or European-
descended inhabitants, numbering from about 500,000 souls. For-
merly existing distinctions of colour and race were abolished by the
constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all colours to the
equal enjoyment of civil and political rights.
Trade and Industry.
The total imports of Mexico in the year 1876 were of the
estimated value of 28,485,000 dollars, or 5,G97,000Z., and the value
of the exports 25,435,000 dollars, or 5,087,000/. The chief article
of export was silver, of the estimated value of 15,000,000 dollars,
or 3,000,000/, the remainder comprising copper ores, cochineal,
indiiro, hides, and mahogany and other woods. The staple imports
are cotton and linen manufactures, wrought iron, and machinery.
More than two-thirds of the total trade of Mexico is carried on with
the United States, and the remainder with France, Germany, and
Great Britain.
The subjoined tabidar statement shows the total value of the
exports from Mexico to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce intd Mexico, in each of the
ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Exports from Mexico
Imports of
Years
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Mexico
1
£
£
1870
299,813
910,882
1871
397,334
1.049,013
1872
443,524
843,180
1873
499,532
1,194,124
1871
546,651
1,124,613
1875
721,907
884,901
1876
602,132
502,224
1877
798,857
995,510
1878
507,082
773,331
1879
582,759
693,123
Tlie principal articles of export from Mexico to Great Britain in
the year 1879 were mahogany, of the value of 230,520/. ; and
unrefined sugar, of the value of 51,460/. Cotton manufactures,
of the value of 377,904/. ; linens, of the value of 48,301/., and
iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 81,637/., formed
the chief imports of the United Kingdom into Mexico in 1879.
MEXICO. 553
The formerly valuable silver mines of Mexico, neglected for a
long time, ivere partly reopened in 1864. The richest of all the
mines now Avorked are those of Eeal del Monte and Pachuca, situated
about sixty miles from the city of Mexico, and belonging to an
Anglo-Mexican company. The total exports of silver ore from
Mexico to the United Kingdom amounted in value to 80/. in 1869,
to 3,340/. in 1870, to 29,774/. in 1871, to 25,643/. in 1872, to
16,019/. in 1873, to 2,254/. in 1874, to 7,919/. in 1875, to 14,572/.
in 1876, to 14,538/. iii 1877, and to 5,066/. in 1878.
Mexico had 372 miles of railway open foi- traffic at the end of
June 1879. The principal line, called the 'National Mexican,' 300
miles long, from Vera CrTiz to the city of Mexico, with branch to
Puebla, was conmienced, under state aid, in 1864, and completed
in 1869. There were 410 miles of railway under construction at the
end of June 1879, the new lines including an Inter-Oceanic railway
across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, between the mouth of the Coaza-
coalco and the Upper Lagoon on the Pacific side. This line will be
60 miles long, and will take three years to complete, to be opened
at the end of 1882.
The total length of telegraph lines, at the end of June 1879, was
7,310 English miles. There were, at the same date, 252 telegraph
offices, of Avhich number 83 belonged to private companies, and 169
to the state.
The post-office carried 1,900,000 letters in the year 1876-77. At
the end of June 1879 there were 768 post ofHces in the republic.
Diplomatic aud Consular Representatives.
Mexico has no representatives in Great Britain, and the only representatives
of Great Britain in Mexico are commercial agents at some of the outports.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Mexico and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
Tlie DoUar, of 100 cents: approximate value, 4s.
Weights A^^) Measures.
rp, . , fforwine . . = 3.^ imperial gallons.
The Arroba ■{ ., oa
l^ „ oil . . = ^4 „ "
„ Sqt'.are Vara . . . = 1-09 vara_ = 1 yard.
„ Fancga . . . . = H imperial bushel.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.
1. Official Publications.
Anales del Miuesterio de fomento, colonizacion, industria y comercio. 8.
Mexico, 1870-79.
554 '^^lE statesman's YEAK-EOOK, 1881.
Bolethi del ministerio do fomento de l;i Eepublica INIoxicana. Fol. Mexico,
1870.
Comercio exterior de Mexico. Fol. Mexico. 1879.
Memoria del Secretario del despacho de hacienda. Fol. Mexico, 1879.
Eeport by Mr. K. T. C. Middlelon, II.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the
trade, indiistry, fmauces, and population of the Mexican Empire, dated
Autnist 12, 1865; in ' Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XI.
London, 1866.
Eeport by E. T. C. IMiddletou on the financial position of Mexico, dated
February 25, 1867 ; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. V. 1867. London, 1867.
Eeports by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton on the mines and mineral districts, and
on the sulphur deposits of Mexico, dated July 10 and December 31, 1866; in
'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. I. and II.
1867. London, 1867.
Eeport by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton on the silver mines of Guanaxuato, dated
November 29, 1867; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1868. London, 1868.
Eeports by Mr. C. Moye, U.S. Consul at Chihuahua, dated June 3, 1867,
]Mi-. F. B. Elmer, U.S. Consul at La Paz, dated Sept. 30, 1867, and of Mr.
F. Chase, U.S. Consid-General at Tampico, dated Juno 30, 1867, on the com-
merce, agriculture, and mining industry of Mexico; in ' Commercial Eelations
of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.
Eeports by Mr. Thomas N. Nelson, Minister-Eesident of the United States,
on the political and .social condition of the republic of Mexico, dated Mexico,
February- May, 1871; in 'Papers relating to the For-jign Eelations of the
United States.' 8. Washington, 1871.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Mexico ; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1879.' 4. London, 1880.
2. NoN- Official Publications.
Bolctin de la sociedad de geogi-afia y cstadistica de la Eepublica Mexicana.
8. Mexico, 1878-79.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique aneien et moderne. 18. Paris, 1866.
Cicbas (A. Garcia), Atlas metodico do la geographia de la Eepublica Mexi-
cana. 8. Mexico, 1874.
Diccionario geografico y estadistico de la Eepublica Mexicana. .') vols. Fol.
Mexico, 1874-76.
Bomencch (Emmanuel), Le Mexique tel qu'il est. La verite sur son climat,
ses habitants et son gouvernement. 12. Paris, 1866.
Flint (H. M.), Mexico under Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1867.
Garcia y Cuba^f (A.), Apuntes relatives a la poblacion de la Eepublica
3Iexicana. 8. Mexico, 1871.
Geiger (John Lewis), A Peep at Mexico : Narrative of a Journey across the
Eepublic from the^ Pacific to the Gulf. 8. London, 1874.
LaBedolliere (EmilcG.de), Histoirc de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris,
1866.
Miilhr (J. W.), Eeisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und Mexico. 3
vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Ferec (J. E.), Almanaque estadistico de las ofRcinas y Guia de forasteros
del Comercio de la Eepublica para 1879. 8. Mexico, 1879.
3D J
NICARAGUA.
(Rep6elica de Nicakagua.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the republic of Nicaragua "was proclaimed on
August 19, 1858. It vests the legislative power in a Cono-res.s
of two Houses, the upper called the Senate, comjorising ten mem-
bers, and the lower, called the House of Eepresentatives, eleven
members. Both branches of the legislature are elected by universal
suffrage, the members of the House of Representatives for the term
of foiu", and those of the Senate for the tenn of six years. The
executive power is wdth a President elected for foiu- years.
President of the Repiihlic. — Don Joaquin Zavala, elected Pre-
sident of the Republic, March 1, 1879, as successor of Don Pedro
Chamorro^ President from 1875 to 1879.
The President exercises his functions through a council of re-
sponsible ministers, composed of the four departments of Finance,
Foreign Affairs, Public Instruction, and War and Marine.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The revenue of the republic in the year 1877 Avas estimated at
1,750,000 dollars, or 350,000/., and the expenditure at 2,235,000
dollars, or 447,000/., leavmg a deficit of 485,000 dollars, or 97,000/.
There were aimual deficits, increasing in amount, since the year 1865.
Two-thirds of the total annual revenue are derived from government
monopolies on spirits, tobacco, and gunpowder, and the remainder
chiefly from import duties and a tax on slaughtered cattle. The
expenditure is principally for the maintenance of an army of two
thousand men, and the payment of interest of the public debt.
The total amoxmt of the pviblic debt at the end of 1877 Avas
estimated at 9,500,000 dollars, or 1,900,000/. The public habilities
of Nicaragua were wholly contracted within the country.
The area of the republic is estimated at 49,500 English square
miles, and the population at 350,000 souls, giving an average of
nearly seven inhabitants to the square mile. There are no census
returns. The great mass of the population consists of aboriginal
* Lidians,' Mulattoes, Negroes, and mixed races, and the number of
Europeans and their descendants is very small and on the decrease.
There are few towns, and the chief occupation of the inhabitants is
the rearing of cattle, carried on in a rude fashion. Old capital of
the republic is the city of Leon, ten miles from the Pacific, sur-
55^ Tin: statesman's ykar-book, issi.
rounded by live nctive A'olcanoes, and pai'tly in ruins. At present
the seat of the government is tlie toAvn of Managua, situated on the
southern border of the great lake of the same name, with 8,000
inhabitants. Th<> capital is pruvisional, being built on the slope of
an active volcano, and liable tlierefore to instant destruction.
The commerce of Nicaragua is very small, and, in the absence of
official returns, its valtie is not known. In the annual 'Statement of
the Board of Trade,' the commercial intercourse of Great Britain
with tlie Kepublic is merged into ' Central America.' (See page 541.)
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of NicARAGrA in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister.— Comma-nAcv de jVLarcoleta, accredited March 1876.
Consul-Goieral.— James L. Hart, accredited Nov. 30, 1866.
2. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua.
Minister and Consid- General. —^\Ar\oy Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The system of money, weights, and measures is the same as in
Honduras. (See p. 548.)
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Nicaragua.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d' Affaires, on the financial
condition of Nicaragua, dated Guatemala, May 29, 1869; in 'Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. IV. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Consul Gollan on the commerce of Greytown, and the
construction of an interoceanic canal through Nicaragua, dated January
1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Gollan on the trade and commerce of Nicaragua,
dated Greytown, January 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V.
1877. 8. London, 1877.
2. NoN- Official Publications.
Belly (N.), Percement de I'isthme de Panama par le canal de Nicaragua. 8.
Paris, 1858.
Beit (Thomas), The Naturalist in Nicaragua : a Narrative of a Residence at
the Gt)ld Mines of Chontales, &c. 8. London, 1873.
Biiluiv (A. von), Der Freistaat Nicaragua in Mittelamerika. 8. Berlin, 18-19.
Keller (J.), Le canal de Nicaragua. 8. Paris, 1859.
Marr (Williclm), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Schercer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squier (E. G.), Sketches of Travel in Nicaragua. 8. New York, 1851.
Squier (E. G.), Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the proposed
Interoceanic Canal. 2 vols. 8. London, 1852.
Whetham (J. W. Bodham), Across Central America. 8. London, 1877.
557
PARAGUAY.
(Eepi^blica del Pakaguav.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish
rule in 1811, and after a short government by two consuls, the
supreme power was seized, in 1815, by Dr. Jose Caspar Rodriguez
Francia,who exercised autocratic sway as dictator, till his death, Sept.
20, 1840. Dr. Francia's reign was followed by a state of anarchy,
which lasted till 1842, when a National Congress, meeting at the
capital of Asuncion, elected tw^o nephews of the Dictator, Don
Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the republic.
Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, a new constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole President, with
dictatorial powers, -which Avere continued by another election,
March 14, 1857. At the death of Don Carlos, September 10, 18G2,
his sou, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, born 1827, succeeded to the
supreme power, by testamentary order, Avithout opposition. Presi-
dent Lopez, in 1865, began a dispute Avith the GoA'ernment of Brazil^
the consequence of Avhich Avas the entry of a Brazilian army, united
Avith forces of the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the
republic, June 1865. After a struggle of five years, Lopez Avas
defeated and killed in the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870.
A Congress, meeting at Asuncion in June 1870, voted a ncAv
constitution for Paraguay, Avhich was publicly proclaimed on the
25th of NoA'ember 1870. The constitution is modelled closely on
that of the Argentine Confederation, the legislative authority being
vested in a Congress of tAVo Houses, a Senate and a House of
Deputies, and the executive being entrusted to a President, elected
for the term of six years, Avith a non-active Vice-President at his
side.
President of the SepulUc. — Don Caudido JBareiro, elected Sep-
tember 25, 1878.
Vice-President. — Don Adolfo Soguier, elected September 25,
1878.
The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of re-
sponsible ministers, five in number, presiding OA^er the departments
of the Interior, of Finance, of Worship and Public Instruction, of
War and Navy, and of Foreign Affixirs.
558 THE statesman's YEArt-BOOK, 1881,
Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.
The public revenue of Paraguay is derived to the extent of about
one-third from state projoerty and monopolies, and the remainder
from customs duties. According to the budget of the Minister of
Finance, laid before Congress in the session of 1877, the public
revenue for the year ending the 31st of December 1877 was esti-
mated at 295,570 pesos, or 59,114/., and the expenditure at 228,650
pesos, or 45,730/., leaving a surplus of G6, 920 pesos, or 13,384Z.
The republic had no debt until the war of 18G5-70, Avhich led to the
raising of large internal loans. In 1871 and 1872, the Government
contracted two foreign loans, the first of the nominal amount of
1,000,000/., and the second of 2,000,000/., each bearing 8 per cent.
interest, through Messrs. Robinson, Fleming & Co., London. The
loans, issued at the price of 80, were hypothecated on the public
lands of Paraguay, valued at 19,380,000/. Payment of both interest
and sinking funds on the two loans ceased in 1874. No part of the
previous payments, according to the report of the select Parliamen-
tary Committee on Foreign Loans, 1875, 'was provided by the Govern-
ment of Paraguay, but the whole was derived from the proceeds of the
loans themselves. Since these funds so set apart have been exhausted,
no payment on account of interest or sinking fund has been made
by the Government of Paraguay.' According to treaty stipula-
tions arising out of the war of 1865-70, Paraguay is indebted
to Brazil to the amount of 200,000,000 pesos, or 40,000,000/. ; to
the Argentine Confederation to the amount of 35,000,000 pesos, or
7,000,000/., and to Uruguay to the amount of 1,000,000 pesos, or
200,000/., being a total war debt of 236,000,000 pesos, or 47,200,000/.
The military force in the Avar against the imited armies of Brazil,
Uruguay, and the Argentine Pepublic, carried on during the years
1865-70, comprised 60,000 men, including 10,000 cavalry, and 5,000
artillery. These troops were altogether disbanded afterwards, and
the entire force in 1877 consisted of 185 foot soldiers, forming tlie
garrison of the capital.
Area, Population, and Trade.
The frontiers of the republic, not Avell defined previous to the
war of 1865—70 — large territories considered to ibrm part of it
being claimed by Brazil, Bolivia, and the Argentine Confederation —
were fixed by a Treaty of Alliance between Brazil, the Argentine
Confederation, arid Uruguay, signed on the 1st of May 1865, to be
within the 22 to 27 degrees latitude south, and tlie 57 to 60
degrees longitude west, of the meridian of Paris. Lender its old
limits, the territory was estimated to embrace 29,470 square leagues
PARAGUAY.
559
or 103,145 English s(|uare miles ; but tlie new boundaries imj^osed
by the conquerors in the war reduced the area to 1G,590 square
leagues, or 57,303 English square miles.
An enumeration made by the Governmeint in 1857 showed the
population to number 1,337,439 souls. At the beginning of 1873
the number of inhabitants, according' to an otficial return, was
reduced to 221,079 souls, comprising 28,746 men and 106,254
women over fifteen years of age, with 86,079 children, the enormous
disproportion between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of the
population, telhng the results of the war. Since that date, another
enumeration was taken in 1876, the returns of which state the po-
pulation at 239,844, being an increase of 72,765 in three years.
About one-third of the inhabitants are living in the central pro-
vince, containing the capital, the rest being spread thinly as settlers
over the remaining portion of cultivated coiintry. Nearly three-
fourths of the entire territory are national property.
The chief article of foreign commerce of Paraguay is the yerla
mate, or Paraguayan tea, made of the leaves of the Ilex Paragiiay-
eiisis tree, dried and reduced to powder, which are extensively con-
sumed in all the States of South America. However, the total
commerce of the republic is very small, the aggregate of imports and
exports not amounting, on the average, to more than half a million
sterling per annum. The imports are derived to the extent of three-
iourths from Great Britain, and one-fourth from France and Germanv.
The British imports are passing entirely through the ten-itories of Brazil
and the Argentine Confederation, and since the year 1862, when a
f^nv articles of machinery and furniture, valued at 1,764/., arrived fi-oui
England, there has been no direct intercourse between Paraguay and
tlie United Kingdom.
The only railway in Paraguay is a short line of 45 English mile>,
from Asuncion, the capital, to Paraguary. There are no lines of
t(4egraph but one at the side of this railway.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Paraguay in Great Britain.
Cnmul. — .Juan Fleming, accredited Aug. 20, 1872.
There are no British representatives of any description in Paraguay.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Paraguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Peso, or Dollar = 100 Cc7itenas . AA-erage rate of exchange, 4s.
560 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Weights and Measures.
The Qui?itaL . . . = 101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.
., Arroba ... . = 25'35 ,, ,,
„ Fanega . . . ' = ^h imperial bushel.
", Lino (land measure) . = 69^ Engl. sq. yards.
„ Legua madra . . = 12^ Engl. sq. miles.
Since the end of tlie war of 1865-70, an extensive paper currency
has been introduced into the republic. By a decree of the Govern-
ment dated January 14, 1871, the vakie of the Englisli sovereign
was fixed at five pesos. Besides the above, the weights and measures
of the Argentine Confederation and the currency of Brazil are in
general use.
Statistical and other Books of Refereace concerning Paraguay.
1. Official Publications.
Mf-nsao-e del Presidente de la Republica, presentado al Congreso Legisla-
tive do la Nacion. 4. Asuncion, 1880.
Memoria del Ministerio de Hacienda, presentada a los H. Senadores y
Diputados en 1880. 4. Asuncion, 1880.
Sobre la cantidad de leguas de terrenos publicos aproximadamente, la calidad
de ellos, sus produciones, &c. : Informe per orden de S. E. el Senor Presidente
de la Republica del Paraguay, 4. Asuncion, 1871.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bemersay (L. A.), Histoire physique, economique et politique du Paraguay et
des etablis.sements des Jesuites. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.
Dk Grft^y (Alfred), La Republique de Paraguay. 8. Bi-uxelles, 1865.
Johnston (K.), Paraguay. lu 'Geographical Magazine,' July 1875. London,
1875.
Kennedy (A. J.) La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay, during the War. 8.
London, 1869.
Mansfield (Charles), Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New edition. By the
Rev. Charles Kingsley. 8. London, 1866.
Meisferman (G. F.), Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay. 8. London, 1869.
Midhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook to the River Plate Republics, &c., and
the Republics of Uruguay and Paraguay. 8. London, 1875.
Peigc (Commander Tliomas G.), La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and
Parao-uay. Narrative of the Exploration of the Tributaries of the River La
Plata and adjacent countries during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856,
under the orders of the United States Government. 8. New York, 1867.
Quentin (Charles), Le Paraguay. 8. Paris, 1866.
Thompson (George), The Paraguayan War ; with sketches of the history of
Paraguay, and of the manners and customs of the people. 8. London, 1869.
Tse'hudi (Joh. Jak. v.), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866.
Washburn (Charles A.), The History of Paraguay. With notes of personal
observations. 2 vols. 8. Boston and New York, 1871.
56i
PERU.
(Repi!jblica del Peri!;.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Peru, one of the oldest of Spanish colonies in
America, issued its declaration of independence July 28, 1821, but
it was not till after a war, protracted till 1824, that the country
gained its actual freedom from Spanish rule. The present constitu-
tion, proclaimed Aug. 31, 1867, is modelled on that of the United
States, the legislative power being vested in a Senate and a House of
Eepresentatives, the former composed of deputies of the provinces,
two for each, and the latter of representatives nominated by the
electoral colleges of provinces and parishes, at the rate of one
member for every 20,000 inhabitants. The parochial electoral
colleges choose deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send
representatives to Congress. In the session of 1876, the Senate
was composed of 44 members, and the House of Representatives of
110 members.
The executive power is entrusted to a President, assisted by a
Vice-Presid^.ut, both elected by the people for the term of four years.
President of the Bepuhlic. — General Pierola, proclaimed Presi-
dent, with dictatorial powers, December 22, 1879, after the flight
of the former President, General M. I. Prado, caused by the defeat
of the Peruvian army in the war against Chili (see * Chronicle ').
The President has to exercise his executive functions through a
cabinet of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The depart-
ments are those of Foreign Affairs, of the Interior, of Justice, of
Finance and Commerce, and of War and the Navy.
By the terms of the constitution of 1867, there exists absolute
political, but not religious freedom, the charter prohibiting the pub-
lic exercise of any other religion than the Roman Catholic, which in
declared the religion of the state.
Revenue, Army, and Navy.
The public revenue is mainly derived from the sale of guano, and
to a small extent from customs. Direct taxation does not exist.
Of the actual revenue and expenditure of the Government in recent
years there are no official returns, but it is known that there were
large annual deficits, the profits from the sale of guano not proving
.sufficiently large to cover the cost of immense public Avorks, in-
cluding a railway to the summit of the Andes, and the construction
of an ironclad fleet, besides the payment of interest of a large debt.
0 0
562 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The estiniated expenditure of the year 1875 amounted to 12,500,000Z.,
and the revenue to 10,220,000/., leavmg a deficit of 2,280,000/.
Peru has a considerable pubhc debt, divided into an internal and
external. The internal liabilities are estimated at 4,000,000/., ex-
clusive of a floating debt of an imknown amount, greatly increased
by large issues of paper money, made in 1879 and 1880 to carry
on a war against Chili. The total of these issues was estimated,
end of Oct.lsSO, at 35,000,000 soles, or 7,000,000/. The foreign debt
is made up of three loans contracted in Englandfrom 1869 to 1872 : —
Foreign Loan. Nominal Amount of Issue.
Pisco to Yea railway 5 per cent, loan, of 1869 . . 290,000
Kailway 6percent. loanof 1870 .... 11,920,000
„ Spercent. loanof 1872 .... 36,800,000
Total . . . 49,010,000
The 5 per cent. Pisco-Yca railway loan of 1869 was issued at the
price of 71, and the 6 per cent, loan of 1870 at the price of 821.
The loan of 1872, for the nominal amount of 36,800,000/., was
issued partly, to the amount of 15,000,000/., for the construction of
railways and other public works, and partly, to the amount of
21,800,000/., for the extinction of former debts. The two loans of
1870 and 1872 were secured on the guano deposits and the general
resources of Peru.
In consequence of the breaking out of a war with Chili, disastrous
for Peru, and which led to the raising of large loans on high interest,
the interest on the foreign debt of Peru was not paid in 1880.
The army of the republic was composed at the end of the year
1878 of eight battalions of infantry, numbering 5,600 men ; of three
regiments of cavalry, numbering 1,200 men ; of two brigades of ar-
tillery, numbering 1,000 men ; and of a Gendarmerie of 5,400 men,
formino- a total of 13,200 men. The number of men under arms was
raised to 40,000 in May 1879, after the outbreak of hostilities
against Chili, and further increased to 70,000 men in the summer of
1880, after the successful invasion of the territory by the Chilians.
The Peruvian navy consisted, at the beginning of November 1879,
of 4 ironclads, the ' Atahualpa,' turret ship, with three 500-pounder
<Tuns ; the ' Union,' 14 guns ; the ' Victoria,' 2 guns, and the ' Loa,'
2 guns ; and of six other steamers, the ' Callao,' 30 guns ; the
' America,' 14 guns ; the ' Chalaco,' 4 guns ; the * Tumbez,' 4 guns ;
the ' Chanchamaya,' 2 guns; and the ' Colon,' 2 guns. Previously
to November 1879, the republic possessed two more ironclads, the
' Independencia,' a ram, carrying two 150-pounders, and the
' Huascar,' tuiTet ship, built on the Clyde, with three 500-pounders,
but these were lost in naval engagements against Chili The re-
PERU.
563
maining largest ironclad, the ' Atahualpa,' was purchased from the
United States in 1870. The ship carries, on revolving tun-ets, three
gnns, throwing shots of 500 pounds weight. She has 4-|-inch
armour from stem to stern, and when in action rises only six inches
above the sea-level, with the further defence of being able to hurl
streams of boiling water on an enemy attempting to get on board.
The other three ironclads, the ' Union,' the ' Victoria,' and the
' Loa,' are of antiquated construction.
Area and Population.
The area of Peru is estimated to extend over 503,000 English
square miles, with a population, according to a census taken in
1876, of 2,673,075, comprising 1,352,151 males, and 1,320,924
females. The republic is divided into twenty-one departments, the
area and population of which were reported as follows at the census
taken in 1876 : —
Departments
Area : English
square miles
Population
Piura
13,931
135,709
Cajamarca .
14,188
213,243
Amazonas
14,129
34,245
Loreto .
32,727
61,125
Libertad
.
15,649
147,541
Ancaclis
.
17,405
284,091
Lima
Callao .
}
14,760
/ 226,922
1 34,492
Huaneavelica
10,814
104,140
Hnanuco
1'
33,822
5 77,988
\ 209,871
Junin .
/
lea
6,295
60,111
Ayacucho
24,213
147,909
Cuzco .
95,547
237,083
Puno .
.
39,743
256,594
Arequipa
.
27,744
160,282
Moquegua
Tarapaca
"1
i
42,387
/ 28,786
1^ 42,002
Tacna .
20,100
35,706
Apurimac
62,325
119,246
Lambayeque
17,939
85,984
r
rotal
•
503,718
2,703,070
It is estimated that 57 per cent, of the popiilation of Peru are
aborigines, or ' Indians,' and that 23 per cent, belong to mixed
races, * Cholos ' and * Zambos.' The remaining 20 per cent, are
divided among descendants of Spaniards, Negroes, Chinese, and
Europeans, the latter forming barely 2 per cent, of the total popula-
o 0 2
564
TUE STATE<iMAN S YEAll-BOOK, 1881.
tion, comprising chiefly Italians and Germans. At the enumeration
of 1876 the population of the capital, Lima, was returned at 100,056.
Trade and Industry.
The foreign commerce of Peru is chiefly with Great Britain and
the United States, and it centres in the port of Callao, suburb of
Lima, the capital.
The commercial intercourse between Peru and the United Kiner-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports from Peru to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
info Peru in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Exports from Peru
Imports of
Years
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Peru |
£
£■
1870
4,881,075
1,761,173
1871
3,971,968
2,159,770
1872
4.211,72:^
2,870,238
1873
5,219,572
2,524,622
1874
4,501,213
1,593,261
1875
4.884,181
1,594,499
1876
5,630,670
991,304
1877
4,696,502
1.266,394
1878
5,232,305
1,369,831
1879
3,388.532
747,427
The staple articles of export fi-om Peru to the United Kingdom
are guano, cubic nitre, and sugar. During the ten years from 1870
to 1879, the quantities and value of the exports of guano from
Peru to Great Britain were as follows : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Tons
£
1870
243.434
3,248.293
1871
142,365
1,711,176
1872
74,401
875,882
1873
135,895
1,722,854
1874
94,346
1,207,679
1875
86,042
1,068,570
1876
156,864
1,966,068
1877
111,835
1,375,028
1878
127,813
1,469,405
1879
44,325
480,927
Guano was first brought to Europe by Alexander von Humboldt
in 1802, but did not become an article of commerce till 1840. It
PERU.
565
came to be exported in considerable quantities after the year 1852,
when a difference with the United States as to the right of posses-
sion of the Lobos Iskmds Avas settled, through the mediation of
Great Britain and France, in favour of Peru. The shipments of
guano, entirely free before, were then taken in hand by the Govern-
ment, being made a state monopoly.
Equal in importance to guano as an article of export to Great
Britain, is cubic nitre, also a government monopoly. The exports
of nitre were as follows in each of the years from 1870 to 1879 : —
i Years
Quantities
Value
Tons
£
1870
1,068,972
829,358
1871
1,298,905
1,015,415
1872
1,365,195
1,045,383
1873
2,176.239
1,604,040
187-i
1,894.013
1,134,008
187.5
2,979,876
1.793,110
1876
3,064,707
1,761.450
1877
1,247,900
841.074
1878
1,667,521
1,238,625
1879
879,103
602,872
The exports of sugar, in an unrefined state, small previous to the
year 1869, assumed large proportions in recent years. The value
of the exports of sugar rose from 512,112/. in 1874 to 912,799/. in
1876, and to 1,380,622/., in 1879. Among the minor articles of
export to Great Britain are sheep and alpaca wool, of the value of
328,768/. in 1879 ; and copper, unwrought or part wrought, of the
value of 101,284/. in 1879.
The imports of British produce into Peru compri.se mainly cotton
and woollen manufactures. The imports of cotton goods amounted
to 423,570/. in 1875; to 324,350/. in 1876: to 539,106/. in 1877;
to 594,166/. in 1878; and to 228,031/. in 1879. Of woollens the
imports were of the value of 106,820/. in 1879.
A system of railways, designed to develop the exploitation of the-
mineral wealth of the country, has been in course of construction-
since the year 1852, mamly at the expense of the state. At the
end of 1877 there were open for traffic, or in course of construc-
tion, eleven lines belonging to the state, 1,281 English miles in
total length, and costing 128,354,600 soles, or 25,670,920/. ;
eight lines belonging to private person.s, 496 miles in length, and
costing 24,420,000 soles, or 4,884,600/. ; and two lines, belong-
ing in part to the state and in part to individuals, 253 miles,
costing 27,200,000 soles, or 5,440,000/., being a total of twenty-
two lines, 2,030 miles in length, and representing a cost of
566
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
179,974,600 soles, or 35,994,920^. The following is a list of these
railways : —
Railways
Length
Cost of construction
English
miles.
Soles.
&
State Lines : —
Payta to Piura ....
63
1,945.600
389,120
Pacasmayo and Magdaleua
93
5.850,000
1,170,000
Salaverry to Trujillo
85
3,400,000
680,000
Chimbote to Huaraz .
172
24,000,000
4,800,000
Lima to Chancay
43
2,600,000
520,000
Lima to La Oroya .
145
21,804,000
4,360,800
Cuzeo to Puno .
230
25,000,000
5,000,000
Pisco to lea ....
48
1,450,000
290,000
Arequipa to Puno
232
25,280,000
5,056,000
Mejia to Arequipa .
107
12,000,000
2,400,000
Ilo to Moquegua
Total .
Private Lines : —
63
1.281
5,025,000
1,005,000
128,354,600
25,670,920
Pimental to Cliiclayo
45
1,000,000
200,000
Ferrenafe to Eten
50
2,600,000
520,000
Malabriga to Aseopea
25
1,600.000
320,000
Cerro de Pasco
15
1,300,000
260,000
Lima to Callao and ChoriUos .
17
1,000,000
200,000
Lima to Magdalena .
5
320,000
64,000
Arica to Tacna ....
39
1,600,000
320,000
Tarapaea Lines
Total .
Mixed Proprietorship: —
180
15,000,000
3,000,000
496
24,420,000
4,884,000
Lima to Pisco .
145
9,200,000
1,840,000
Tacna to Bolivian frontier
Total .
Grand Total .
108
253
2,030
18,000,000
3,600,000
27,200,000
5,440,000
179,974,600
35,994,920
The construction of the lines of railway belonging to the State
was undertaken solely for ptu'poses of public utility, remunerative
results not being calculated upon in a country so sparsely populated
as Peru. Referring to the longest of the State lines, from Arequipa
to Puno, near the summit of the Andes, the British Minister and
Consul-General, in a report of the year 1878, says : — ' 232 miles of
difficult railway have been made, at an expense of about 6,000,000/.,
in order that three or four goods trains may run per week.' Of the
railways belonging to private individuals, only the double line from
PERU. 567
Lima to Callao, eiglit miles, fi-om Lima to Cliorales, nine miles in
length, the property of an English company, is reported to be a com-
mercial success.
Peru has important silver mines, situate mainly in the Cero de
Pasco. Their produce amounted to 1,395,936 ounces in 1874; to
1,357,432 ounces in 1875; to 1,358,792 ounces in 1876 ; and to
1,427,592 ounces in 1877.
The merchant navy of Peru numbered 147 vessels, of 49,8G0
tons, including 8 steamers, of 1,768 tons, at the end of 1877.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Peru in Great Britain-.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Toribio Sanz, accredited March 10, 1880.
2. Of Great Britain ix Peru.
Minister and Consul- General. — Spenser St. Jolin, appointed Dee. 12, 1872.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measm-cs of Peru, and the British equi-
valents, are : —
Money.
The Sole =100 centesimos . Average rate of exchange, 4s.
Weights and Measures.
The Oic7ice . . . . = l-Oll ounce avoii'dupois.
Libra . . . . = 1-014 lb.
Quintal . . . . = 101-44 „ „
Arroba \ ^^ ^^. 1?°^^^^ . . ■ = 25-36 _ „
i of -wine or spirits = 6-70 imperial gallons.
Gallon . . . . = 0-74 „ „
Vara . . , . = 0-927 yard.
Square Vara . . . = 0-859 square yard.
The French metric system of -weights and measiu-es was established
by law in 1860, but has not yet come into general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Pen;,
1. Official Publications.
Demarcacion politiea del Peru. Edicion ofieial de la direccion de estadistica.
Fol. Lima, 1874.
Eeport by Mr. Spenser St. John, British Minister, on the population, mining
industry, and railways of Peru ; in ' Keports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' Part IV. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Keports by Mr. Consul Nugent on the trade of Arica, and by Mr. Consul
Graham on the commerce and navigation of Islay, dated May- July 1874; in
' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. S. London, 1875.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Graham on the trade of Islay, dated Islay, Janugry 15,
1875 ; in ' Keports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
568^ THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Reports by Mr. Consul Nugent on the Trade of Arica ; by Mr. Consul
March on the Trade of Callao ; and by Mr. Consul Graham on the Trade and
Commerce of Islay, dated Feb. 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Consul Nugent on the trade of Arica ; by Mr. Consul
March on the trade of Callao ; and by Mr. Consul Graham on the Trade of
Islay, dated March-December 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls."
Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Consul March on the trade of Callao, and by Mr. Acting-
Consul Robilliard on the trade of Islay, dated January-May 1877 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877- 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Acting-Consul Robilliard on the trade of Mollendo (Islay),
dated February 7, 1879 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part 11. 1879.
8. London, 1879.
Trade of Peru with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for tha
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London. 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Cabello (Pedro M.), Guia politica eclesiastica y militar del Peru. 12. Lima,
1869.
Chh-oi (A.), Le Perou : Productions, Guano, Commerce, Finances, &c. 8.
Paris, 1876.
Duffidd (A.), Peru in the Guano age. 8. London, 1877.
Fitentes (Manuel A.), Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru: Historical,.
Statistical, Administrative, Commercial, and Moral. 8. London, 1866.
Grandidkr (E.), Voyage dans TAmerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie. 8. Paris,
1863.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peru and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Hufckinson (T. J.), Two Years in Peru. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
Markham (Clements R.), Travels in Peru and India, while superintending
the collection of Cincliona plants and seeds in South America, and their Intro-
duction into India. 8. London, 1862.
Menendrc (D. Baldomero), Manuel do geografia y estadistica del Pen'i. 12.
Paris, 1862.
Soldan (Mariano Filipe Paz), Diccionario Geografico-Estadistico del Peru :
Contiene ademas la Etimologia Aymara y Quechua de las principales pobla-
ciones, Lagos, Rios, Ccrros, &c. 8. Lima, 1879.
Sgiiicr (E. G.), Peru: Incidents of travels and exploration in the Land of
the Incas. 8. London, 1877.
TheRailwaysof Peru in 1873. 8. London, 1874.
Tschudi (Joh. Jakob von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 5 vols. 8. Leipzig,
1866-68.
Ursd (Comte C. d'), Sud-Amerique : Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie,
et au Perou. 12. Paris, 1879.
Wappaeus {3 oh. Eduard), Die Republic Peru; in Steins 'Handbuch der
Geographic und Statistik.' Part III. 8. Leipzig, 1864.
5^9
SAN DOMINGO.
(Repi^blica Dominica.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of San Domingo, founded in 1844, is governed
under a constitution bearing date November 18, 1844, re-pro-
claimed, with changes, November 14, 1865, after a revolution which
expelled the troops of Spain, who held possession of the country for
the two previous years. By the terms of the constitution the
legislative power of the republic is vested in a National Congress of
two Houses, called the Consego conservador, and the Tribunado, the
first consisting of twelve, and the second of fifteen members. The
members of both Houses are chosen in indirect election, with re-
stricted suffrage, for the term of four years. But the powers of the
National Congress only embrace the general affairs of the republic ;
and the individual states, five in number, have separate legislatures.
The executive of the republic is vested in a President, chosen in
indirect election for the term of four years. Constant insurrections
have allowed very few Presidents to serve the full term of office.
President of the Republic. — M. Marino, Priest in Holy Orders,
proclaimed President, October 12, 1880.
The administrative affjiirs of the republic are in charge of a
ministry appointed by the President, with the approval of the
Consego conservador. The ministry is composed of the heads of the
departments of the Interior qnd Police, Finance, Justice, "War and
IMarine, and Foreign Affairs.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The financial estimates of the republic for the year 1876 set doAvii
the revenue as 853,254 dollars, or 170,651/., with an expenditure to
the same amount. The branches of expenditure were as follows :
Dollars.
Interior and Police 135,804
Foreign Affairs
Justice, &c.
Finance, &c.
War and Marine
Extraordinary expenses
Balance
22,020
96,228
80,002
355,579
50,000
113,621
853,254
£170,651
570 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties, ^vhich
average 40 per cent., while a large part of the annual expenditure
is for the maintenance of a standing army. Besides a large internal
debt, of unknown amount, San Domingo has a foreign debt con-
tracted at the London Stock Exchange in 1869. The debt, to the
nominal amovmt of 757,700Z., at 6 per cent., was issued at the
price of 80 ; but it was stated officially that the Government had
actually received only between 38,000Z. and 50,000/. from the con-
tractors for the loan. — (Report of the Select Committee on Loans to
Foreign States, 1875.)
The area of San Domingo, wliich embraces the eastern portion of
the Island of Haiti — the western division forming the republic of
Haiti (see pp. 543-45) — is estimated at 18,045 English square miles,
with a population of 250,000 inhabitants, or 14 to the square mile.
The republic is divided into the five provinces, or states,
mutually independent, of San Domingo, Azua de Compostela, Santa
Cruz del Seybo, Santiago de los Caballeros, and Concepsion de la
Vega. The population, like that of the neighbouring Haiti, is
composed mainly of negroes and mulattoes, but the whites, or
European-descended inhabitants, are comparatively numerous, and
owing to their influence the Spanish language is the prevailing
dialect. Capital of the republic is the city of San Domingo, foimded
1494, at the mouth of the river Ozania, with 15,000 inhabitants.
The commerce of the republic is small, O'wing in part to customs
duties of a prohibitory character. The principal articles of export
are lignum vitaj, logwood, coffee, and sugar. In 1878, the value of the
imports amounted to 350,120/., and of the exports to 301,120/., the
foreign commerce being shared by the ports of San Domingo and
Porto Plata. The commerce of the repviblic is mainly with the
United States and Great Britain. In the ' Annual Statement of the
Board of Trade ' the exports to and imports from Great Britain are
added to those of Haiti. (See p. 544.)
The Bay of Samana, on the north-east coast of San Domingo, one
of the greatest natural harbours in the world, 30 miles long and
10 miles broad, was ceded, with the surrounding coimtry, to a com-
pany formed in the United States, by a treaty signed by the President
of the Republic, January 10, 1873. Under another decree, passed
March 25, 1874, the rights of the company were confiscated, on the
ground of non-payment of a stipulated annual rent.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of San Domixgo in Great Britain.
Consul. — Miguel Ventura, appointed January 1876.
2. Of G-rbat Beitain in San Domingo.
Charge d' Affaires. — Major Kobert Stuart, appointed October 28, 1874.
SAN DOMINGO. 5/1
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of San Domingo are those
of Spain, but the French metrical system is coming into use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning San Domingo.
1. Official Publications.
Keport by Major Eobert Stuart, British Minister, on the commerce and
shipping of the Dominican Eepublic for the year 1875, dated Port-au-Prince,
March 1876 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Vice-Consul Coen, on the imports and exports of San
Domingo in 1875, dated San Domingo, December 31, 1875 ; in ' Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Major Eobert Stuart on the condition of the Island of Haiti,
dated Port-au-Prince, Februarys, 1877; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1877. 8. Loudon, 1877.
Eeport by Mr. Vice-Consul Coen on the trade and commerce of San Domingo,
dated December 30, 1877 ; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877.
8. London, 1877.
Eeport by Jlr. Vice-Consul Coen on the trade and commerce of San Domingo,
dated December 31, 1878 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1879.
8. London, 1879.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with Great Britain ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom for the year 1878.' Imp. 4.
London, 1879.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present ; with a Glance at
Hayti, 8 pp. 511. London, 1873.
Jordan (Wilhelm), Geschichte der Insel Haiti. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1849.
Kdm (D. B. Eandolph), Santo Domingo. Pen Pictures and Leaves of
Travel. 12. Philadelphia, 1871.
Monte y Tejada (Antonio), Historia de Santo Domingo, desde su Descubri-
miento hasU nuestros dias. Tomo I. (all published.) 8. Habana, 1853.
572
SAN SALVADOR.
(RepiJblica de San Salvador.)
Constitution and Grovernment.
The republic of San Salvador, an independent state since 1853,
Avhen it dissolved its federative union Avitli Honduras and Nicaragua,
is governed nominally under a constitution proclaimed in March
18()4, but undergoing frequent alterations through internecine war.
The constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of two
Houses, the Senate, composed of 12, and the House of Represent-
atives, composed of 24 members. The executive is in the hands of
a President, originally elected for six years, but whose tenure of
office was in 18G7 limited to four years.
President of the Republic. — Don Rafael Zaldivar y Lazo, elected
Provisional President by a junta, April 30, 1876, as successor of
Don Andres Valle, President from February 1 to April 25, 1876.
The regular election of the President has in recent years been
constantly superseded by ' pronunciamientos ' and military Jiomina-
tions.
The administrative affairs of the republic are carried on, under
the President, by a ministry of two members, the first head of the
imited departments of the Interior, War, and Finance, and the second
of the departments of Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction.
Revenue, Population, and Trade.
The budget estimates of revenue for the year 1876 amounted
to 1,958,350 dollars, or 391,670/., and the estimates of expenditure
to 1,760,850 dollars, or, 352,170/., thus leaving a calculated surplus
of 197,500 dollars, or 39,500/. Tlie sources of estimated revenue
and branches of expenditure in the year 1876 were as follows: —
Sojirces of Bevcnue
Branches of Expenditure.
Dollars.
Dollars.
Customs,
591,000
General administration
Oo9,00()
Excise .
50,000
Church .
8,500
Tax on spirits
.
309,000
Army
818,000
„ indigo
44,000
Internal debt .
150,400
Stamps .
27,000
Courts of Justice .
47,000
Land sales
11,000
Public instruction .
41,000
Powder monopoly-
136,000
Pensions
17,200
Post office
12,500
Public works .
97,300
Telegraphs
6,850
Telegraph
23,00f>
Miscellaneous receipts .
771,000
Export bounties
Total .
9,450
Total .
1,958,350
1,760,850
£391,670
£352,170
SAN SALVADOR. 573
San Salvador had in 1871 but a small public debt, amounting to
705,800 dollars, or 141,100/., represented chiefly by ' libranzas,' or
treasury bills. The debt was largely increased during the years
1872 and 1873, when the republic raised at various periods troops
to invade Honduras. At the commencement of 1875, the total debt
amounted, according to an official return, to 4,363,227 dollars, or
872,645/. There exists besides a floating debt of an unknown
amount.
Official returns state the area of the republic to embrace 9,594
English square miles. The population was estimated in 1870 at
434,520 souls, giving an average of 45 inhabitants to the square
mile, being four times that of the aggregate of the other states of
Central America, Aboriginal and mixed races constitute the bulk
of the population, among whom live about 10,000 Avhites, or de-
scendants of Europeans. The native population of San Salvador,
more inclined to civilised pursuits than that of any neighbouring
state, is largely engaged in agriculture, as well as various branches
of manufacture, and in recent years the working of iron mines has
been undertaken. The principal articles of agricultural produce
are indigo, coffee, and balsam, the latter, known as Balm of Peru,
being grown along a great part of the Pacific coast, from the Rio
Acajutla to the Guameca, the district bearing the name or' Costa de
Balsamo. Capital of the republic is the city of San Salvador,
founded by George Alvarado in 1528, with 16,000 inhabitants.
The city was repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions, the last time on April 16, 1854, when it Avas over-
whelmed by almost total ruin, in consequence of which most of the
inhabitants erected new dwellings on a neighbouring site, at present
called Nueva San Salvador. The new capital again was partly
destroyed in 1873 by a series of earthquakes, and simultaneous
eruptions of the neighbouring Tzalco volcano. The capital is con-
nected bya good road with the port of La Libertad, fifteen miles
distant, principal harbour of the republic.
The commercial intercourse of San Salvador is chiefly with the
United States and Great Britain. In the year 1878, the value of
the total imports was estimated at 1,950,000 dollars, or 390,000/.,
and that of the exports at 3,685,000 dollars, or 737,000/. Among
the exports indigo forms the staple article. The statistics of the
commercial intercourse of San Salvador with the United Kingdom
are^ not given in the annual statement of the Board of Trade, in
which the trade of the republic is thrown together with that of the
states of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, under
the general designation of ' Central America.' (See p. 541.)
574 THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of San Salvadob in Great Britain.
Minister. — Don Jose Maria Torres Caicedo, accredited December 12, 1877.
2. Of Great Britain in San Saxvadoh.
Minister and Consul -General. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.
Consul. — Luis Alejandro Campbell, appointed December 27, 1879.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of San Salvador, and the
British equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Peso or Piaster, of 8 reales . approximate value, As. Z\d.
„ Dollar, of 100 centavas . „ „ 4s.
Weights and Measures.
The Libra = r014 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal = 101-40
„ Arroha .....= 25'35 „
„ Fanega = J 2 imperial bushel.
The "weights and measures of the United States are, besides the
above, in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning San
Salvador.
1. Official Publications.
Eeport by Mr. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d'Affaires in the Central
American Eepublics, on the financial position of San Salvador, dated
Guatemala, January 31, 1869; in 'Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Edwin Corbett on the public revenue, expenditure, and debt
of San Salvador ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1871. 8. London, 1871.
Report by Mr. Edward Corbett on the financial position of San Salvador,
dated Guatemala, October 22, 1872 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' No. I. 1873. 8. London, 1873.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Frbhel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Laferriere (J.), De Paris k Guatemala. Notes de voyage au Centre-Amerique.
8. Paris. 1877.
Marr (Wilhelm), Reiso nach Central- America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863,
Morclot (L.), Voyage dans I'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Scherzcr (Karl Eitter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
575
UNITED STATES.
(United States of Ameiuca.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the United States is based on the
constitiition of September 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were
added, December 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment, January 8,
1798; a twelfth amendment, September 25, 1804; a thirteenth
amendment, December 18, 1865 ; a fourteenth amendment, July
28, 1868 ; and a fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870.
By the constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted to
three separate authorities, the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. The executive power is vested in a President. It is
enacted by section 1, article II. of the constitution, that the Pre-
sident ' shall hold his office during the term of four years,' and be
elected, together with a Vice-President, chosen for the same term,
in the mode here prescribed. 'Each state shall appoint, in such
manner as the legislatiu-e thereof may direct, a number of electors,
equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which
the state may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator or repre-
sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the
United States, shall be appointed an elector.' The same section of
the constitution enacts that ' the Congress may determine the time
of choosing the electors, and the day on Avhich they shall give their
votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States ; '
and further that 'no person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen
of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution
shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person
be ehgible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty -five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the
United States.'
The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and
of the militia in the service of the Union. He has the power of a
veto on all laws passed by Congress ; but notwithstanding his veto
any bill may become a law on its afterwards being passed by two-
thirds of both Houses of Congress. The Vice-President is ex-officio
president of the Senate ; and in case of the death or resignation of
the president, he becomes the President for the remainder of the
term, and his place is filled by a temporary Vice-President chosen
by the Senate. The elections for President and Vice-President are
at present held in all the states on Tuesday next after the first
Monday in November, every four years, in a leap-year ; and on
the 4th of March following the new President elect is inauo-urated.
576
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
President of the United States. — Rutherford Birchard Ilai/es,
born at Delaware, Ohio, October 4, 1822 ; studied law at Harvard
College, Cambridge, 1843-45, and admitted to the bar at Marietta,
Ohio, 1846; practised law at Cincinnati, 1850-61; served in the
civil war, 1850, and rose to be Major-CJeneral ; representative
of Ohio in the 39th and 40th Congresses of the United States,
1865-69 ; governor of Ohio, 1870-72 ; elected 19th President of
the United States by 185 against 184 votes of the Electoral College,
Nov. 3, 1876 ; assumed office, March 5, 1877.
Vice'President of the United States. — William A. Wheeler, born
at Malone, New York, June 30, 1819 ; studied and practised law ;
I'epresentative of New York in the 37th, 41st, 42nd, 43rd, and 44th
Congresses of the United States ; elected Vice-President of the
United States November 3, 1876 ; assumed office, March 5, 1877.
Nominated for the next term of office of President, commencing
March 5, 1881 :—
General James Abraham Garfield, born at the village of Orange,
Cuyahoga county, Ohio, in November 1831 ; took part in the civil
war, when he became Major-General ; member of Congress of the
United States for the 19th district of Ohio since 1862.
The President of the United States has an annual salary of
50,000 dollars, or 10,000/., and the Vice-President of 10,000 dollars,
or 2,000/.
Since the adoption of the constitution the offices of President and
Vice-President have been occupied as folloAvs : —
PRESrDENTS OF THE UnITED StATES.
Name
From State
Term of Service
Born
Died
George Washington .
Virginia .
1789-1797
1732
1799
John Adams .
Massachusetts .
1797-1801
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia .
1801-1809
1743
1826
James Madison
Virginia .
1809-1817
1751
1836
James Monroo
Virginia .
1817-1825
1759
1831
John Quincy Adams
Massachusetts .
1825-1829
1767
1848
Andrew Jackson
Tennessee .
1829-1837
1767
1845
Martin Van Buren .
New York .
1837-1841
1782
1862
William H. Harrison
Ohio
1841-1841
1773
1841
John Tyler
Virginia .
1841-1845
1790
1862
James Knox Polk .
Tennessee .
1845-1849
1795
1849
Zachary Taylor
Louisiana .
1849-1850
1784
1850
Millard Fillmore .
New York .
1850-1853
1800
1874
Franklin Pierce
New Hampshire .
1853-1857
1804
1869
James Buchanan
Pennsylvania .
1857-1861
1791
1868
Abraham Lincoln .
Illinois
1861-1865
1809
1865
Andrew Johnson
Tennessee
1865-1869
1808
1875
Ulysses S. Grant .
Illinois
1869-1877
1822
—
Rutherford B. Hayes
Ohio .
1877-1881
1822
—
UNITED STATES.
Vice-Peesidents of the United States.
577
Name
From State
Term of Service
1 Bom
Died
John Adams .
Massachusetts .
1789-1797
1
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson
Virginia .
1797-1801
1743
1 1826
Aaron Burr
New York .
1801-1805
1756
■ 1836
George Clinton
New York .
1805-1812
1739
1812
Elbridge Gerry
Massachusetts .
1813-1814
1744
1814
Daniel D. Tomkins
New York .
1817-1825
1774
1825
John C. Calhoun
South Carolina .
1825-1832
1782
1850 1
Martin Van Buren .
New York .
1833-1837
1782
1862 1
Eichard M. Johnson
Kentucky .
1837-1841
1780
1850
John Tyler
Virginia .
1841-1841
1790
1862
George M. Dallas .
Pennsylvania
1845-1849
1792
1864
Millard Fillmore
New York .
1849-1850
1800
1874
William R. King .
Alabama .
1853-1853
1786
1853
John C. Breckinridge
Kentucky .
1857-1861
1821
1875
Hannibal Hamlin .
Maine
1861-1865
1809
Andrew Johnson
Tennessee
1865-1865
1808
1875
Schuyhn* Colfax
Indiana .
1869-1873
1823
Henry Wilson .
Massachusetts .
1873-1875
1812
1875
William A. Wheeler
New York
1877 —
1819
The administrative business of the nation is conducted by seven
chief officers, or heads of departments, who form what is called the
' Cabinet.' They are chosen by the President, but must be approved
of by the Senate. Each of them presides over a separate depart-
ment, and has to act under the immediate authority of the Presi-
dent. The heads of departments are : —
1. The Secretary of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Hon. William
M. Evarts, born at Boston, February 6, 1818 ; studied law at Yale
College, and admitted to the bar of New York, 1841 ; Attorney-
General of the United States July 15, 1868, to March 4, 1869-
representative of the United States at the Conference of Geneva for
the settlement of the ' Alabama ' claims, 1872. Appointed Secretary
of State, March 12, 1877.
2. Secretary of the Treastu-y. — Hon. John Sherman, born at
Lancaster, Ohio, May 10, 1823; studied and practised law; re-
presentative of Ohio in the 34th, 35th, 3Gth, and 37th Congresses of
the United States ; elected to the Senate of the United States in
1861 ; re-elected in 1866, and in 1872. Appointed Secretary of
the Treasury, March 8, 1877.
3. Secretary of War. — Hon. Alexander Ramsejj, bom near Harris-
burg, Pennsylvania, September 8, 1815 ; studied at Lafayette
College, Easton, Penna. ; member of Congress of United States
1843-47 ; Governor of Minnesota territory 1849-53; Governor of
Minnesota 1859-63; United Senator of the same state 1863-75.
Appointed Secretary of War, December 10, 1879.
p p
578 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
4. Secretary of the Navy. — Hon. Nathan Gof, born in West
Virginia ; studied law, and admitted to the bar in 1839 ; formerly
United States' Attorney for West Virginia. Appointed Secretary
of the Navy, January 6, 1881.
5. Secretary of the Interior. — Hon. Carl Selnirz, born at Liblar,
near Cologne, Germany, March 2, 1829 ; stu.died at the University
of Iknn ; took part in the Baden insurrection of 1848-49; emigrated
to the United States, 1852, and settled in the State of Missouri as
editor and newspaper correspondent ; served in the civil war as
brigadier-general of volunteers, 1861-65 ; senator for Missouri
in the United States Senate, 1869-75. Appointed Secretary of
the Interior, March 12, 1877.
6. Postmaster-General. — Hon. Horace Maijnard., born at West-
borough, Massachusetts, August 30, 1814 ; studied law at Knoxville,
Tennessee, 1838-44, and subsequently practised law ; attorney-gen-
eral of Tennessee, 1863-65 ; Member of Congress of United States,
1857-63, and 1866-75 ; Minister Resident at Constantinople,
1875-77. Appointed Postmaster-General, June 2, 1880.
7. Attorney-General.- — Hon. Charles Devens^hovn in Charlestown,
INIassachusetts, April 4,1820; studied law at Harvard university,
and admitted to the bar, 1841 ; commander of a battalion of
Massachusetts volunteers in the civil war, 186 1-G5 ; associate jus-
tice of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, 1873-77. Appointed
Attorney-General, March 12, 1877.
Each of the above ministers has an annual salary of 8,000 dollars
cvurency, or 1,600/. All hold office under the will of the Presi-
dent of the United States,
The whole legislative power is vested by the constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
The Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each
State, chosen by the State legislatures for six years. Senators
must be not less than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens
of the United States for nine years ; and be residents in the State
for which they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity, the
Senate is invested with certain judicial functions, and its members
constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment only
extends to removal from office and disqualification. Representa-
tives have the sole power of impeachment.
The House of Representatives, or Lower House, is composed of
members elected eveiy second year by the vote of all male citizens
over the age of 21 of the several States of the Union. The number
of members to which each State is entitled is determined by the
census taken every ten years. By laws passed in 1872, and sub-
sequent years, after the results of the ninth census of the United
States, taken June 1870, had been ascertained, it was provided that
UNITED STATES.
579
the House of Eepi
esentatives should
be composed of 293 members,
to be apportioned
as follows among the States: —
Maine
5
South Carolina
k . 5
Florida .
. 2
New Hampshire
3
Georgia .
. 9
Texas .
. 6
Vermont .
3
Alabama
. 8
Iowa
. 9
Massachusetts .
11
Mississippi
. 6
Wisconsin
. 8
Rhode Island .
2
Louisiana
. 6
California
, 4
Connecticut
4
Ohio
. 20
Minnesota
. 3
New York
33
Kentucky
. 10
Oregon .
. 1
New Jersey
7
Tennessee
. 10
Kansas .
. 3
Pennsylvania .
27
Indiana .
. 13
"West Virginia
. 3
Delaware .
1
Illinois .
. 19
Nevada .
. 1
Maryland .
6
Missouri
. 13
Nebraska
. 1
Virginia .
9
Arkansas
. 4
Colorado
. 1
North Carolina .
8
Michigan
. 9
Total
. 293
According to the terms of the constitution, representatives must
not be less than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of
the United States for seven years, and be residents in the States from
which they are chosen. In addition to the representatives from the
States, the House admits a ' delegate ' from each organised territory,
who has the right to debate on subjects in Avhich his territory is
interested, but is not entitled to vote. The delegates are elected,
like the representatives, by the vote of all male citizens over 21,
with this difference, that in tv/o territories, Utah and Wyoming,
the franchise is also accorded to women.
Every bill which has passed the House of Eepresentatives and
the Senate miist, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Pre-
sident of the United States ; if not approved, he may return it,
with his objections, to the House in which it originated. If after
reconsideration two-thirds of that House agree to pass the bill, it
must be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by
which it must likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-
thirds of that House, it becomes a law. But in all svich cases the
votes of both Houses are determined by yeas and nays, and the
names of the persons voting for and against the bill are entered
on the journal of each House.
Each of the two Houses of Congress is made by the constitution
the ' judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its o-\vn
members ; ' and each of the Houses may, ' with the concurrence of
two-thirds, expel a member.'
The Congress of the United States has the power to alter the
Constitution, by the 5th article of the same. The article orders
that the Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary to propose amendments to the Constitution, or on the ap-
plication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall
call a convention for proposing the amendments which in either
case shall be valid to aU intents and purposes as part of the Con-
FP2
580 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
stitution when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the
one or other mode of ratification may be proposed by (Congress.
Under an Act of Congress, approved Jan. 20, 187-4, the salary
of a senator, representative, or delegate in Congress is 5,000 dollars,
or 1,000/., per annum, Avith travelling expenses. These expenses are
calculated by the most direct route of usual travel, and similar retiu-n,
once for each session of Congress. The salary of the Speaker of the
House of Kepresentatives is 8,000 dollars, or 1,600/., per annum,
under the same Act of Congress.
The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators-
and representatives are prescribed in each State by the Legislature
thereof; but Congress may at any time by law alter such regu-
lations, or make new ones, except as to the places of choosing
senators. No senator or representative can, during the time for
which he Avas elected, be appointed to any civil office under
authority of the United States which shall have been created or
the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such
time ; and no person holding any office under the United States can
be a member of either House during his continuance in office.
According to the sixth article of the Constitution, ' the senators
and representatives, and the members of the several State Legislatures,
and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and
of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to
support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required
as a qiialification to any office or pul)lic trust under the United States.'
The period usually termed ' a Congress,' in legislative language,
continues for two years; as, for example, from noon March 4, 1879,
until noon March 4, 1881, at which latter time the term of the
representatives to the Forty-sixth Congress expires, and the term of
the new House of Kepresentatives commences. Congresses always
commence and expire in years terminating with odd numbers.
The term of the First Congress was from 1789 to 1791, and the
term of the Forty-fifth Congress from 1877 to 1879.
By the tenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States,
passed December 15, 1791, the powers not delegated to Congress are
reserved to the individual States. Therefore the powers to enact
municipal laws, that is, all laws which concern only the States
directly and immediately, are among the reserved rights of the
States, and as such vested in the State Legislatures.
The constitutions of the several States all agree in their main fea-
tures, and the modes of administration are virtually alike. In all
there is the same form, and the same principles lie at the foundation.
The executive in every State is vested in a governor. The duties of
the governors are in general analogous to those of the President, as far
UNITED STATES. 58 1
as the several State governments are analogous to that of the Union.
The governors have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the
Senate, the appointment of many important officers. Like the Presi-
dent, they make recommendations to the Legislature, and take
care that the laws are executed. Like the President, they may
be impeached and removed for treason, bribeiy, or other crimes.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States
by the thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution, passed Dec. 18,
1805 : — ' Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con-
victed, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.' The vast change in the political and social organisation
of the republic made by this new fundamental law was completed by
the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments of the Constitution, passed
in 1868 and 1870, which gave to the former slaves all the rights and
privileges of citizenship. The fourteenth Amendment declares that
■* all persons born or naturalised in the United States are citizens
thereof and of the States in which they reside, and no State shall
deny such citizens due and equal protection by laws, nor deprive
them of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.' It
orders further ' that representation shall be apportioned among the
several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the
whole number of persons in each State,' Finally, the fifteenth
Amendment, ratified March 30, 1870, enacts that ' the right of
•citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any state on account of race, colour, or
previous condition of servitude.' Under this last Amendment to
the Constitution, all the citizens of the United States, except un-
taxed Indians, are admitted to the franchise.
Church and Education,
The Constitution of the United States grants perfect equality to
all creeds and religions. Nearly all the sects and religious denomi-
nations existing in Europe are represented in the United States, the
most numerous being the three dissenting creeds from the Church
of England, the Methodists, the Baptists, and the Congregationahsts,
or Independents, the first, the Methodists, comprising about one-
third of the total population.
It was found at tlie ninth census of the United States, taken June
1, 1870, that there were at that date 72,459 distinct congregations,
or so-called ' organisations,' they possessing 63,082 religious edifices,
with a total of 21,665,062 sittings, being four sittings to every seven
of the population. The following table shows the divisions of the
various creeds enumerated, according to the official returns of the
census of 1870 : —
582
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Creeds
Congrega-
tions
Religious
edifices
Sittings
Baptist, regular
14,474
12,857
3.997,116
„ other
1,355
1,105
363,019
' Christian '
3,578
2,822
865,602
Congregational .....
2,887
2,715
1.117,212
Episcopal, Protestant
2.835
2,601
991,051
Evangelical Association
815
641
193,796
Friends ......
692
662
224,664
Jews . . . . . ...
189
152
73,265
Lutheran ......
3,032
2,776
977,332
Methodist ......
25,278
21,337
6,528,209
Moravian (Unitas Fratrum)
72
67
25,700
Mormon ......
189
171
87,838
New Jenisalem (Swedenborgian)
90
61
18,755
Presbyterian, regular
6,262
5,683
2,198,900
„ other
1,5G2
1,388
499,344
Reformed Church in America (late
Dutch Reformed) ....
471
468
227,228
Reformed Church in the United States
(late German Reformed)
1,256
1,145
431,700
Roman Catholic ....
4,127
3,806
1,990,514
'Second Advent' ....
225
140
34.555
'Shaker'
18
18
8,850
'Spiritualist'
95
22
6,970
Unitarian ......
331
310
155,471
' United Brethren in Christ '
1,445
937
265,025
' Universalist '
719
602
210,884
' Unknown,' Local Missions
26
27
11,925
„ Union ....
409
552
153,202
Miscellaneous creeds ....
Total .
27
17
6,935
72,459
63,082
21,665,052
17 J.T. _ J •^^ /^_i^__l•
_ . C 1 oo/
-\ ii •_
1 _ i ii
From the decennial Catholic census for 1880, partly issued at the
end of 1880, it appears that the Roman Catholic population in the
United States amounted to G, 143, 222. There were 67 archbishops
and bi.shops, and one cardinal, 5,989 priests, and 5,606 churches and
chapels. There Avere 400,000 Catholic children in the schools, and
375 charitable institutions exclusively devoted to Catholics.
Education is general in the United States, every effort being
made to aid in its progress. Nevertheless, owing partly to the former
existence of slavery, and partly to the constant influx of niimbers of
uneducated immigrants, there exists a large mass still totally ignorant
of the first principles of knowledge. It was found at the census of
1870, that there Avere at that date in the United States 4,528,084
individuals over ten years of age unable to read, and 5,658,144
individuals over ten years unable to write. The following gives the
divisions, among the states and territories, of the number of persons
unable to read, and those unable to write, in each class, above ten
years of age, according to the official returns of the census of 1870 : —
UNITED STATES.
583
States : —
Alabama .
Arkansas .
California .
Connecticut
Delaware .
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa .
Kansas
Kentucky .
Louisiana .
Maine
Maryland .
Massachusetts
Michigan .
Minnesota .
Mississippi
Missoim
Nebraska .
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York .
North Carolina
Ohio .
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Unable to ' Unable to
read write
349,771
111,799
24,877
19,680
19,356
66,238
418,553
86,368
76,634
24,115
16,369
249,567
257,184
13,486
114,100
74,935
34,613
12,747
291,718
146,771
2,365
727
7,618
37,057
163,501
339,789j
92,720
2,609
131,728
383,012
133,339
31,716
29.616
23,100,
71,803'
468,593J
133,584
127,124
45,671
24,550|
332,176;
276,158J
19,052!
135,499:
97,742
53,127
24,413
313,310
222,411
4,861
872
9,926
54,687
239,271
397,690
173,172
4,427
222,356
States — emit.
Ehode Island
Soutia Carolina
Tennessee .
Texas
Vermont .
Virginia
West Virginia
"Wisconsin .
Total States
Territories :-
Arizona
Colorado .
Dakota
District of
lumbia .
Idaho
Montana .
New Mexico
Utah .
Washington
Co.
Wyoming .
Total territories .
Total United \
States J
Unable to
read
15,416
265,892
290,549
189,423
15,185
390,913
48,802
35,031
4,438,206
2.69a
6.297
1,249
22,845
3,293
667
48,836
2,515
1,018
468
89,878
4,528,084
Unable to
write I
21,921
290,379
364,697
221,703
17,706
445,893
81,490
55,441
5,552,488
2,753
6,823
1,563
28,719
3,388
918
52,220
7,363
1.307
602,
105,356
6,658,144
At the date of the census of 1870, the total number of children
attending school in the United States was 7,209,938, comprisino-
3,621,996 males and 3,587,942 females. The total number of
schools was 141,629, and the number of teachers 221,042, compris-
ing 93,329 males and 127,713 females. The aggregate income of
all the schools in the year ending Jan. 1, 1870, amounted to-
95,402,726 dollars, of which 3,663,785 dollars came from endow-
ments; 61,746,039 dollars from taxation and public funds; andl
29,992,902 dollars from other sources, including tuition.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The national income of the United States is mainly derived from
two sources, _ namely, duties on imports, and internal revenue
taxes upon distilled spirits, fermented liquors, tobacco, banks and
bankers, and bank cheques. The national expenditure, too,
is mainly on account of two branches, the maintenance of an
584
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
armed force by land and sea, and payment of interest of the public
debt, incurred by the civil war of 1861-66. Roughly stated, the
produce of the customs discharges the cost of the civil service, army
and navy, and that of internal revenue pays the interest and sinking
fund of the public debt, together with all other disbursements.
The largest branch of expenditure is the interest on the public debt,
while the cost of the general administration, including the expen.ses
of the executive and legislature, provided for under the head of
* Civil List,' is comparatively small, amounting to about one-fourth
of the total expenditure.
The following table exhibits, in dollars and pounds sterling, the
total gross revenue and the total expenditure of the United States in
each of the eight fiscal years, ending June 30, from 1873 to 1880 : —
Revenue
EXPENDITURK
Years, end-
ing June 30
Dollars
£
Dollars
'290,3475,245
287,133,873
274,623,392
258,459,797
238.660,008
236,964,326
266,947,883
267,642,957
£
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
333,738,204
289,478,755
288,000,051
287,482,039
269.000,586
257,763,878
273,827,184
333,526,610
66,747,640
57,895,751
57,600,010
57,496.408
53,800,117
51,552,775
54,765,437
66,705,322
58,069,049
57,426,775
54,924.678
51,691,959
47,732,001
47,392,865
53,389,576
53,528,591
The following tables give the actual sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure for the financial year ending June 30,
1880, and the budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for
■each of the two financial years, ending June 30, 1881, and 1882 :—
Financial Tears ending June 30
■
1880
1881
1882
Sourcfis of Hevemie.
Dollars
Dollars
Dollai-3
Customs .... 186,522,065
195,000,000
195,000,000
Inland Revenue
124,009,374
130,000,000
130,000,000
Land Sales
1,016,507
1,200.000
1,000,000
Bank Taxes
7,014,971
7,124,000
7,122.000
Pacific Railways
2,493,988
1,800,000
4,000,000
Customs feus, &c.
1,148,800
1,250,000
1,150,000
Other fees
2,337.029
2,450.000
2,350,000
Property sold .
282,016
250,000
200,000
Coinage profits
2.792,187
2,900.000
2,800.000
District of Columbia
1,809,469
1,776.000
1,676,000
Miscellaneous .
4,099,604
6,250,000
4,702,000
Total Reven
ue
333,526,610
350,000,000
350,000,000
UNITED STATES.
585
Branches of Expenditure.
Financial Years ending June 30
1880
1881
1882
DoUars
Dollars
DoUurs
Civil and Miscellaneous .
54,236,465
64,000,000
67,563,485
Indians ....
5,945,457
5,650,000
4,858,866
Pensions ....
56,777.174
50,000,000
50,000,000
Army and harbours .
38.116,916
41,000,000
30,240,790
Navy ....
13,536,985
15,000,000
15,022,331
District of Columbia
3,272,385
3,350,000
3,352,000
Debt interest .
Total Expenditure .
95,757,575
91,000,000
88,877,410
267,642,957
260,000,000
259,914,882
Surplus .
65,883,653
90,000,000
90,085,118
The surpluses are all available for reducing the public debt, and
during the fiscal year, ending June 30, 1880, more than the
surplus was devoted to that purpose, there having been the sum of
73,968,687 dollars, or 14,793,737/., thus expended.
Since the year 1865-66 the revenue of the United States every year
largely exceeded the expenditure, in consequence of which there was a
gradual reduction of taxes. In the second session of the forty-second
Congress there were passed a series of laws which abolished nearly the
whole of the stamp duties. The customs duties, however, continue to
bear heavily on all imports, while the Inland Revenue at present is
collected mainly from whisky, tobacco, and malt liquors. The surplus
of every year has to be devoted, in conformity with several enact-
ments of Congress, to the gradual redemption of the national debt.
The following table shows the total amount of the national debt,
on the 1st of July in each of the years 1862, 1866, 1871, and
1873, and from 1876 to 1880 :—
Years
Capital of Debt
Dollars
£
1862
514,211,372
102,842,274
1866
2,783,42-5,879
556,685,175
1871
2,292,030,835
458,406,167
1873
2,234,482,993
446,896,598
1876
2,176,947,758
435,389,551
1877
2,205,301,392
441,060,278
1878
2,301,216,984
460,243,397
1879
1,996,414,905
399,282,981
1880
2,119,596,046
423,919,209
According to the official statement of the Secretary of the Trea-
sury, the various liabilities incurred successively by the govern-
586
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
ment, under the sanction of Congress, which form the national debt
of the United States, were as follows on the 1st of July 1880 : —
Loan of February 1861 ('81's) February S, 1861
Orepon War Debt . . . IMarch 2, 1861 .
Loanof July& Ang.'61('81's)iJuly 17 and Aug. 5, '61
Title of Loan
Authorising Act
0 u a
When payable
Total
outstanding
Amount
Debt beaeixg Interest in Coin.
March 3, 1863
J'yl4,'70&;Jan. 20,'7l
J'yl4,'70&Jan.20,'71
J'yl4,'70&Jan.20,'71
February 26, 1879
July 23, 1868
Loan of 1863 ('81's)
Funded Loan of 1881
Funded Loan of 1891
Funded Loan of 1907
Kefunding Certificate
Navy-Pension Fund
Aggregate of Debt bearing interest in Coin
December 31, 1880
y 1,1881
Debt on which Interest has Ceased since Matueity.
Old Debt . . . .
Mexican Indemnity Stock .
Loan of 1847 ....
Bounty Land Scrip
Texan Indemnity Stock
Loan of 1858 . . . .
Loan of 1860.
Five-twenties of 1862(called)
jPive-twentiesof June'64 „ .
Five-twenties of 1865 ,, .
Ten-forties of 1864 . „ .
Consols of 1865 . . „ .
Consols of 1867 . . „ .
Consols of 1868
Treasury Notes prior to 1846 i Various, prior to 1846
Various, prior to 1837
August 10, 1846 .
January 28, 1847
February 11, 1847 .
September 9, 1850
June 14,1858 .
June 22, 1860 .
Febi-uary 25, 1862
June 30, 1864 .
March 3, 1865 .
March 3, 1864 .
March 3, 1865 .
March 3, 1865 .
March 3, 1865
4to(
5
6
6
5
5
5
6
6
July 22, 1846
January 28, 1847
December 23, 1857
March 2, 1861 .
July 17, 1861
March 3, 1863 .
March 3, 1863 .
Mar.3,'63;June30, '64
June30,'64;Mar.3,'65
Mar.l,17,'62;Mar.3,'63
June 30, 1864 .
Mar. 2, '67; July 25, '68
7 3-10
5 .
5
6
7 3-10
4 to 6
3 .
Treasury Notes of 1846
Treasury Notes of 1847
Treasury Notes of 1857
Treasury Notes of 1861
Seven-thirties of 1861 .
One-year Notes of 1863.
Two-year Notes of 1863
Compound Interest Notes .
Seven-thirties of 1864 & 1865
Certificates of Indebtedness .
Temporary Loan .
Three per cent.certif's(call'd)
Aggregate of Debt on which Interest has ceased since maturity
6
i-iotoe;
i-iotoe'
6
3 to 6
Debt bearing no Interest.
Old Demand Notes
July 17, 1861 .
iFebrnary 12, 1862
February 25, 1862
Ijulv 11, 1862 .
iMafch 3, 1863 .
June:8, 1872 .
March 3, 1863 .
February 28, 1878
jJuly 17, 1862 .
March 3, 1863 .
June 30, 1864 .
Less amount estimated as lost or destroj-ed, act of June 21 , 1879
Legal Tender Notes
Certificates of Deposit
Gold Certificates ,
Silver Certificates .
Fractional Currency-
15,581,644 37
8,375,934 00
Dollars
15,557,000
741,850
156,914,600
62,007,600
484,129,550
250,000,000
738,180,450
1,167,350
14,000,000
1,722,698,400
57,665
1,105
1,250
3,276
21,000
8,000
10,000
386,650
68,200
114,250
2,215,150
577,200
2,130,350
655,400
82,525
6,000
950
1,700
3,000
16,600
46,315
35,900
241,770
144,900
4,000
2,960
5,000
6,841,115
346,681,016
15,535,000
7,884,600
12,689,290
7,205,710
Aggregate of Debt bearing no Interest
390,056,531
UNITED STATES.
587
The following table contains the summary of the various classes
of the public debt, and the interest thereon, on July 1, 1880 : —
Debt bearing interest in coin —
Bonds at 6 per cent. .
Bonds at 5 pe;* cent. .
Bonds at 4^ per cent. .
Bonds at 4 per cent. .
Eefunding Certificates
Navy Pension Fund .
Debt on whicii interest has
ceased since maturity
Old demand and legal-tender
notes ....
Certificates of deposit
Coin certificates .
Fractional currency .
Unclaimed interest
Total debt July 1, 1880.
Dollars
235,221,050
484,129,550
250,000.000
738,180,450
1,167,350
14,000,000
Principal
Interest
Dollars
1,722,698,400
6,841,115
390,056,531
Dollars
15,091,688
791,135
7,777
346,741,931
15,535,000
20,573,890
7,205,710
2,119,596,046
15,890,600
It is ordered, by Act of Congress, that a sinking fund shall be
provided for the payment of the debt. The Act requires that the
surplus gold remaining after the payment of the interest shall be
devoted ' to the purchase or payment of 1 per cent, of the entire
debt of the United States, to be made within each fiscal year after
July 1, 1862, which is to be set apart as a sinking fund, and the in-
terest of which shall in like manner be applied to the purchase or
payment of the public debt, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall
from time to time direct.' By the terms of an Act of Congress
passed March 18, 1869, entitled 'An Act to strengthen the public
credit,' it is declared that ' the faith of the United States is solemnly
pledged to the payment in coin or its equivalent of all obhgations of
the United States not bearing interest, known as United States'
notes.'
Besides the national debt, there exist local debts in nearly all the
states and territories of the Union, largely increased in recent years,
but not beyond the growth of wealth. In the year 1870 the entire
burthen of taxation, federal, state, and local, of the whole of the
United States, was calculated to amount to 730,000,000 dollars, or
146,000,000/., against 154,000,000 dollars, or 30,800,000/., in
1860; and 83,000,000 dollars, or 16,600,000/., in 1850. The
foUowino; table exhibits the amount of the local debt in eleven of
the principal states on December 31, of each of the years 1870 and
1878 :—
588
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
1 Total State Debt
Total State Debt
States 1 1870
1878
1 Dollars
Dollars
New York . . . i 127,399,090
244,079,859
Massachusetts
40,940,657
89,601,156
Illinois .
j 37,300,932
51,811,691
Ohio .
1 12,509,910
41,205,840
Wisconsin
1 3,651,475
9,931.158
Minnesota
! 2,436,795
5,272,230
Kansas .
j 4.848,976
13,473,197
Missouri
, 29,043,865
35,343,155
Connecticut
i 9,813,006
17,151,327
Georgia
i 15,209.212
26,130,351
Ehode Island
1 3,025,142
12,289,564
Total .
286,179,060
546,289,528
The State debts of all the States and Territories were estimated in
June 1879 at 800,000,000 dollars, or 100,000,000/.
Army and Navy.
1. Army.
By the eighth section of the first article of the Constitution of the
United States, Congi-ess is empowered in general ' to raise and sup-
port armies;' and by the second section of the second article, the
President is appointed commander-in-chief of the army and navy,
and of the militia when called into the service of the United States.
On Augu.st 7, 1789, Congress established a Department of "War
as the instrument of the President in carrying out the provisions of
the constitution for military affairs.
By Acts of Congress, approved July 28, 1866, March 3, 1869, and
July 15, 1870, the number of land foi-ces constituting the standing
army of the United States Avas strictly limited. Section 2 of the
Act of July 15, 1870, provides that on or before the 1st day of
July 1871, the number of enlisted men in the army shall be re-
dticed to 30,000. It was subsequently enacted that from the year
1875 there shall be no more than 25,000 enlisted men at any one
time. The actual enlisted strength of the army on August 1, 1880,
was 24,989, distributed as follows :— Cavalry, 8,000 ; artillery, 2,600 ;
infantry, 12,100; miscellaneous. 2,289. — Total, 24,989 men, rank
and file.
The term of service in the army is five years. As now organised,
tlie army is composed of 10 regiments of cavalry, consisting each of
12 troops, or companies ; 25 regiments of infantry, of 10 companies
each; 5 regiments of artillery, of 12 batteries each; and 1 engineer
battalion ; besides the cadets of the military academy. The 9th and
10th regiments of cavalry, and the 24th and 25th regiments of
infantry, are composed of negro soldiers, but with white officers.
UNITED STATES. 589
The army was commanded on July 1, 1880, by 1 general,
1 lieutenant-general, 3 major-generals, 16 brigadier-generals, &8
colonels, 85 lieutenant-colonels, 244 majors, G29 captains, and 1,084
first and second lieutenants, and 34 chaplains.
The territory of the United States is divided for military pur-
poses into nine departments, and these are grouped into three military
divisions, namely. Division of the Missoiari, composed of the Depart-
ments of Dakota, the Platte, the Missouri, and Texas; Division of
the Pacific, composed of the Departments of Columbia, California,
and Arizona ; and, Division of the Atlantic, composed of the Depart-
ments of the East and the South. Independent of these divisions
is the ' Department of West Point,' containing the Military Academy.
— (Official Communication.)
2. Navij.
The naval forces of the United States consisted in July 1880 of 28
cruising ships, one steamboat, and 5 .sailing vessels. There were, at
that date, 19 other vessels, including one monitor, under repair.
When these vessels are repaired, the effective cruising force of the
navy will be 47 steam vessels and 5 sailing ships. In course of con-
struction Avere, at the same date, 4 double- turreted monitors, named
the ' Puritan,' ' Amphitrite,' ' Monadnock,' and ' Dictator,' and a
single- turreted one, the • Terror.' This brought up the force of the
American navy to 61 cruising ships, 20 monitors, and 2 toi-pedo
boats, making a total of 83 men-of-war.
A large reduction in the strength of the enlisted force of the navy
(see page 592) was ordered by the Congress of the United States in
the cession of 1876, as inserted in the Naval Appropriation Bill, in
consequence of which it became necessary to withdraw a number of
the vessels from active service.
The United States possess ten i:avy-yards and .stations,
namely, Portsmouth, Charlestown, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, League-
Island, New London, Washington, Norfolk, Pensacola, and Mare
Island. Portsmouth, New Hampshire, has an area of 63 acres ;
Charlestown, near Boston, of 80 acres ; Brooklyn, of 80 ; Phila-
delphia, of 15, and Washington of 42 acres. Norfolk, Pensacola and
Mare Island, are used only for temporary repairs.
There are four 'rates' in the official classification of ships of war.
First-rates are all vessels of 4,000 tons and upwards ; Second-rates,
vessels of 2,000 to 4,000; Third-rates, vessels of 900 to 2,000;
and Fourth-rate.s, all vessels under 900 tons.
The following table gives a detailed list, in alphabetical order of
names, of all the ironclads, and of all the First, Second, and Third-
rate steamers of the navy in the middle of the year 1880. The list is
drawn up from the ' Navy -register of the United States,' issued by
the Secretary of the Navy, corrected to July 1, 1880: —
590
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Ironclad Screw Steamers.
Name
Guns
Tonnage
Station
Ajax
2
550
James River
Amphitrite
4
874
Repairing at Wilmington
Canonicus
2
550
Pensacola
Camanehe
2
496
Repairing at Mare Island
Catskill .
2
496
James River
Colossus .
10
2,127
On the stocks at New York
Dictator .
2
1,750
League Island
Jason
2
496
League Island
Lehigh
2
496
James River
Mahopac .
1 2
550
James River
Manhattan
2
550
James River
Massachusetts
4
2,127
On the stocks, Portsmouth
Miantonomah
4
1,225
Repairing at Chester
Monadnock
4
1,091
Laid up at Mare Island
Montauk .
2
496
AVashington
Nahaut .
1 2
496
League Island
Nantucket
2
496
Annapolis
Oregon .
4
2,127
On the stocks at Boston
Passaic
2
496
AVashington
Puritan .
2
1,870
Repairing at Chester
Roanoke .
6
2,260
Chester, Penn.
Saugus
2
! 550
Washington
Terror
4
1,085
Philadelphia
Wyandotte
2
550
Washington
Torpedo Boats.
Name
Tonnage
Station
Alarm ....
Intrepid ....
311
438
New York
New York
Steamers not Ironclad.
Name
1 Propulsion
Guns
Displ'ment
First Rates—
Tons
Antietam ....
Screw ....
21
4,000
Connecticut
Screw .
21
4,450
Colorado
Screw .
30
4,700
Florida .
Screw .
12
4,220
Franklin
Screw ,
26
5,170
Iowa
Screw .
23
4,000
Java
Screw .
21
4,000
Minnesota
Screw .
40
4,700
New York
Screw .
21
4,070
Niagara .
Screw .
12
5,440
Pennsylvania
Screw ,
21
4,000
Teanesaee
Screw .
23
4,840
Wabash .
Screw .
26
4,650
UNITED STATES.
59i
Kame
Propulsion
Guns Displ'ment
Second Bates —
Alaska . . . . . 1
Screw ....
12
2,400
Benicia .
Screw .
12
2,400
Brooklyn
Screw .
18
3,000
Canandaigua .
Screw .
9 1
2,130
Congress
Screw .
16 1
3,050
Hartford
Screw .
16
2,900
Lackawanna .
Screw .
11
2,220
Lancaster
Screw .
22
3,250
Monongahela .
Screw .
9
2,100
Omaha .
Screw .
12
2,400
Pensacola
Screw ,
22
3,000
Plymouth.
Screw .
12
2,400
Powhatan
Paddle-wheel
14
3,980
Richmond
Screw .
14
2,700
Shenandoah .
Screw .
9
2,100
Susquehanna .
Screw .
23
3,900
Ticonderoga .
Screw .
9
2,220
Trenton .
Screw .
11
3,900
1 Yandalia
Screw .
8
2,200
Worcester
Screw .
15
3,050
Third Bate.
—
Adams .
Screw .
6
1,375
Alert .
Screw .
4
1,020
Alliance .
Screw .
6
1,375
Ashuelot
Paddle-wheel
6
1,370
Enterprise
Screw .
6
1,375
Essex .
Screw .
6
1,450
Galena .
Screw .
8
1,900
Iroquois
Screw .
7
1,575
Juniata .
Screw .
8
1,900
Kansas . ■ .
Screw .
3
900
Kearsarge
Screw .
7
1,550
Marion .
Screw .
8
1,900
Michigan
Paddle-wheel
8
685
Mohican
Screw .
8
1,900
j Monocacy
Paddle-wheel
6
1,370
Narragansett .
Screw .
5
1,235
Nipsic .
Screw .
6
1.375
1 Nyack .
Screw .
3
900
Ossipee .
Screw .
8
1,900
Quinnebaug .
Screw ,
8
1,900
Ranger .
Screw .
4
j 1,020
Saco
Screw .
3
900
Shawmut
Screw .
3
900
Swatara .
Screw .
8
1,900
Tuscarora
Screw .
7
1,560
Vandalia
Screw .
8
1,840
Wachusett
Screw .
7
1,575
Wyoming
Screw ,
7
1,560
Yantic .
1 Screw .
'
900
592
THE STATES5IAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The navy of the United States was commanded, on the 20th
July, 1880, by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 11 rear-admirals, 25
commodores, 50 captains, 90 commanders, and 80 lieutenant-
commanders. The body of commissioned officers comprised besides,
at the same date, 280 lieutenants, 100 masters, 96 ensigns, and 76
midshipmen. By Act of Congress, approved May 12, 1879, the
number of enlisted men was limited to 8,250, 750 of whom are to
be apprentices and boys.
Area and Population.
The land surface of the United States was reported at the census
of 1870 to embrace 3,603,884 square miles, inclusive of the territory
long known as ' Russian America,' purchased from the Russian Go-
vernment by treaty of June 20, 1867, and annexed to the Re-
public Oct. 18, 1867, under the name of ' Alaska.' The total area of
the United States, inclusive of the water surface of the great lakes
and rivers, is estimated at 4,000,000 square miles. About one-hali
of the land surface consists of public lands.
The population of the United States has been ascertained at all
times with great accuracy. The census is taken in the States in
obedience to Article 1, section 2, of the Constitution, Avhich pro-
vides that ' Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included in this Union ac-
cording to their respective numbers ; ' and the same section directs
that ' the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years.' Under these provisions, and
the laws passed in pursuance of them, the census of the United
States has been taken ten times, viz., in 1790, in 1800, in 1810,
in 1820, in 1830, in 1840, in 1850, in 1860, in 1870, and in 1880.
The details of the last census had not been published by the Govern-
ment at the end of 1880.
The following table gives the total population of the United
States, at each of the ten enumerations from 1790 to 1880 : —
Years
White
Free coloured
Slave
Total
1790
3,231,631
—
697,697
3.929,328
1800
4,304,489
108,395
893,041
5,305,925
1810
5,862,004
186,446
1,191,364
7,239,814
1820
7,861,937
233,524
1,538,038
9,633,499
1830
10,537,378
319,599
2,009,043
12,866,020
1840
14,195,695
386,303
2,487,455
17,069,453
1850
19,553,114
434,449
3,204,313
23,191,876
1860
26,975,575
488,005
3,979,741
31,443,321
1870
33,589,377
4,968,994
—
38,558,371
1880
—
—
—
50,152,559
UNITED STATES.
593
The subjoined table gives, in alphabetical order, the area and po-
pulation of each of the States and of the 10 Territories of the Union
— including the district of Columbia in the latter class — at the census
of Jime 1870, together with the preliminaiy census returns of 1880
published by the Government in January 1881. Although given as
but provisional, the figures of the 1880 census are believed to be nearly
accurate. At the date of the census of 1870 there were only 37 States,
but Colorado was subsequently admitted, and its area and population
are, therefore, here included among the States composing the Union.
594
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Area, English
Population in
Population in
square miles
1870
1880
Alaska
577,390
70,641
30,146
Arizona
113,916
9,658
40,441
Columbia District
64
131,700
177,638
Dakota
150,932
14,181
134,502
Idaho
86,294
14,999
32,611
Moutana .
143,776
20,595
39,157
New Mexico
121,201
91,874
118.430
Utah ....
84,476
86,786
143,907
Washington
69,994
23,955
75,120
Wyoming .
Total, Territories .
Total States and"!
Territories J
97,883
1,445,926
9,118
20,788
473,507
812,740
3,512,237
38,629,012
50,182,525
The States and Territories here enumerated do not occupy the
whole area belonging to the United States. There are, besides, vast
tracts of lands described as 'Kansas,' 'Minnesota,' 'Nebraska,'
' Oregon,' and the ' Indian country,' not as yet organised.
As regards sex, the total population of the United States at the
census of 1870 comprised 19,493,565 males and 19,004,806 females.
In 16 States and the District of Columbia there was a preponderance
of males over females, the greatest in the North-eastern States of
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Ncav York. In
the Mormon territory of Utah there were 44,121 males and 42,665
females at the census of 1870.
At the first census of the Union, in 1790, there existed only 17
States, the largest of which was Virginia, with a population of
747,610, and the smallest, Tennessee, with a population of 35,691.
At the second census, in 1800, there were 20 States, the largest,
Virginia, with a population of 880,200, and the smallest, Indiana,
with 5,041 inhabitants. Virginia still took the lead at the third
census in 1810, with a population of 974,601. At the fourth
census, in 1820, there were 27 States, New York standing first with
1,372,111, and Michigan last with 8,765 inhabitants. All the
succeeding enumerations gave the State of New York the first place.
At the fifth census, in 1830, the State of New York had a population
of 1,918,608, and the 27th and last State, Arkansas, 30,388. The
sixth census, of 1840, included 29 States, that of New York with
2,428,921, and the least populated, Wisconsin, with 30,945 in-
habitants. Hitherto, the Union was only composed of States,
besides the neutral District of Columbia, but the seventh census,
■of 1850, added 2 Territories, New Mexico and Utah, to 33 existing
States, the first, New York, having a population of 3,097,394, and
the last, Minnesota, of 0,077. At the eighth census, of 1860, there
were 36 States and 6 Territories, the State of New York heading
the list with 3,880,735 inhabitants. The ninth and tenth census
UNITED STATES.
595
included 37 States and 10 Territories. After the taking of the
census of 1870, the former Territory of Colorado, as already stated,
was admitted into the Union.
There were, in 1880, in the United States, 255,938 Indians, all
more or less under the control of the Government agents. Of these,
there were 60,560 civilised and 17,750 luicivilised Indians in the In-
dian territory. There were over 50,000 Indians in New York State
and 10,000 in Michigan, the others living in the western tenitories.
The following table gives the numbers of the native and of the
foreign-born population at the census of June, 1870 : —
states and Territories
Native
Population
Foreign-bom
Population
Total
States :—
Alabama ....
987,030
9,962
996,992
Arkansas
479,445
5,026
484,471
California .
3-50,416
209,831
560,247
Connecticut
423,815
113,639
537,454
Delaware
115,879
9,136
125,015
Florida
182,781
4,967
187,748
Georgia
1,172,982
11,127
1,184,109
Illinois
2,024,693
515,198
2,539,891
Indiana
1,539,163
141,474
1,380,637
Iowa .
987,735
204,057
1,191,792
Kansas
316,007
48,392
364,399
Kentucky .
1,257,613
63,398
1,321,011
Loiusiana
665,088
61,827
726,915
Maine
578,034
48,881
626,915
Maryland .
697,482
83,412
780,894
Massachusetts
1,104,032
353,319
1,457,351
Michigan
916,049
268,010
1,184,059
Minnesota .
279,009
160,697
439,706
Mississippi .
816,731
11,191
827,922
Missouri
1,499,028
222,267
1,721,295
Nebraska .
92,245
30,748
122,993
Nevada
23,690
18,801
42,491
New Hampshire .
288,689
29,611
318,300
New Jersey
717,153
188,943
906,096
New York .
3,244,406
1,138,353
4,382,759
North Carolina
1.068,332
3,029
1,071,361
Ohio ,
2,292,767
372,493
2,665,260
Oregon
79,323
11,600
90,923
Pennsylvania
2,976,530
545,261
3,521,791
Ehode Island
161,957
55,396
217,353
South Carolina .
697,532
8,074
705,606
Tennessee .
1,239,204
19,316
1,258,520
Texas
756,168
62,411
818,579
Vermont .
283,396
47,155
330,551
Virginia
1,211,409
13,754
1,225,163
West Virginia
424,923
17,091
442,014
"Wisconsin .
690,171
364,499
1,054,670
Total, St
ates .
32,640,907
5,472,346
38,113,253
qq2
596
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
States and Territories
Native
Population
Foreign-born
Population
Total
Tekbitokies : —
Arizona
Colorado
Dakota
District of Columbia
Idaho .
Montana
New Mexico
Utah .
Washington
Wyoming .
Total, Territories
3,849
33,265
9,366
115,446
7,114
12,616
86,254
56,084
18,931
5,605
5,809
6,599
4,815
16,254
7,885
7,979
5,620
30,702
5,024
3,513
9,658
39,864
14,181
131,700
14,999
20,595
91,874
86,786
23,955
9,118
348,530
94,200
442,730
Total, United State
s
32,989,437
5,566,546
38,555,983
There were in 1870 fourteen and in 1880 twenty towns in the
United States with upwards of 100,000 inhabitants. The following
table gives the population of the fourteen towns in 1870 and also
the figures of population for 1880, showing the growth within the
decennial period : —
Towns
States
Population 1
1870
1880
New York .
New York .
942,292
1,206,590 1
Philadelphia
Pennsylvania
674,022
846,984 j
Brooldyu
New York
396,099
586,689
St. Louis
Missouri
310,864
350,522
Chicago
Illinois . . .
298,977
503,304
Baltimore
Maryland
267,354
333,190
Boston .
Massachusetts
250,526
362,535
Cincinnati
Ohio .
216,239
255,708
New Orleans
Louisiana
191,418
216,140
San Francisco
California
149,473
233,956
Buffalo .
New York .
117,714
155.137
Washington .
Dis. Columbia
109,199
147.307
Newark
New Jersey .
105,059
136,400
Louisville
Kentucky
100,753
123,645
The immense extent of land forming part of the United States, as
yet uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be national property, at
the disposal of Congress and the executive of the Republic. The
whole public domain is surveyed and divided by parallel lines into
* townships' of six miles square or thirty-six square miles, and these
are again divided by parallel lines exactly one mile apart. The
smaller squares are called * sections,' and contain 640 acres, which
are again divided into half and quarter sections, and also eighths.
These lands are offered for sale at the several land offices in the
UNITED STATES.
597
districts to be sold, the price being fixed at one dollar and a quarter
per acre. The purchaser comes in as the assignee of the United
States, and receives a patent from the President. There are some
fifty different land offices, and from two to three million acres are
sold annually. It is provided by law that two sections, of 640 acres
of land in each ' township ' are reserved for common schools, so that
the spread of education may go together with colonisation.
The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive and
tmiversal, except so far as restrained by stipulations in the original
cessions. This is not the case, however, with what is called
' national property,' such as forts and arsenals, where the States have
not ceded the jiurisdiction. In such cases, the administration of the
State continues, subject, however, to the exercise of the legal powers
of the national Government.
The United States acquired their actual power and greatness
mainly tlirough immigration. From 1775 to 1815 immigration into
the country was very small, on account of the American Revolution
and the European w?a-s, not over 3,000 or 4,000 a year arriving
during this period. When peace between England and America
was re-established, in 1815, immigration took a firesh start. The
famine of 181G and 1817 gave the first powerful impulse to a larger
immigration fi-om Germany, and after the year 1820 a never-inter-
rupted stream of population kept flowing into the United States.
Tlie following statement shows the number of alien passengers
arrived in the United States from 1830 to 1880, the number of
immigrants arrived from 1856 to 1880, and the estimated number of
emigrants departed, and excess of immigrants over emigrants from
1867 to 1880 :—
Estimated
Excess of
reriod
Alien Passen-
Immigrants
number of
immigrants
gers arrivetl
arrived
emigrants
over emi-
departed
grants
Year ended Sept. 30,
1830 .
23,322
1831 .
22,633
.
—
—
1832 .
53,179
- —
—
Quarter ended Dee. 31,
1832 .
7,303
_-
Year ended Dec. 31,
1
1833 .
58,640
—
1
1834 .
65,365
—
.
183.5 .
45,374
—
.
1836 .
76,242
—
1837 .
79,340
—
__
1838 .
38,914
— .
1839 .
68,069
—
—
598
THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Estimated
Excess of
Alien Passen-
Immigrants
number of
immigrants
Period
gers arrived
arrived
emigrants
departed
over emi-
grants
Year ended Dec. 31,
1840 .
84,066
—
—
1841 .
80,289
—
—
—
1842 .
104,565
—
—
—
3 Quarters ended Sept.30,
1843 .
52,496
—
—
—
Year ended Sept. 30,
1844 .
78,615
—
—
—
1845 .
114,371
—
—
—
1846 .
154,416
—
—
—
1847 .
234,968
—
—
—
18'18 .
226,527
—
—
— ■
1849 .
297,024
—
—
—
1850 .
310,004
—
—
—
Quarter ended Dec. 31,
1850 .
59,976
—
—
—
Year ended Dec. 31,
1851 .
379,466
—
—
—
1852 .
371,603
—
—
—
1853 .
368,645
—
—
—
1854 .
427,833
—
— •
—
1855 .
200,877
—
—
— ;
1856 .
200,036
195,857
—
— •
1857 .
250,882
246,945
—
1858 .
122,872
119,501
—
— •
1859 .
121,075
118,616
—
— •
1860 .
153,418
150,237
—
1861 .
91,822
89,724
—
1862 .
91,826
89,007
—
—
1863 .
176,214
174,524
—
1864 .
193,416
193,195
—
1865 .
248,111 .
247,453
2 Quarters ended June 30,
1866 .
167,757
166,112
—
• —
Year ended June 30,
1867 .
303,044
298,967
25,504
273,463
1868 .
288,088
282,189
21,376
260,813
1869 .
363,074
352,768
36,739
316,029
1870 .
402,920
387,203
32,304
354,899
1871 .
342,609
321,350
27,626
293,724
1872 .
422,978
404,806
25,676
379,130
1873 .
473,141
459,803
58,072
401,731
1874 .
327,949
313,339
72,346
240,993
1875 .
244,632
227,498
92,754
134,744
1876 .
189,991
169,986
63,613
106,373
1877 .
165,019
141,857
71,903
69,954
1878 .
157,776
138,469
64,555
73,914
1879 .
197,954
177,826
42,001
135,825
1880 .
483,857
457,243
47,070
410,173
UNITED STATES.
599
The immigrants of the year ending June 30, 1880 comprised
287,623 males and 169,634 females. There came from England,
59,454 ; from Ireland, 71,603; from Scotland, 12,640; from Wales,
1,173 ; from Germany, 84,638 ; from Austria, 12,904 ; from Sweden,
39,186 ; from Norway, 19,895 ; from Denmark, 6,576; from Swit-
zerland, 6,156 ; fi-om France, 4,313 ; from Italy, 12,327 ; from
Russia, 4,854 ; and from the Dominion of Canada, 99,706. The
remainder of the immigrants came in small numbers from almost
every country of the globe.
The various divisions of the world contributed as follows to the
immigration of the year ending June 30, 1880 : —
Divisions
Males
Females
Total
Europe
215.901
131,816
347,747
Asia .
0,757
82
5,839
Africa
17
4
21
America .
64,535
37,146
101,683
Pacific Islands .
800
154
934 1
All other parts .
613
402
1,015 1
In recent years there has been a large immigration of Chinese.-
During the year ending June 30, 1880, there were 5,802 Chinese .
immigrants, but of these only 70 were females. It was stated in a
report, issued in 1880, that at the end of 1879 the total number of
Chinese in the United States was 155,300, of whom 70,000 lived Ia
the State of California.
Trade and Industry.
The subjoined table gives the total value, in dollars and pounds
sterling, of the imports and exports of merchandise in each of the
ten fiscal years, ended June 30, from 1871 to 1880: —
Years
ended June 30
Imports of merchandise
Exports of merchandise
Dollars
£
Dollars
£
1871
541,493,774
108.298,755
590,978,550
118,195,710
1872
572,510,304
114,502,061
561,808,381
112,361,676
1873
642,030,539
128,406,108
626,595,077
125,319,015
1874
567,406,342
113,481,268
586,283,040
117,256,608
1875
533,004,526
106,600,905
545,069,027
109,013,805
1876
460,640,190
92,128,038
525,582,247
105,116,449
1877
451,307,549
90,261,510
589,669,490
117,933,898
1878
437,051,533
87,410,306
694,884,200
138,976,840
1879
445,777,775
89,155,555
710,439,441
142,087,888
1880
667,953,302
133,590,660
835,633,595
167,126,719
6oo
TUE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881
The following table gives the total value of the gold and silver
bullion and specie imported and exported from the United States, in
each of the ten fiscal years ended 30th June, from 1871 to 1879 : —
Years
(ended June 30)
Imports
Qt" specie
Exports
d£ specie
Dollars
£
Dollars
£
1871
21,270,024
4,254,005
98,441,989
19,688,398
1872
13,743,689
2,748,738
79,877,534
15,975,507
1873
21,480,937
4,296,187
84,608,574
16,921,715
187i
28,454,906
5,690,981
66,630,405
13,326,081
1875
20,894,217
4,178,843
92,132,142
18,426,428
1876
15,936,681
3,187,336
56,506,302
11,301,260
1877
40,774,414
8,154,883
43,135,738
8,627,147
1878
29,821,313
5,964.263
33,733,225
6,746,645
1879
20,296,000
4,059.200
24,997,441
4,999,488
1880
93.034,310
18,606.862
17.142,199
3,428,439
The exports of the United States consist in the main of agri-
culttiral produce. Foremost, as regards value, in the list of articles,
stand wheat and flour, and then follow cotton, tobacco, pickled pork
and hams, and butter and cheese. Considerably more than one-
half of the exports go to Great Britain and Ireland, the rest being
taken chiefly by Canada, France, and Germany.
The commercial intercourse of the United States with Great
Britain and Ireland is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of bullion and gold and silver specie — from the United States to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into the United States, in each of the ten
years from 1870 to 1879 :—
Exports
Imports of British Home
Years
from the Unital States
Produce into tlie United
to Great Britain
States
£
£
1870
49,804,835
28,335,394
1871
61,134,463
34,227,701
1872
54,663,948
40,736,597
1873
71,471,493
33,574,664
1874
73,897,400
28,241,809
1875
69,590,054
21,868,279
1876
75,899,008
16,833,517
1877
77,825,973
16,376,814
1878
89.146,170
14,552,076
1879
91,818,295
20,321,990
The two staple articles of exports from the United States to Great
Britain and Ireland are corn — including breadstufFs of all kinds
UNITED STATES.
60 1
"imder the name — and raw cotton. The total quantities and value
of the corn exports were as follows in each of the five years from
1875 to 1879 :—
Tears
Quantities
Value
Cwts.
£
1875
38,433,684
19,291,502
1876
49,836,585
21,192,197
1877
50,032,507
23,910,451
1878
67,764,689
30,389,519
1879
74,570,915
33,091,926
The most valuable of the corn exports is that of wheat. The ex-
ports of wheat to Great Britain were of the following quantities and
value in each of the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Cwts.
£
1875
23,523,307
12,469,664
1876
19,323,054
10,314,373
1877
21,386,980
13,583,543
1878
29,060,809
16,504,465
1879
36,041,895
19,150,422
Next to wheat, among the corn exports, the most important are
those of maize, or Indian corn. The following table gives the quan-
tities and value of maize exported from the United States to Great
Britain in each of the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
Value
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
12,058,606
27,065,460
25,577,778
32,877,700
30,470,143
£
4,803,955
8,656,338
8,225,437
9,964,629
8,239,575
The exports of raw cotton from the United States to Great Britain
and Ireland were of the following quantities and value in each of the
five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Cwts.
£
1875
7,511,906
27,075,283
1876
8,328,573
25,120,512
1877
8,145,041
23,621,840
1878
9,162,419
25,355,029
1879
9,664,840
25,949,967
602
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
It will be seen from the preceding tables that the exports from
the United States to Great Britain, gradually increasing in recent
years, have risen to more than five times the value of the British
imports. While the exports from the United States increased with
great regularity, the British imports decreased as regularly.
The two most staple articles of imports of British produce into
the United States are manufactured cotton goods, and iron wrought
and imwrought. The following table gives the total value of these
two articles of British imports in the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Cotton goods
Iron
£
&
1875
3,457,473
3,805,767
1876
2,507,224
2,639,930
1877
2,494,398
2,685,881
1878
2,190,919
2,383,757
1879
1,984,118
1,330,770
Next to cotton goods and iron, the most notable articles of British
produce imported into the United States are linen and woollen
mantifactures. The value of the linen manufectures imported was
2,646,916/., and that of the woollens 2,447,266Z. in the year 1879.
The international commerce of the United States is at present
mainly carried on in foreign bottoms. It appears from the report
of the Secretary of the Treasury on the commerce of the United
States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1879, that the total
tonnage of vessels of the United States was 4,169,601 tons, being a
decrease of 43,164 tons when compared Avith the shipping in the
preceding year. There were 2,717 vessels registered as engaged in
the foreign trade, of an aggregate burthen of 1,491,533 tons, show-
ing a decrease of 137,514 tons; while there were 22,494 vessels en-
rolled and licensed, engaged in domestic commerce, of a total burthen
of 2,678,067 tons, or 94,350 tons more than in the preceding year.
Of the total tonnage thus entered, about 21 per cent, was American,
and 79 per cent, foreign; of the total number of clearances for foreign
countries, about 22 per cent, was American, and 78 per cent, foreign.
The shipping belonging to the United States on the 30th Jvme,
1879, was classified as follows : —
Sailing-vessels . -
Steam- vessels
Barges ........
Canal boats, &c.
Total
Number
Tonnage
17,042
4,569
2,394
1,206
2,422,813
1,176,172
466,878
103,721
25,211
4,169,584
UNITED STATES.
603
The following table shows the distribution of the commercial navy
of the United States on the 30th June, 1879: —
states and Coasts Vessels
Tons
Maine ........
2,640
518,352
New Hampshire
77
10,823
Vermont .
24
2,451
Massachusetts
2,419
444,566
Ehode Island
305
39,953
Connecticut
827
81,065
New York
5,661
1,228,275
New Jersey
1,293
106,963
Pennsylvania
1,708
364,195
Delaware .
193
16,181
Maryland .
1,753
118,616
District of Coliunbia
96
10,665
Virginia ....
1,084
34,705
North Carolina
327
12,046
South Carolina
222
15,303
Georgia .
109
21,896
Florida .
361
25,685
Alabama .
109
14,454
Mississippi
192
10,527
Louisiana
663
89,105
Texas
279
14,947
Tennessee
95
15,215
-Kentucky .
80
18,684
JVIissouri .
375
148,692
Iowa
90
10,249
Nebraska .
24
4,690
Minnesota
101
8,243
Wisconsin
401
79,084
Illinois
448
86,274
Indiana
109
10,995
Michigan .
910
144,988
Ohio . _ .
583
144,478
West Virginia .
451
46,874
Arizona . ,
8
1,388
California
! 918
200,318
Oregon
149
38,491
Washington Territory
116
29,954
Alaska ....
11
194
Grand total
Total on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
25,211
4,169,600
18,346
2,800,58 4
Total on the Pacific coast . . . I 1,202
270,348
Total on the Northern lakes . . . 3,087
597,376
Total on the Western rivers . . . 2,576
501,808
604 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
At the census of the United States taken in 1870, there were
in the country 8,690,219 horses, 28,074,582 cattle, 28,477,951
sheep, and 25,184,540 hogs. The report of the Department of
A"-riculture gives the following general summary of the number of
acres planted and quantities raised of the principal crops of the
United States in the year 1871 : — Indian corn, 34,091,137 acres,
yielding 991,898,000 bushels. Wheat, 19,943,893 acres, yielding
230,732,400 bushels. Oats, 8,305,800 acres, yielding 255,743,000
bushels. Potatoes, 1,220,912 acres, yielding 120,461,700 bushels.
Barley, 1,177,666 acres, yielding 26,718,500 bushels. Eye,
1,069,531 acres, yielding 15,355,500 bushels. Buckwheat,
413,015 acres, yielding 8,328,700 bushels. These seven crops fur-
nished a total of 66,282,803 acres, yielding 1,642,237,800 biishels.
During the year 1877, the total production of cereals in the
United States came to 2,178,934,646 bushels, grown on 93,150,288
acres, and valued at 1,035,570,478 dollars. The production of the
year 1879 was provisionally estimated at 400,000,000 bushels, being
the largest ever known, and more than sufficient to supply all the
countries of Europe suifering from foiling crops.
At the census of 1870 there were in the United States 956 cotton
manufacturing establishments. The States having the largest
numbers were Massachusetts, 191 establishments; Rhode Island,
139; Pennsylvania, 138; Connecticut, 111; New York, 81; New
Hampshire, 36 ; North Carolina, 33 ; Georgia 34 ; Tennessee, 28 ;
New Jersey, 27 ; Maine, 23 ; and Maryland, 22. The cotton mills
employed 448 steam-engines, aggregatmg 47,117-horse-power and
1,250 water-wheels of 102,409-horse-power. There were 157,310
looms, 3,694,477 frame spindles, and 3,437,938 mule spindles. The
hands employed were 47,790 males above 16 years of age, 09,637
females above 15, and 22,942 children and youths.
At the census of 1870 there were 2,891 woollen factories in the
country. Of these Pennsylvania had 457 ; New York, 252 ; Ohio,
223; Massachusetts, 185; Indiana, 175; Missouri, 156; Delaware,
148; Kentucky, 125; Illinois, 109; Connecticvit, 108; Maine, 107;
Iowa, 85 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; West Virginia, 74 ; Virginia, 68 ;
Rhode Island, 65 ; Vermont, 64 ; Wisconsin, 64 ; Michigan, b4 :
North Carolina, 52 ; Georgia, 46 ; INIaryland, 31 ; New Jersey, 29 ;
and other States smaller numbers. The woollen factories had 1 ,050
steam-engines, with 35,900-horse-power, and 1,092 water-wheels,
svith 59,333-horse-power. The average number of hands employed
was 427,728 males over 16 years of age.
The statistics of the American iron manufacture, obtained at the
census of 1870, showed that there were in the country 386 es-
tablishments which made pig iron. They worked 574 blast
furnaces, employed 27,554 hands during the year ending June 3,
UNITED STATES.
605
1870, and in that year made 2,052,821 tons of pig iron. The pig
iron product of 1877 was 2,314,585 tons, and increased in 1878 to
2,382,000 tons, of which Pennsylvania made more than one-half.
On January 1, 1878, there were 71 G blast furnaces in the country,
270 in blast and -iiG out of blast; and on December 31 there Avere
700 blast furnaces, 260 in blast and 440 out of blast. There was
an increased average production of the active furnaces in 1878 over
1877. The foundries numbered 2,653, employing 51,297 hands;
the forges numbered 102, Avith 3,561 hands ; and the bar, rod, rail-
way iron, plate, and other kindred establishments numbered 309,
employing 44,643 hands. Pennsylvania had the largest share in the
iron manufacture.
It was ascertained at the census of 1870 that sixteen states pro-
duced iron ore, of Avhich the entire annual yield was 3,395,718
tons, one-third produced in Pennsylvania. The copper production
was chiefly in the Lake Superior region, four-fifths of the yield being
from Michigan. Nine states produced copper, the largest after Michi-
gan being Vermont, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Maryland.
Petroleum at the census of 1870 was found in four states, Pennsyl-
vania producing 171^ millions of gallons; West Virginia, eight
millions ; Ohio, two millions, and Kenti;cky, 4,000, the aggregate
yield amounting to 181,263,502 gallons.
The total production of gold and silver in the country Avas as
folloAvs during each of the years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Tears
Gold
Silver
Total
JJoliars
DoJlars
Dollars
1871
34,398,000
19,286.000
53,684,000
1872
38,109,395
19,924,429
58,033,824
1873
39,206,558
27,483,302
66,689,860
1874
38.466,488
29,699,122
68,165,610
1875
39,968.194
32,605,239
72,573,433
1876
42,886,935
39,292,924
82,179,859
1877
44,880,223
45,846,109
90,726,332
1878
38,956,231
38,746,391
77,702,622
1879
30.900,000
40,812,320
71,712,320
The precious metals Avere raised mainly in tAvo States, first, Ne-
vada, mainly silver ; and secondly, California, chiefly gold. Mon-
tana, Idaho, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, Utah, New Mexico, and
Arizona produced smaller amounts of silver and gold.
There were 49,130,584 tons of coal raised in the year 1878, and
54,318,250 tons in the year 1877. The great coal region of the
United States is Pennsyh'ania, Avhich produced 17,605,262 tons of
anthracite, and 13,500,000 tons of bituminous coal in the year 1878.
The coal mines of Pennsylvania employ 44,000 men, mostly natives
of Wales, England, and Ireland.
The groAvth of the raihvay system of the United States dates from
6o6
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
1827, when the first Hne was opened for trafiic at Quincey, Massa-
chusetts. The extent of railways in operation in 1830 was 23 miles;
it rose to 2,818 miles in 1840 ; to 9,021 miles in 1850 ; to 30,635
miles in 1860 ; and to 53,399 miles in 1870. The following table
gives the length of lines opened for traffic in the states and territories
on the 1st of January of each of the years 1877, 1878, and 1879 : —
states and Territories
1877
1878
1879
Miles
Miles
Miles
Alabama ..>...
1,738
1,802
1,839
Arkansas ......
788
767
783
California
1,919
2,080
2,149
Colorado
957
1,045
1,165
Connecticut
918
922
922
Dakota territory . . . .
275
290
320
Delaware
285
272
280
Florida
484
485
487
Georgia ......
2,306
2,339
2,415
Illinois
7,285
7,392
7,506
Indiana
4,003
4,057
4,198
Indian territory ....
270
275
275
Iowa
3,939
4,134
4,266
Kansas ......
2,238
2,352
2,427
Kentucky ......
1,475
1,509
1,528
Louisiana ......
539
466
466
Maine
980
989
988
Maryland and district of Columbia .
929
944
952
Massachusetts .....
1,837
1.863
1,872
Michigan
3,395
3,477
3,593
Minnesota .....
2,020
2,194
2,535
Mississippi .....
1,044
1,088
1,126
Missouri ......
3,146
3,198
3,286
Nebraska ......
1,150
1,286
1,344
Nevada
600
627
627
New Hampshire ....
940
964
1,009
New Jersey
1,601
1,661
1,663
New York
5,425
5,725
5,879
North Carolina
1,570
1,426
1,435
Ohio
4,687
4,878
5,151
Oregon
241
248
283
Pennsylvania
5,983
5,926
6,011
Ehode Island
189
204
208
South Carolina
1,353
1,406
1,419
Tennessee
1,645
1,656
1,665
Texas
2,085
2,210
2,428
Utah territory
505
506
543
Vermont . ... . . .
810
872
873
Virginia ......
1,609
1,635
1,646
"Washington territory . , .
110
197
212
West Virginia
584
638
669
Wisconsin .....
2,707
2,701
2,810
Wyoming territory ....
Total ....
459
465
472
77,023
79,171
81,725
UNITED STATES. 60/
The number of telegraph offices in the United States on the 1st
July, 1879, was 9,515, the total length of lines 116,300 miles, and
the length of wires 245,000 miles. There were transmitted
25,500,000 messages in the year ending June 30, 1879.
The postal business of the United States for the fiscal year
1879-80 was as follows : — Letters carried, 808,493,572 ; postcards,
276,446,710; newspapers, 695,175,624; magazines, 53,472,276;
books, circulars, and miscellaneous printed matter, 300,854,480 ;
and articles of merchandise, 22,644,456. This gives a total number
of 2,217,087,124 packages delivered during the year. These figures
do not include international business, but only packages or letters
posted and delivered in the United States.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the United States in Geeat Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — James Eussell Lowell ; formerly Envoy and Minister
of the United States in Spain ; nominated January 19, 1880 ; accredited March
11, 1880.
Secretaries. — William J. Hoppin ; E. S. Nadal.
2. Of Great Britain to the United States.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Sir Edward Thornton, K.C.B., born in 1820;
Charge d' Affaires in Uruguay, 1854-59; Envoy to the Argentine Confe-
deration, 1859-63, and to Paraguay, 1863-66 ; Envoy and Minister to Brazil,
1865-67; appointed Envoy and Minister to the United States, December 6, 1867.
Secretaries. — Victor A. W. Drummond ; Hon. P. H. Le Poer Trench ; H.
Howard ; Charles F. F. Adam.
Naval Attache. — Eear- Admiral W. G. Jones, C.B.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the United States are : —
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 cents . . Approximate value, 45.
There were for fifteen years, from 1863 to 1878, two denomina-
tions of value employed in the United States, the first the gold dollar,
of the average value of 45. British money, and the second the paper
dollar, principal currency since the civil war, the value of which was
fluctuating, according to the rates of exchange. By the provisions
of the ' Resumption Act ' passed by Congress, coming into operation
on January 1, 1879, the complete resumption of specie payments
was established, but it took place several months before this date, by
the action of commercial causes. Thus there exists no longer any
difference in value between coined money and paper currency.
■ In the session of 1873, the Congress of the United States passed
an Act to regulate the value of the English sovereign in American
coin, and to fix the ' par of exchange.' The Act requires that in
all payments by or to the Treasury, the sovereign, or pound sterling
shall be computed as equal to 4 dollars 86c. 6^m. This value is also
to be applied in appraising merchandise imported and in the con-
struction of contracts.
6o8 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Weights and Measures.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Wiiichestei
gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards. They
are: —
Wine gallon = 0-83333 gallon.
Ale gallon . = 1-01695 „
Bushel . =• 0-9692 imperial bushel.
Instead of the British cwt. a Cental, of 100 pounds, is used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning: the United
States.
1. Official Publications.
Acts of Congress relating to Loans and the Currency from 1846 to 1880 in-
elusive. 8. New York, 1879.
Agriculture: Ninth Census of the United States. 4. Washington, 1872.
Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, made to the President of the
United States. 8. Washington, 1880.
Annual Eeport of the Commissioner of Education. 8. Washington, 1880.
Annual Reports of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey.
8. Washington, 1869-80.
Census of the United States. Ninth Census. Vol. I. Statistics of Popula-
tion, pp. 804 ; Vol. II. Vital Statistics, pp. 679 ; Vol. III. Statistics of Wealth
and Industry, pp. 843. Washington, 1872.
Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries. 8,
Washington, 1880.
Compendium of the Ninth Census. Compiled, under the direction of the
Secretary of the Interior, by Francis A. Walker, Superintendent of Census. 8.
Washington, 1872.
Congressional Directory. 8. Washington, 1880.
Manufactures of the United States in 1870. Compiled from the returns
of the ninth census. 4. Washington, 1873.
Mortality of the United States, at the Census of 1870, 1860, and 1850. 4.
Philadelphia, 1872.
Navy Register of the United States to July 20, 1880. Printed by order of
the Secretary of the Navy. Washington, 1880.
OflScial Register of the United States. 8. Washington, 1880.
Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, transmitted to
Congress. 8. Washington, 1880.
Quarterly Reports of the Chi I'f of the Bureau of Statistics (Joseph Nimmo,
Esq.), relative to the imports, exports, immigration, and navigation of the United
States, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1880. Fol. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue of the United States, for
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880. 8. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1880. 8. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Secretary of the Interior upon the operations of the Depart-
ment of the Interior, 1879-80. 8. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Secretary of the Navy. 8. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the state of the Finances for tho
year ended June 30, 1880. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Secretary of War upon the operation of the War Department
for the year 1879. 8. Washington, 1880.
Report of the Commissioner of the General Land OflBce to the Secretary of
the Interior for the year 1879. 8. Washington, 1880.
UNITED STATES. 609
Statement of the Public Debt of the United States, July 1, 1880, Fol.
Washington, 1880.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. Prepared by the Chief of tha
Bureaxi of Statistics, Treasury Department. No. II. 8. Washington, 1880.
Statistics of Population. Ninth Census of the United States. 4. Wash-
ington, 1872.
Statistics of the Wealth and Industry of the United States. 4. Washington,
1872.
The Statutes at large, and Treaties of the United States of America, Collated
TB-ith the originals at Washington. Published annually. 8. Boston, 1880.
Report by Mr. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the commerce of
the United States during the year 1873, dated Washington, June 12, 1874;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1875.
8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the finances
of the United States, dated Washington, January 5, 1875 ; in ' Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the trade and com-
merce of the United States in 1874. dated AVashington, March 15, 1875 ; in
'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1875.
London, 1875.
Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the trade and
industry of the United States, dated March 22,1876; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. F. R. Plunkett, Secretary of Legation, on the commerce of
the United States, dated April 6, 1877 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by the Hon. P. H. L. French. Secretary of Legation, on the finances of
the United States, dated Washington, January 29, 1878 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr.Victor A. W. Drummond, Secretary of Legation, on the shipping
of tlie United States, dated Washington, May 20, 1878 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 18/8. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Donohoe on the trade of Baltimore ; by Mr.
Consul Cridland on the trade of Mobile ; by Mr. Consul de Fonblanque on
the commerce of New Orleans ; by Mr. Consul-General Archibald on the
trade and commerce of New York ; and by Mr. Consul Elmore on the trade
and industry of Savannah, dated Jan.-Feb. 1878 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IL 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Donohoe on the trade of Baltimore ; by Mr. Consul
Stuart on the commerce of Boston ; liy Mr. Consul Walker on the trade and
commerce of the States of North and South Carolina ; by Mr. Consul Lynn
on the trade of Galveston ; by Mr. Consul Cridland on the trade and industry
of the State of Alabama ; by Mr. Consul-General Archibald on the commerce
and shipping of New York ; and by Mr. Consul Elmore on the trade of the
port of Savannah, dated Jan.-Feb. 1879; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by Mr. Consul Booker on the trade and commerce of Oregon, and
by Mr. Consul Kortright on the commerce of Philadelphia, and the industrial
resources of Pennsylvania, dated 3Iarch 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Henderson on the trade and commerce of Boston ;
by Mr. Consul Walker on the commerce of Charleston ; by Mr. Consul Lynn
on the cotton and other exports of Galveston ; and by Mr. Consul Booker on the
R R
6lO THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
commerce and industry of San Francisco and of California, dated February-March
1878; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul de Fonblanque on the trade and commerce of New
Orleans ; by Mr. Consul Booker on the commerce and industry of San Fran-
cisco and California ; by Mr. Consul Crump on the trade and shipping of
Philadelphia ; and by Mr. Consul Starr on the trade of Portland, dated
March-April, 1879 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1879. 8.
London, 1879.
Trade of the United States with Great Britain and Ireland ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1879.
, 2. Non-Official Publications.
Bancroft (George), History of the United States. New ed. 6 vols. 8.
London, 1876.
Bell (A.), New Tracks in North America. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870,
Ball (W. H.), Alaska and its Resources. 8. Boston, 1870.
Bilke (Sir Charles Went worth, B^rt., M.P.) Great Britain : a record of travel
in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1869,
i^o?i;'j)f r^«is ( Adalljert Frout de), Les Etats-Unis de I'Amerique Septentrionale;
leurs origines, leur emancipation et leurs progres. 8. Paris. 1875.
Grillct (Ransom H.), Federal Government ; its officers and their duties. 8.
New York, 1871.
Romans (B.), The Banker's Almanac and Register for 1880. 8. New
York, 1880.
Homans (J. Smith), The Banker's Magazine and Statistical Register, Pub-
lished monthly. 8, New York, 1880.
J'rt«Hfi' (Claudio) Les Etats-Unis contemporains. 2 vols. 18. Paris, 1878.
King (Edwai'd), The Southern States of America. 8. London, 1875.
Lanman (Charles), Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the
United States during its First Century. 8. London, 1876.
Macpherson (E.), The Political History of the United States of America
during the Great Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
Molinari (G. de), Lettres sur les Etats-Unis et le Canada. 12. Paris, 1877.
IS'orman (George AVarde), The Future of the United States ; in ' Journal of
the Statistical Society.' Vol. .38. Part I. 8. London, 1875.
Paschal (George W.), The Constitution of the United States. 8. Washington,
1868.
Poor (Henry Y.) IManual of the Railroads of the United States, 8. New
York, 1880.
Seaman (Ezra C), The American System of Government, its Character and
Workings. 12. New York, 1871.
Spofford (Ainsworth R.), American Almanac, 8, New York and Wash-
ington, 1880.
Ver7io7i (Edward), American Railroad Manual for the United States and the
Dominion. Imp. 8. New York and Philadelphia, 1880.
Von Hoist (Dr. H.), The Constitutional and Political History of the United
States of America, 2 vols. 8. New York, 1879.
6ii
URUGUAY.
(Repi^blica Opjextal del Uruguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Uruguay, formerly a Brazilian province, declared its
independence, August 25, 1825, which was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The constitution of the
republic was proclaimed July 18, 1831. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament composed of two Houses, the
Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in annual
session, extending from February 15 to the end of June. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators and
five members of the Lower House assume the legislative power, as
well as the general control of the administration.
The executive is given by the constitution to the President of the
Republic, elected for the term of four years. A vice-president, also
elected for four years, is at the head of the .senate, but has no other
political power.
President of the RepuhUc. — Dr. Francisco Antonio Vidal, elected
President of the Republic March 15, 1880, as successor of Colonel
L. Latorre, President from 187G to 1880.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a coimcil of
ministers divided into foiu* departments, namely, the ' ministerio de
gobierno,' or ministry of the Interior ; the ' ministerio de relaciones
exteriores,' or department of Foreign Affairs ; the ' ministerio de haci-
enda,' or department of Finance ; and the ' ministerio de la guen-a,'
or department of War and Marine.
Revenue, Public Debt, and Army,
The revenue of the republic is mainly derived from import and
export duties, both very largely increased in recent years. In the
budget estimates for the financial year 1879-80 the total revenue was
set down at 8,869,000 pesos, or 1,773,800/., and the total expenditui-e
at 8,748,654 pesos, or 1,749,731/., leaving a surplus of 120,346
pesos, or 24,069/. The actual accounts of revenue and expenditure
of preceding years showed large deficits. More than one-half of
the total annual expenditure is on accoimt of the charges connected
with the public debt. By a law, passed in 1875, one-fourth of the
B B 2
6l2 THE statesman's TEAR-BOOX, 1881.
customs receipts are to be set aside specially for the service of the
debt.
The republic owed at the end of March 1879 a foreign debt
of 42,357,695 pesos, or 8,471,539/., contracted at rates of interest
from G to 12 per cent. There are, besides, unsettled foreign claims
against Uruguay to the amount of 6,000,000 pesos, or 1,200,000?.
By a convention signed between the Government and Commission
of Bondholders on the 18th February 1878, the interest payable on
the existing stocks at that date was reduced by two-thirds per cent,
for a period extending to the 31st December 1882, after which
epoch all balances of the different denominations of stocks then
pending are to assume the original conditions of issue, not only as
regards interest, but amortisation.
The amount of the internal debt is estimated at 18,000,000 pesos,
or 3,600,000/., exclusive of a floating debt of about 19,000,000
pesos, or 3,800,000/. It was decreed by the Government in June
1869, in consequence of suspension of payments by the chief banks,
that the notes of all of them should be under State guarantee, with
forced currency. The amount of paper money is constantly in-
creasing. In recent years the Government added notes of the
nominal value of 3,000,000/. to the already existing amount.
The armed forces of Uruguay were officially reported in 1879 to
number 2,797 men, of whom 2,049 were infantry. The army was
commanded in 1879, according to official returns, by 17 generals,
20 colonels, 30 lieut.-colonels, and 505 captains, lieutenants, and
ensigns, being a total of 573 officers, or more than one commissioned
officer to every five men.
Population, Trade, and Industry.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 73,538 English square miles,
v/ith a popvilation, according to a partial census taken in 1880, of
438,245, comprising 226,580 males and 211,665 females. The
country is divided into 1 3 provinces. The capital, Montevideo, had,
according to a rough enumeration of the year 1879, a population of
105,295, of whom about one-third were foreigners. There is a
considerable flow of immigration, numbering 21,148 individuals in
1870; 15,319 in 1871 ; 11,516 in 1872; 24,539 in 1873; 13,764
in 1874; 5,298 in 1875 ; 5,570 in 1876; 6,168 in 1877; 6,376
in 1878 ; and 7,009 in 1879.
Uruguay carries on an active commerce with foreign countries,
but which has been declining recently. In the year 1877 the
exports Avere valued at 14,624,655 pesos, or 2,924,931/., and the
imports at 14,200,000 pesos, or 2,840,000/. ; and in 1879 they had
declined by nearly one-!:alf. The principal articles of export are
URUGUAY.
613
cattle and hides. Nearly tlie whole of the exports and imports of
the repuhhc pass through Montevideo, the capit;d, at the mouth of
the Rio de la Plata.
About one-half of the exports of Uruguay are shipped to Great
Britain, and the rest to France, the United States, and Brazil.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United King-
dom is exhibited in the following tabular statement, which shows
the value of the exports irom Uruguay to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Uruguay in each of the five years 1875 to 1879 : — ■
Exports from Uruguay
Imports of
Tears
to
British Home Produce
Great Britain
into Uruguay
&
£
187o
1,208,590
713,830
1876
S41.3U
1,006.307
1877
7.34.699
1.077.780
1878
644,066
977,866
1879
371,990
922,625
Tlie chief articles of export from Uruguay to the United King-
dom are hides and tallow, the first of the value of 210,533/., and the
second of 38,675/., in 1879. The British imports into Uruguay
consist chiefly of manufactured cotton goods, and of AvooUens, the first
of the value of 375,341/., and the second of the value of 142,220/.,
in the year 1879.
There were railways of a total length of 2GS English miles 023en
for traffic at the end of Jime 1879. The lines represented two sys-
tems, the first known as the Central of Uruguay, and the second as
the Alto Uruguay. Of the first system, there were completed, at
the above date, lines fi-om Montevideo to Florida and Dirrazno, of
a total length of 82 miles, with a branch line to the port of
Higueritas, on the river Uruguay, opened in February 187G. On
the second system, the chief lines were from Salto Oriental to
Santo Rosa, 113 miles in length, and fi-om Montevideo to Pando,
29 miles long.
The telegraphic lines in operation at the end of June 1879 were
of a total length of 996 Engli.sh miles, belonging to three companies,
the ' Compania telegraphica Platina,' the ' Linea Oriental,' and
the ' River Plate Telegraph Company (Limited),' the last owniiig
rather more than half of the lines.
The Post-office carried 1,023,004 letters and 1,185,012 news-
papers in the year 1878. The receipts of the Post-office in recent
years were insufficient to cover the expenditure.
6 14 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1, Of Ueuguay in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Don Alberto A, de Guerrico, accredited Dec. 20, 1877.
2. Of Great Britain in Urugciat.
Consul-General. — William Cranwell, appointed June 1880.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Uruguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —
]Mo>'ET.
The Pfso, or i^o^/flr, of 100 centenas . Approximate value, 4s.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 10r40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroha — 2o'3.5 ,, ,,
,, Fanega = 1| imperial bushel.
The money, weights, and measures of the Brazilian empire are
also in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Uruguay.
1. Official Publications.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Munro on the trade and commerce of Montevideo
■for the year 1874. dated Montevideo, December 31, 1875; in ' Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1875. 8. Loudon, 1875.
Keports by Mr. Yice-Consul Wilson on the trade of Colonia, and by Mr.
Consul Munro on the trade and commerce and industries of Montevideo,
fertile year 1875, dated December 31,1875; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Vice-Consul Wilson on the trade of Colonia, and by Mr,
Consul Munro on the commerce of Monte Video, dated December 1876 ; in
'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Trade of Uruguay with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the L^nited Kingdom •with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. NoN-OFFiCLiL Publications.
Gardner (Gilbert J.), The Financial Position of Uruguay. 8. London. 1874.
Maria (Isid. dc) Compendio de la historia de la Republica Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1864.
Murray (Eev. J. H.), Travels in Uruguay, S. America. 8. London, 1871.
Mxdhcdl (M. G.and E. T.), Handbook to the Eiver Plate Eepublics, &c., and
the Eepublics of Uruguay and Paraguay. 8. Loudon, 1875.
Reyes (M.), Dcscripcion geografica del territorio de la Eepublica Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1859.
Sa7nmer-Geiscr (R.), Lebensbilder aus dem Staat Uruguay. 8. Basel, 1861.
Vaillant (A,), La Eepublica Oriental del Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1873.
6i5
VENEZUELA.
(Rep^blica de Venezuela.)
Constitution and Government.
The republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession
from the other members of the Free-state founded by Simon Bolivar
within the limits of the Spanish colony of New Granada. The
charter of fundamental laws actually in force, dating from 1830,
and re-proclaimed, with alterations, on the 28th March 1864, is
designed on the model of the constitution of the United States
of America, but Avith considerably more independence secured to
provincial and local government. The provinces, or states, of the
republic, twenty-one in number, have each their own legislature and
executive, as Avell as their own budgets, and judiciary officers, and
the main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. At
the head of the central executive government stands a President,
elected for the term of two years, with a Vice-President at his side,
and exercising his functions through six ministers. The President
has no veto power. The legislation for the whole republic is
vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and the
House of Eepresentatives, both composed of members deputed
by the same bodies in the individual states. The President, Vice-
President, and Congresses of States are elected by universal suffrage.
President of the Republic. — General Don Antonio Guzman
Blanco, elected President February 1879 ; re-elected February 1880.
Since the year 1847, the republic has suffered greatly from
intestine dissensions, leading to an almost continuous civil war,
through the struggles of the rival parties of the Federalists and
Confederalists, the former desiring a strong central government, and
the latter the greatest possible independence of the separate States.
Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.
The chief soiu-ce of public revenue at the disposal of the central
Government is that of customs duties, which produced 3,450,000 pesos,
or 690,000/., in the year ending June 30, 1875. The total revenue
in the same year amounted to 6,702,080 venezolanos, or 1,340,416/.,
and the expenditure to 6,143,134 venezolanos, or 1,228,626/. The
principal branch of expenditure is for the maintenance of the army.
The public debt of Venezuela, internal and foreign, was estimated
at 20,000,000/. at the end of 1876. The foreign debt, contracted
chiefly in England, amounts to 6,694,350/., made up as follows :—
6l6 THE statesman's YEAll-BOOK, 1881.
3 per cent, stock
1^ per cent, stock or ' deferred debt '
6 per cent, loan of 1862
6 per cent, stock, issued for iirrears
6 per cent, loan of 1864
Total .
£
2,812,000
1,382,350
900,000
200,000
1,400,000
. 6,694,350
With the exception of the dividends on the G per cent, loan of
18G2, no regular interest has been paid by the Government, on any
of the liabilities here enumerated, since the year 1865.
The army of the republic numbered 5,000 men, nominally, in
1877. Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in
which every citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must be
enrolled. Recent intestine wars were chiefly carried on by the militia.
Population, Trade, and Industry.
The area of Venezuela is estimated to embrace 403,261 English
square miles, and to contain a population of 1,784,194 souls. The
following table gives the area and population of the twenty-one state.s
— three of them with territories attached — into which the republic
is divided, as reported in census returns of September 1873 : —
states
Area: English
square miles
Population
1. Caracas (Federal District)
1
r 60,010
2. Guarico ....
33,986
191,000
3. Bolivar .
i 129,143
4. Guzman Blanco
1 94,151
5. Carabobo
G. Cojedes .
1
J
8,119
/ 117,605
\ 85,678
7. Barquisimeto .
8. Yarartii
}
9,352
/ 143,818
\ 71,689
9. Falcon .
10,253
99,920
10. Portugiieza
11. Zamora .
1
/
23,845
r 79,934
\ 59,449
12. NuevaEsparta
442
30,983 ;
13. Barcelona
13,812
101,396 '
14. Cumana
V
r 55,476 !
15. Maturin
. I
17,494
^ 47.863
Territory of Marino
J
L 6.705
16. Trujillo .
4,328
108,672
17. Guzman (Merida)
18. Tachira .
10,848
r 67,849
\ 68,619
19. Zulia
Territory of Goajiro
28,934
r 59,235
\ 29,263
20. Apure
18,896
18,635
21. Guayana.
208,369
34,053
Territory of Amazonas
,
13,583
23,048
Tota
1 .
402,261
1,784,194
1
VENEZUELA.
617
The foreign commerce of Venezuela quadrupled witliin the last
five years, through the development of the country's vast agricul-
tural and mineral resources. During the year ending June 30,
1877, the total imports were of the value of 15,043,373 venezo-
lanos, or 3,008,674/., and the total exports of the value of
16,112,635 venezolanos, or 3,222,527/. The imports of 1876-77
came to the extent of nearly one-fourth from Great Britain, and
the remainder chiefly from the United States, France, and Germany.
The exports of 1876-77 were sent chiefly to Germany, the United
States, and France. The staple article of export from Venezuela
consists in coffee, valued at 11,409,506 venezolanos, or 2,281,901/.,.
in the year ending June 30, 1877.
The total value of the exports of Venezuela to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British produce and manufactures, was as follows
in each of the five years 1875 to 1879 : —
Exports from Vene-
Imports of British
Years
zuela to Great
Home Produce into
Britain
Venezuela
1875
37,136
733,403
1876
5-l,878
679,163
1877
63,739
619,742
1878
98,349
473,281
1879
114,804
462,037
The chief articles of export from Venezuela to Great Britain in
1879 were copper ore and cocoa. The exports of copper ore in
1879 were of the value of 73.871/., while the exports of cocoa were
valued at 28,927/. The imports from Great Britain comprise mainly
cotton and linen manufactures, the former of the value of 318,305/.,
and the latter of 55,835/., in the year 1879.
A line of raihvay from Tucacas to the mines of Aroa, 70 Engli.sh
miles in length, Avas opened February 7, 1877.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Venezuexa nr Great Britain.
Minister Eesident.— Dr. Jo.se M. Eujas, accredited May 17, 1879.
2. Of Great Bhitaiit ix Venezuela.
Minister and Consul- General. —Rohe.Tt Bunch, formerly Minister and
Con. sul- General in Colombia, 1872-78; appointed Minister July 1, 1878.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Venezuela, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Monet.
The Vtnezolano, of 100 Ceniavas . . approximate value, 45.
6l8 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Weights akd Measures.
The Libra . . . . . =1-014 lbs, avoirdupois.
„ Quintal . . . . = 101-40
„ Arroba = 25-35 „
The above are the old weights and measures in general use, but
the legal ones are those of the French metric system.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Venezuela.
1. Official Publications.
Estadistica Mercantil. 8. Caracas, 1880.
Report by Mr. R. T. C. Middleton on the commerco of Venezuela for
the year 1875, dated Caracas Dec. 6, 1875; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. R. T. C. Middleton on the commerce of Venezuela,
for 1876-77, dated Caracas December 1, 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Report by Mr. R. T. C. Middleton on the commerce of Venezuela,
dated Caracas, December 2, 1878; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Report by IVIr. Vice-Consul Mathison on the commerce of Ciudad Bolivar ;
by Mr. Vice-Consul Akers Cage on the commerce of La Guaira ; and by Mr.
Vice-Consul Conn on the commerce of Puerto Caballo, dated May-June 1876 ;
in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Mathison on the trade of Ciudad Bolivar ; by
Mr. Vice-Consul Akers Cage on the trade of La Guaira ; and by Mr. Vice-
Consul Conn on the trade of Puerto Caballo, dated January- June 1876; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Cage on the trade of La Guaira ; and by Mr.
Vice-Consul Conn on the trade of Puerto Caballo, dated January-March 1877 ;
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Jlr. Robert Bunch on tha Foreign Trade and on the Gold Mines
of Venezuela, dated Caracas, May 10, 1880 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV. 1880. 8. London, 1880.
Trade of Venezuela with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Covmtries for the year 1879.' 4.
London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Appun (C. F.), Unter den Tropen. Vol. I. Venezuela. 8. Jena, 1871.
Dance (C. D.), Four Years in Venezuela. 8. London, 1876.
Eastwick (Edward), Venezuela, or Sketches of Life in a South American
Republic; with a history of the Loan of 1864. 8. London, 1868.
Ernst (Dr. A.), Lcs produits de Venezuela. 8. Bremen, 1874.
Mculemans (Augustc), La republique de Venezuela. 8. Bruxelles, 1872.
Spence (J. M.), The Land of Bolivar : Adventures in Venezuela. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1878.
Thirion (C), Les etats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.
Tejera (Miguel), Venezuela pintoresea e illustrada. 8. Paris, 1875.
Tejera (Miguel), Mappa fisico y politico de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela,
8. Paris, 1877.
6i9
II. AFRICA.
ALGERIA.
(L'Algerie.)
Government, Revenue, and Army.
Algeria, the largest and most important of the colonial possessions
of France, was entirely under military rule tiU the year 1871, when,
after the extinction of a widespread rebellion among the natives,
various reforms, tending to organised civil administration, were
introduced by the French Government. In place of the former
military governor, a civil Governor-General at present administers
the government of the colony, directing the action of both the civil and
military authorities. But the new civil government extends only over
the settled districts, and the territory of the Sahara and adjoining dis-
tricts, inhabited chiefly by nomade tribes, remain under exclusively
military rule. The country under civil government is divided
into three provinces, Algiers, Constantino, and Oran, which are
subdivided into twelve departments.
Governor-Genei-al of Algeria. — Albert Grevy, brother of the
President of the French Eepublic; appointed March 15, 1879;
arrived at Algiers and assumed the government April 28, 1879.
The Governor-General is invested with legislative powers in civil
affairs. In all important cases he has to take advice from a
Colonial Coimcil, appointed by the French Government.
The revenue of Algeria in 1831, the first year after its conquest,
was only 250,000 francs, or 10,000^., but in i-ecent years it averaged
60,000,000 francs, or 2,40O,000Z. The cost of the colony to France
has always been far greater than its revenues.
The receipts of the government are derived chiefly from indirect
taxes, licences, and customs duties on imports. The cost of maintenance
of the army, the expenditure for public works, and other large sums
disbui'sed by the Government are not included in the expenditure,
being provided out of the French budget. In the French financial
estimates for 1880, the home expenditure for Algeria, forming part
of the budget of the Minister of the Interior, was set down at
27,483,860 francs, or 1,099,354/.
620
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The French troops in Algeria consist of one ' corf)s d'armee,' the
7th, numbering about 60,000 men. The troops in Algeria are
divided into two classes, namely, French corps, which remain there
in garrison for a certain number of years and then return to France,
and the so-called native troops, which never quit the colony except
on extraordinary occasions, as in the war against Germany, at the
outset of which, in July 1870, a division of them was incorporated
with the French army, forming part of the vanguard in Alsace.
The native troops consist of three regiments of Zouaves, three of
Turcos, or ' Tirailleurs alg^riens,' three of ' Chasseurs d'Afrique,' and
three of ' Spahis.' Only a moiety of these troops is composed of na-
tives of Africa, the rest consisting of natives of Europe of all nations.
Population, Trade, and Industry.
The boundaries of Algeria are not very well defined, large por-
tions of the territory in the outlying districts being claimed both
by the French Government and the nomade tribes who inhabit it,
and hold themselves vmconquered. The colony is divided officially
into a ' Territoire civil,' and a ' Territoire de coramandement,' the
first in three departments, and the latter in three divisions. According
to returns published in the ' Journal Officiel de la Republique
Fran9aise,' of December 8, 1877, the area of the colony embraces
318,334 square kilometres, or 198,900 English square miles, with
a population, exclusive of wandering Arab tribes, of 2,867,626
souls. The folloAving table gives the area of each of the three civil
departments and the three military divisions of Algeria, according
to the returns of 1877 : —
'Ten-itoires'
Area: Square
kilometres
Population
Algiers : Civil Department ....
„ Military Division ....
Oran : Civil Department ....
„ Military Division ....
Consbintine : Civil Department
„ Military Division
Total
8,268
96,899
15,355
70,747
17,976
109,089
484,771
687,836
416,465
236,716
414,714
727,124
318,334
2,867,626
The number of French settlers was given at 127,321, and the
total population of European descent at 302,576 in the returns of
1877.
In 1872 there were 5,139,136 acres of land under cultivation m
Algeria, of which 413,112 acres, or on an average 8 per cent., were
ALGERIA.
621
cultivated by the Eiu'opean colonists, and4,72G,024 acres, or 92 per
cent., were cultivated by the natives.
The total commerce of Algeria was as follows in each of the seven
years from 1871 to 1878 : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
£
£
1872
7,881,251
6,563,123
1873
8,268,685
6,088,256
1874
7,852,173
5,976,280
1875
7,696,562
5,756,317
1876
9,235,464
7,152,464
1877
8,112,132
6,880,251
1878
9,272,230
6,396,168
About two-thirds of the total commerce of Algeria is with France.
Besides with the mother-country, the colony ha.s commercial inter-
course chiefly with Spain, Turkey, and Great Britain. The sub-
joined tabular statement shows the total value of the exports from
Algeria to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures into Algeria, in each of the
five years 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Exijorts from Algeria
to
Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Algeria
£
£
1875
500.185
155,676
1876
495,848
209.696
1877
562,126
271.101
1878
1879
357,352
454,246
168,971
225.572
The most important article of export to Great Britain in 1879 was
'Esparto grass,' for making paper, of the value of 307,488/., the
quantity shipped being 46,636 tons. Among the other exports of
1879 were bark, of the value of 12,782/., and copper ore,
of the value of 12,018/. The British imports consist principally of
cotton fabrics and coals, the former of tlie value of 105,910/.,
and the latter of 42,140/. in the year 1879.
At the end of the year 1878 there were 543 kilometres, or 337
English miles, of railways open for traffic in Algeria. The railways
consisted of three lines, namely, from the town of Algiers to Oran
426 kilometres, or 264 miles, in length ; from Philippeville to Con-
stantine, 87 kilometres, or 55 miles long ; and from Bone to the
mines of Ai'n Mokra, with l:)ranches, 95 kilometres, or 59 miles in
622 . THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
length. Planned by the government, and partly in course of con-
struction in the year 1879, was a central line of railway, 1,312
kilometres, or 815 miles, in length, from the frontiers of Tunis to
Morocco.
The telegraph of Algeria, including branches into Tunis, con-
sisted, at the end of 1878, of 5,850 miles of line, and 9,860 miles
of wire. The ' reseau algero-tun^sien ' of telegraphs is worked by
a private company subventioned by the French Government and the
Bey of Tunis.
Money, Weiglits, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measiires of Algeria, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Gold Sequin . . . Average rate of exchange, 8s. G^d.
„ Monzoiinah ... ,, » )> -h^-
Weights and Measures.
The Onguyah . . . = 4 grammes.
,, Hollah (liquid) . . = 16-66 litres, or about 17 pints.
,, Psa (dr}') . . = 48 litres, or about 51i pints.
The money, weights, and measures of France are in general use
among the settled population in the toAvns.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria,
1. Official Publications.
Annuaire administratif de 1' Algeria. 16. Alger, 1880.
Annuaire general de 1' Algeric, sur des documents officiels. 8. Paris, 1 880.
Etat actuel de I'Algerie, public d'apres les documents officiels sous la
direction du direct, general dcs services civils. 8. Paris, 1879.
Statistique generale de I'Algerie. 8. Paris, 1878-80.
Tableau de la situation dcs etablissements fran^ais. 4. Paris, 1880.
Eeport by Consul-General Lieut.-Colonel E. L. Playfair, on the trade and
agricultui-e of Algeria, for the years 1868-69 ; in ' Commercial Reports
received at the Poreign Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1870.
Eeport by Consul-General Lieut.-Colonel E. L. Playfair, on the general
condition and trade of Algeria, in the years 1869, 1870, and 1871 ; dated
Algiers, Peb. 1, 1872; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1872.
London, 1872.
Eeports by Consul-General Lieut.-Colonel Playfair on the trade and com-
merce of Algeria, for the years 1874 and 1875, dated Algiers, Oct. 22 and
Dec. 3, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8. London,
1876.
ALGERIA. 623
Eeport of a Consular Tour made by Consul-General Lieut.-Col. Playfair,
during March and April 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V.
1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeports by ]\Ir. Consul-General Playfair on the trade and agriculture of
Algeria; dated May 9, 1877; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III,
1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeport by Mr. Consul-General Playfair on the commerce, rail-ways, and
general progress of Algeria, dated November 26, 1877; in 'Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IL 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Eeport by Mr. Consul-General Playfair on the exports and imports of
Algeria, dated Algiers, March 1, 1879; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Algeria with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879. Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Nox-Official Publications.
Beynet (Leon), Les Colons algeriens. 8. Alger, 1866.
Boudin (Dr. N.), Histoire statistique de la colonisation et de la population
en Algerie. 8. Paris, 1853.
Clamageran (I. J.), L' Algerie : Impressions de Voyage. 8. Paris, 1874.
Bareste (Eodolphe), De la propriete en Algerie. Loi du 16 juin 1851 et
Senatus-consulte du 22 avril 1863. 2e edit. 18. Paris, 1866.
Baumas (General M. J. E.), Expose de 1 etat actuel de la societe arabe, du
gouvernement, et de la legislation qui la regit. 8. Alger, 1845.
Z>z«m/ (Jules), L' Algerie et les Colonies fran^aises. 8. Paris, 1877-
Faidherbc (General), L'Avenir du Sahara et du Soudan. 8. Paris, 1866.
Fillias (A.), L'Algerie ancienno et moderne. 12. Alger, 1875.
Fregier (C), Chevesick, ou du Commerce en Algerie. 8. Constautine.
1871.
Gueydon (Vice-amiral Comte de), Expose de la Situation de I'Algerie. In
'Eevue maritime et coloniale.' 8. Paris, 1873.
Lavigne (Albert), Questions algeriennes. 8. Paris, 1872.
Lucet (Marcel), Colonisation europeenne de I'Algerie. 8. Paris, 1866.
Maltzan (Heinr. Freiherr von), Drei Jahre im Kordwesten von Afrika :
Eeisen in Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Jl/2<r?-a3' (John), Handbook of Algeria. 12. London, 1874.
Qtiinemmct (N.), Du peuplement et de la vrai colonisation de I'Algerie. 8.
Constantine, 1871.
Eohiou de la Trehonnais (M.), L'Algerie en 1871. 8. Paris, 1872.
Sequin (L. G.), "Walks in Algeria. 8. London, 1878.
Villot (Capitaine), Mceurs, coutumes, et institutions des indigenes d'Alg^rie.
12, Paris, 1872.
624
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
(Cape Colon v.)
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was originally established by order in Council of the 11th of
March, 1853. By Act 28 Vict. cap. .5, and Colonial Act III. of
1865, which provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria -with
the colony, various changes were made, and farther changes of an
important nature by the ' Constitution Ordinance Amendment Act,'
passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, providing for ' the in-
troduction of the system of executive administration commonly
called Responsible Government.' The constitution formed under
these various acts vests the executive in the Governor and an Exe-
cutive Council, composed of certain office-holders appointed by
the Crown. The legislative power rests with a Legislative Council
of 21 members, 10 of whom are elected for ten years, and 11 for five
years, presided over ex-officio by the Chief- Justice ; and a House
of Assembly of 68 members, elected for five years, representing the
country districts and towns of the colony. The qualification for
members of the Council is possession of immovable property of
2,000/., or movable property worth 4,000/. I^Iembers of both Houses
are elected by the same voters, who are qualified by possession of
property, or receipt of salary or wages, ranging between 25/. and
50/. per annum. There were 45,825 registered electors in 1878.
Governor of the Cape of Good Hope. — Right Hon. Sir Hercules
George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. ; born 1824 ; served in the
87th Fusiliers ; member of the Irish Poor Law Board, 1846-53 ;
President of Montserrat, 1854-55; Lieutenant Governor o£ St.
Christopher, 1855-59 ; Governor of Hong Kong, 1859-64 ; Gover-
nor of Ceylon, 1864-71 ; Governor of New South Wales, 1872-78 ;
Governor of New Zealand, 1879-80. Appointed Governor of the
Cape of Good Hope, December 1880.
The Governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the forces Avithin the colony. He has a salary of 5,000/. as Governor,
besides 1,000/. as 'Her Majesty's High Commissioner,' and an ad-
ditional 300/. as ' allowance for country residence.'
The administration is carried on, under the Governor, by a
ministry of five members, called the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-
General, the Treasurer-General, the Commissioner of Crown Lands
and Public Works, and the Secretary for Native Affairs.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
Revenue and Expenditure.
625
The revenue of the colony is derived mainly from import duties,
which produced, on the average of the five years from 1874 to 1878,
not far from a million pounds sterling per annum. Comparatively
little is derived from rent or sales of public lands, although vast dis-
tricts are waiting to be cultivated. The greatest portion of the
■expenditure is for interest of the public debt. The income and
expenditure of the colony, the former including loans, were as
follows during each of the ten years from 1869 to 1878 : —
The estimated revenue of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880,
was 2,509.21(3/., and the expenditure 2,3.54,780/."
The colony had a public debt of 10,500,000/. on the 31st July,
1879. The debt dates Irom the year 1859, when it amounted I0
80,000/. It rose to 368,400/. in 1860; to 565,050/. in 1861; to
715,050/. in 1863 ; to 851,650/. in 1865 ; and to 4,068,159/. in
1876. In 1879 the interest on the debt amounted to 483,365/.
The debt is under promise of repayment by instalments extending
to the year 1900.
Area and Population.
The Cape Colony was originally founded by the Dutch, under
Van Riebeek, about the year 1652, the Portuguese having before
made an attempt at a settlement. It was at first but a very small
territory, between the Liesbeek River and Table Mountain,
but when it was taken by the English, in 1796, it had extended
east to the Great Fish River, and north along the great mountain
range of the Roggeveld to the Sneeuwberg and Bamboosberg.
In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the Netherlands,
but was again occupied by British troops in 1806. Since that time
s s
626
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
the boundary has been gradually enlarged by the annexation of sur-
rounding districts. The most important of these annexations were
that of British KafFraria, in 186G ; of Basutoland, at the head of the
l)asin of the Orange river, in 1868 ; of two vast but partly unexplored
districts called Fingoland and Nomansland, or Griqualand East, in
1875 ; of Griqualand West in 1876 ; and of the Transvaal in 1877.
The total area and estimated population of the colony of the
Cape of Good Hope and its dependencies are given as follows in
Government returns published in 1875 and 1877 : —
Divisions
Area : English
square miles
Population
Cape Colony, proper
British Kaffraria .
Basutoland ....
Fingoland and Nomansland .
Griqunland West .
Transvaal ....
Total
199,950
3,463
8,450
5,000
16,632
114,360
720,984
86,201
127,700
140,000
45,277
300,000
1,420,162
347,855
The Cape Colony proper is divided, politically and administra-
tively, into 48 districts. The area and population were given as
follows in the returns of a census taken by the Government on
March 7, 1875 : —
Districts
Area : English
European
Total
square miles
Population
Population
Tlie Cape ....
722
30,730
57,319
Stellenbosch .
503
3,442
10,649
Paarl .
627
7.312
18,076
Malmesbury ,
2,808
7,862
18,096
PicqiK'tlxn's; .
1,854
4.357
8,239
Clanwilliam .
5,474
3,018
8,785
Namaqnaland
20,635
2,675
12,233
Calvinia
26,083
2,752
7,394
Tulbagh
4,976
3,772
9,923
Worcester
6,531
4,093
9,734
Fraserbnrg
23,149
3,790
9,060
Vietori'i AVest
15,815
5,493
13,247
Beaufort West ,
8,536
3.738
8,322
Prince Albert
3,981
3,324
6,257
Caledon
1.519
5,366
11,335
Bredasdorp
1,697
2,017
4.306
Robertson
1,089
4,512
8,031
Swellendam .
2,954
5,028
10,007
Riversdale
2,462
6,878
12,721
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
637
Districts
Area : Square
European
Total
English miles.
Population
Population
Mossel Bay ....
859
2,664
5,072
George .
2,537
5,229
11,813
Oudtshoorn .
1,781
7,925
15,181
Knysna .
524
1.825
3,218
Humansdorp .
2,430
2,711
7,587
Uitenliage
6,233
9,385
21,392
Port Elizabeth
251
9.309
14,528
Alexandria
1,519
2,157
6,030
Albany .
1,833
8,143
16,499
Bathurst
670
1,711
5,855
Peddie .
497
1,327
16,886
Victoria, East
576
1,133
8,498
Stockenstrom .
240
1,508
6,509
Fort Beaufort
733
2,998
14,748
Bedford .
1,550
2,134
8,768
Somerset East
3,876
4,713
10,877
Cradock .
3,247
5,967
12,084
Middlebtirg .
2.252
2.510
5,976
GraafF-Eeinet .
3,792
7,356
16,940
MiUTaysburg .
2,200
1,210
3,771
Richmond
4,463
3.021
7,624
Hope Town
5,154
3,236
6.143
Colesberg
5,762
4,521
10,368
Albert .
3,834
6.140
12,069
Aliwal North
2,263
3.543
29,922
Wodehouse
2.849
5,325
25,948
Queen's TcBni
3,604
6,228
50,890
King William's Town
1,781
9,012
106.640
East London .
•
1.225
3,773
15,514
Total
190,950
236,873
720,984
The white, or European population, comprised 123,910 males and
112,873 females, and the native population 24:5,718 males and
238,483 females at the census of March 7, 1875.
The European inhabitants con.sist in part of the English authorities
and English settlers ; but the majority are of Dutch, German, and
French origin, mostly descendants of the original settlers. The
coloured people are chiefly Hottentots and Kaffirs ; the remaining
portion of the population consists of Malays, and so-called
Africanders, the latter the offspring of black women and Dutch
fathers. Very little commimication takes place betAveen the Kaffirs,
Africanders, and Malays, each race holding the others in contempt.
Trade and Commerce.
The values of the total imj)orts and exports of the Cape Colony
including British Kaffraria and other dependencies, in each of the
five years from 1873 to 1877, were as follows :—
s s 2
628
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Years
Imports 1
Exports
^ 1
£
1873
0,451,927
4,011,327
1874
5,725,412
4,468,747
187.5
5.762,743
4,393.325
1876
5,829.602
3,636,807
1877
5,158,348
3,634,073
The commercial intercourse of the colony is mainly with the
United Kingdom. The vahie of the trade with Great Britain and
Ireland, during each of the live years 1875 to 1879, is exhibited
in the subjoined table : —
Exports fi'om the
Imports of British
Years
Cape Colony to Great
Home Produce into the
Britain
Cape Colony
£
£
1875
3.724,662
4,037,475
1876
3,658,236
3,666,045
1877
3,560,499
3,330,353
1878
3,699,012
3,821,279
1879
4,001,863
4,403,296
Among the articles of export from the Cape to Great Britain, wool
is'^the most important, the value shijiped annually constituting nearly
nine-tenths of the total exports. In the five years from 1875 to
1879 the exports of wool from the Cape Colony to the United King-
dom were as follows : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Lbs.
£
1875
35,783,689
2,492,736
1876
35,424,089
2,376.322
1877
32,912,225
2,224,272
1878
30,670,716
2,060.345
1879
36,726,410
2,267,944
Among the minor exports from the colony to Great Britain are
copper ore, of the value of 232,960/. in 1879 ; feathers, chiefly
ostrich, of the value of 715,331/. ; and sheepskins, of the value of
232,683/. in 1879. The imports of British produce into the colony
comprise mainly apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 944,505/. ;
cotton manufoctures, of the value of 513,639/.; and iron, wrought
and unwTought, of the value of 414,303/ in the year 1879.
There were, at the end of 1875, in the colony 692,514 head of
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 629
cattle, and 9,836,065 sheep. The sheep-farms of the colony are
often of very great extent, comprising from 3,000 to 15,000 acres,
and upwards : those in tillage are compai'atively small. The graziers
are, for the most part, proprietors of the farms which they occupy.
There Avere lines of railway of a total length of 580 miles in the
colony at the end of June 1879. The lines open for traffic at this
date belonged to three systems, the Western, from Capetown to
Worcester; the Midland, starting from Port Elizabeth; and the
North- Western, also from Port Elizabeth. There were 420 miles
of other lines in course of construction at the end of June 1879.
The number of post-offices in the colony at the end of 1877 was
248, the revenue in 1877 amounting to 57,870Z., and the expendi-
ture to 151,220/.
The telegraphs in the colony comprised 3,380 miles of wire, with
92 offices, at the end of 1878. The number of messages sent was
183,120 in 1877. The telegraphs v/ere constructed entirely at the
expense of the Government.
Agent- General of the Cape Colony i?i Great Britain. — Captain Charles Mills
appointed Septemlaer 10, 1879.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The coins in circulation within tlie colony are exclusively
British. All accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence.
AVeights and Measures.
The standard weights and measures are British, with the excep-
tion of the land measure. To some extent, however, the following
old weights and measures are still made iise of in the colony : —
91-8 lbs. Dutch
1 Schepel .
1 Muid, of 4 Schepels.
1 Load, of 10 Muids .
1 Anker, of 9^ gallons
1291 £//s. . ' .
equal to 100 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ 'T-IS imperial bushel.
2-972
„ 29-72
„ 7'916 imperial gallons.
,, 100 English yards.
The general sixrface measure is the old Amsterdam Morgen,
reckoned equal to 2 English acres, but, more exactly, 2-11654 acres.
Some difference of opinion existed formerly as to the exact equi-
valents of the shortest land measure, the foot, but it was in 1858
officially settled that 1,000 Cape feet were equal to 1,033 British Im-
perial feet.
630 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Cape Colony.
1. Official Publications.
Cape of Good Hope Blue-book for 1879. Capetown, 1880.
Census of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, taken on the night of
Sunday, March 7, 1875. Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command
of the Governor. 4. Capetown, 1877.
Correspondence regarding the establishment of responsible government at
the Cape of Good Hope, and the withdrawal of troops from that Colony.
Presented to the House of Commons. Fol. London, 1870.
Keport from Governor Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., dat«d Cape Town, July 23,
1871 ; in 'Eeports showing the Present State of Her Majesty's Colonial Pos-
sessions.' Part III. 8. London, 1872.
Eeport from Governor Sir H. Barkly, dated Cape Town, July 26, 1873,
in ' Papers relating to Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Parti. 1874, 8.
London, 1874.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonies and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. XVI. 8. London, 1880.
Trade of the Cape of Good Hope with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Anderson (C. J.) Notes of Travel in South Africa. Edited byL. Lloyd, 8.
London, 1875.
.BZorc (W. L.), Statistics of the Cape Colony. Reprinted from the ' Cape
Argus,' 1870-71. 8. Cape Town, 1871.
Chase (Hon. John Centlivres) and Wilmot (A.), History of the Colony of
the Cape of Good Hope. 8. Lond<m, 1870.
Chesson (F. W.), The Duteh Republics of South Africa. 8. London, 1871.
Fleming (J.), Southern Africa : geography, &c. of the colonies and inhabi-
tants. 8. London, 1856.
Fritsch (Dr. .7ust,), Drei Jahre in Siid-Afrika. 8. Breslau, 1868.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborenen Siid-Afrika's ethnographisch und ana-
tomisch beschrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.
Hall (H.), Manual of South African Geography. 2nd ed. 8. Capetown, 1866.
Meidinger (H.), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands, und die Freistaaten
der hoUandischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt, 1861.
Neveu (C), Republique de I'Afrique m^ridionale, on de Trans-Vaal-Boers.
In 'Revue maritime et coloniale.' 8. Paris. 1872.
Pos (Nicolaas), Eene stem nit Zuid-Afrika, Mededeelingen betreifende den
maatschappelijkcn en godsdienstigen toestand der Kaap-Kolonie. 8. Breda,
1868.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal,
the Diamond Fields, &c. 8. London, 1880.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to the Transvaal. 8. London, 1877.
TVo^Zojjc (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Wilmot (G.), An historical and descriptive account of the Colony of the Cape
of Good Hope. 8. London, 1S63.
631
EGYPT.
(KeMI. MlSR.)
Reigning Khedive,
Mohamed Tenfik, born Nov. 19, 1852; the son of Ismail I.; suc-
ceeded to the throne, on the abdication of his father, Aug. 8, 187K.
Married, Jan, 10, 1873, to Princess Emineli, daughter of El Hamy
Pasha. Offspring of the union are two sons, Abbas, born July 14,
1874, and Mehemet AH, born in 1876.
The present sovereign of Egypt is the sixth ruler of the dynasty of
Mehemet Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 180G, who made
himself, in 1811, absolute master of the country by force of arms.
The position of his fether and predecessor, Ismail I. — forced to
abdicate, under | ressure of the British and French governments,
in 1879— was recognised by the Imperial Hatti-SherifF of
February 13, 1841, issued under the guarantee of the five great
Eui-opean Powers, which esttiblished the hereditary succession to tJie
throne of Egypt, imder the same rules and regulations as those to
the throne of Turkey. The title given to Mehemet Ali and his
immediate successors was the Turkish one of ' Vali,' or Viceroy ; but
this was charged by an Imperial firman of May 21, 1866, into the
Persian- Ai-abic of ' Khidiv-el-Misr,' or King of Egypt, and the
present ruler has since been known as the Khidiv, or, as more
commonly called, Khedive. By the same firman of May 27, 186<J,
obtained on the condition of the sovereign of Egypt raising his
annual tribute to the Sultan's civil list from 376,000/. to
720,000/., the succession to the throne of Egypt was made direct,
from father to son, instead of descending, after the Turkish law,
to the eldest heir. By a last firman, Issued June 8, 1873, the
Sultan granted to Ismail I. the hitherto withheld rights of con-
cluding treaties with foreign powers, and of maintaining armies.
The predecessors of the present ruler of Egypt were : —
Bom Died Reigned
Mehemet Ah, founder of the dynasty 1769 1849 1811-4S
Ibrahim, son of Mehemet . . 1789 1848 June— Nov. 1848
Abbas, grandson of Mehemet . . 1813 ISo-l 1848-54
Said, sou of Mehemet . . . 1822 1863 1854-63
Ismail 1830 — 1863-79
The present Khedive of Egypt has an annual allowance of
150,000/.; his father of 50,000/., with 70,000/. more for other
members of the fjimily.
Government, Eevenue, and Army.
The administration of Egypt is carried on at present under the
supervision of the governments of France and Great Britain, repre-
sented each by a ' Controller-General,' invested with gi-eat powers,
632 THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
indicated as follo-\vs in a decree of the Khedive in seven articles^
issued November 10, 1879 : —
' Art. 1. The Controllers-General have fidl powers of investigation
into every public service of the State, including that of the Public
Debt, ]\Iinisters and all public officials of every rank are bound to
ilirnish the Controllers, or their agents, with all documents they may
think fit to require. The Minister of Finance is bound to furnish
them weekly Avith a statement of receipts and expenditure. Other
administrations must furnish the same every month.
' Art. 2. The Controllers-General can only be removed from their
posts by their own Governments.
' Art. o. The Governments of England and France having agreed
that, for the moment, the Controllers-General will not take the
actual direction of the public service, their duties are limited at
2:)resent to inquiry, control, and sm-veillance.
'Art. 1. The Controllers-General take the rank of Ministers, and
will always hare the right to assist and speak at the meetings of the
Council of Ministers, but without the power to vote.
' Art. 5. When they deem it necessary the Controllers may unite
with the Commissioners of Public Debt to take such measures as
they may deem fit.
' Art. G. Whenever they may deem it useful, and at least once a
year, the Controllers will draw up a report on all questions for the
Khedive and his Ministers.
' Art. 7. The Controllers have the power of naming and dismiss-
ing all officials whose assistance is of no use to them. They shall
prepare a budget ; and monthly statements of all salaries and all
resources shall be rendered to them.'
The first Controllers- General for France and Great Britain were
M. de Blignieres and Major E. Baring, K.C.M.G. ; but changes
were made subsequently.
By another decree of the Khedive, dated April 5, 1880, there
was appointed an ' International Commission of Liquidation,' com-
posed of seven members. The functions of this Commission were
defined in the decree as follows : — After examining the whole
financial situation of Egypt, and hearing the observations of the
parties interested, the Committee will draught a Law of Liqui-
dation regulating the relations between Egypt and her creditors, and
also between the Daira Sanieh and the Daira Khassa and their
creditors. The conditions of the issue of the Domain Loan are
excluded from the deliberations of the Committee. The Committee
will w^ork upon the basis furnished by the report of the Committee
of Inquiry, and will sit for three months after the presentation of
their oAvn report, in order to watch, in concert with the English
EGYPT. 633
and French Controllers-General, the execution of the decisions
arrived at. The Law of Liquidation will be binding upon all
parties concerned. Eepresentatives of the International Tribunals
and a Delegate from the Egyptian Government will attend the
sittings of the Committee. The preamble of the decree stated that
England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, had already declared
their acceptance of the Law of Liquidation, and will collectively
request the adhesion of the other Powers represented on the Inter-
national Tribunals.
The English and French Controllers-General presented their first
report, dated January 16, 1880, and sanctioned by the Khedive,,
containing their definitive scheme for settling the Egyptian financial
situation. They fixed the interest on the Unified Debt at 4 per
cent. Should the revenue from the provinces specially set apart
for the service of the debt be insufficient to pay 4 per cent., the
deficiency is to be made itp out of the general revenue. If, on the
other hand, the taxes assigned yield more than 4 per cent., the
surplus is to be paid to the holders of the Unified Debt up to a
maximum of 5 per cent. Any further surplus beyond that is to be
applied to half-yearly purchases of stock in the open market. Any
siirplas of general revenue is to be divided as follows : One moiety
to the Administration, and the other moiety to the service of the
debt.
The list of resources applied to the service of the general debt
Avas settled by the Controllers-General as follow : Besides the
revenues of the provinces Garbiah, Menoufieh, Behera, and Siout,
there are the octroi duties, set down as producing 248,000/. for the
year ; customs, producing 623,000/. ; the tobacco, salt, and other
indirect revenues, calculated to more than cover the Unified interest
at 4 per cent.
In the Budget for 1880, the first adopted by the ' International
Commission of Liquidation,' the main heads were as follows : —
£
Total Revenue 8,561,622
ExPENDITXntE.
Privileged coupon at 5 per cent . . ■ . . 863,599
Unified ditto, at 4 per cent., including the small loans 2,308,5-37
Suez Canal Shares interest 193,858
Daira Khassa 34,000
Canal Ismailieh 14,000
Floating Debt 324,598
Administration 4,173,030
7,911,622
Surplus 650,000
8,561,622
^34
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Tlie capital of the debt of Egypt ■was returned as follows at the
endof 1880:—
£
Unified 4 per cent, debt 68,043,240
Privileged debt 22,609,800
Domain loans at 5 per cent 8,500,000
Daira Sauieli loans at 4 to 5 per cent. . . . 8,800,000
97,953,040
Not secured by any stipulations on the part of the government
is the floating debt of Egypt, the exact amount of which is not
known, but which is estimated to be over 5,000,000Z.
The army of Egypt is raised by conscription. It consists, nomi-
nally, of eighteen infantry regiments of three battalions each,
with four battalions of rifles, of four regiments of cavalry, and 144
guns. But the number of men contained in the regiments and
batteries varies continually, with the exigencies of the service and
the state of the finances. At the close of the Russo-Turkish war,
in which Egypt participated, the army was reduced to 15,000 men.
The Egyptian navy comprised, at the end of June 1880, two
frigates, two corvettes, three large yachts for the use of the Khedive
— one of them, the ' Mahroussa,' of 4,000 tons^ with 800 horse-power
— and four gunboats, the whole of a burthen of 16,476 tons.
Area and Population.
The territories under tin; rule of tlie sovereign of Egypt, in-
cluding those on the Upper Nile and Central Africa, conquered
in 1874-75, are vaguely estimated to embrace an area of 1,406,250
English square miles, and to be inhabited by a population
of 16,952,000, of Avhom about one-third are in Egypt proper.
The following talnilar statement gives the native population, distin-
guishing males and females, and inhabitants of rural and town dis-
tricts, of Egypt proper, according to an official estimate of M. Amici,
chief of the statistical department in the Ministry of the Interior, on
the 31st December, 1878 : —
Divisions
Males i Females
Total
Population
Lower Egypt
Middle Egypt
Upper Egypt
Towns
Total .
1,385,258
322,672
738,598
278,711
1,438,737
330,447
732,800
290,404
2,823.995
653,119
1,471,398
569,115
2,725 239
2,792,388
6,517,627
The area of Egypt proper is estimated to comprise 175,130
English square miles, the annexed and conquered districts, including
Nubia, the former kingdom of Ethiopia, and Darfur, being estimated
at 1,231,120 English square miles, with 11,434,373 inhabitants.
EGYPT.
635
Egypt proper is divided from of old into three great districts,
namely, * Masr-el-Bahri,' or Lower Egypt; 'El-Wustani,' or Middle
Egypt; and 'El-Said,' or Upper Egypt — designations drawn from
the course of the river Nile, on which depends the existence of the
country. These three geographical districts are subdivided into
eleven administrative provinces, and had, as shown in the preceding
table, a rui-al population of 4,948,512, and an urban population of
569,115, at the end of 1878. There are only two considerable
to-\^TQS, namely, Cairo, with 349,883, and Alexandria, with 212,054
inhabitants.
At the enumeration of 1878, there were in Egypt proper 79,69G
foreigners. The foreign population consisted of 34,000 Greeks;
17,000 Frenchmen; 13,906 Italians; 6,300 Austrians; 6,000 Eng-
lishmen; 1,100 Germans; and 1,390 natives of other covmtries.
Trade and Commerce.
The commerce of Egypt is very large, but consists to a great extent
of goods carried in transit. In the year 1879, the total value
of the imports amounted to 500,216,341 piastres, or 5,156,869/.,
and of the exports to 1,343,905,858 piastres, or 13,854,699/. To
the entire foreign trade Great Britain contributed 53 per cent.,
and the rest was divided between France, Austria, Italy, and Russia,
in descending proportions.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the ex-
ports from Egypt to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Egypt, in each
of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Exports from Egypt to
Imports of British. Home
Years
Great Britain
Produce into Egypt
£
£
1870
14,116,820
8,726,602
1871
16,387,424
7.038,795
1872
16,455.731
7,213,063
1873
14,155,913
6,222,013
1874
10,514,798
3,585,106
1875
10.895,043
2,945,846
1876
11,481.519
2,630,407
1877
11,101,785
2,273,311
1878
6,145,421
2.194,030
1879
8,890,052
2.143,681
The considerable amount of the exports from Egypt to the
United Kingdom is owing, partly to large shipments of raw cotton,
and partly to the transit trade flowing from India and other parts
of Asia through Egypt, which latter, however, has greatly declined
in recent years, owing to the opening of the Suez Canal. The ex-
636
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
ports of raw cotton from Egypt to Great Britain were of the following
quantities and value in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
Value
Lbs.
£
1870
143,710,448
6,460,686
1871
176,166,480
6,416,729
1872
177,581,712
7,492,513
1873
204,977.136
8,628,733
1874
172,317,488
7,269,342
1875
163,912,336
6,668,340
1876
199,245,312
6,879,231
1877
176,558,256
5,587,248
1878
114,297,344
3,612,108
1879
158,232,032
6.088,109
Next to cotton the largest article of export from Egypt to the
United Kingdom in the years 1870 to 1879 was corn and flour.
The total corn imports of 1879 were of the value of 1,730.137/.,
comprising wheat, valued at 995,986/. ; beans, 694,988/. ; barley,
34,407/. ; and Hour, 4,669/.
The staple article of imports from the United Kingdom into
Egypt consists of cotton goods, of the value of 4,290,953/. in 1872,
of 3,666,942/. in 1873, of 1,922,505/. in 1874, of 1,558,839/. in
1875, of 1,436,232 in 1876, of 1,474,660/. in 1877, of 1,255,938/.
in 1878, and of 1,416,615/. in 1879. A part of these miports from
the United Kingdom pass in transit through Egypt.
The Suez Canal.
The commerce of the world has derived great advantages from
the construction of the Suez Canal of Egypt, connecting the Mediter-
ranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation November 17, 1869.
The number and tonnage of vessels which passed through the Canal
in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 was as follows : —
Years
Vessels
Vessels
Number
Tonnage
1870
491
436,618
1871
761
761,875
1872
1,082
1,439,169
1873
1,171
2,085,27-0
1874
1,264
2,423,672
1875
1,496
2,940,708
1876
1,461
2,095,870
1877
1,651
2,251,656
1878
1,593
3.291,535
1879
1.477
3.236,942
EGYPT. 637
Eatlier more tlianthree-foiirths of the shipping that passed through
the Suez Canal in the ten years 1870-79 belonged to Great
Britain. In the year 1879, there passed through the Canal 1,144
British vessels, 93 of France, 61 of the Netherlands, 51 of Italy,
40 of Austria, 16 of Germany, and 25 of Spain, the remainder being
distributed among seven other nationaUties.
The Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea,
starts from Port Said, 40 miles east of the Damietta mouth of
the Nile, and runs across the isthmus and through Lakes Menzal eh.
El Ballah, and Timsah, on the shores of which latter stands the new
town of Ismailia, and through the Bitter Lakes, to Suez. Its total
length is 92 miles. Its actual width, over the -greater part of its
length, does not permit of two vessels passing or crossing each other
in the Canal itself; but there are numerous sidings, by which vessels
are enabled to cross one another, and the passage is quickened.
Vessels measuring 430 feet in length and drawing 25 feet 9 inches
of water have passed safely through the Canal. The company pos-
sess a vast domain, which it is gradually selling and leasing, on the
banks of the Canal and about Ismailia. The actual cost of the
Canal, according to a report of the year 1880, was 17,518,729/.,
exclusive of 1,360,000Z. bonds issued to pay for coupons on shares
in arrear during part of the period of construction.
The state of the capital accountwas as follows at the end of 1879 : —
£
400,000 shares of 500 francs, or 20^ 8,000,000
333,333 obligations of 500 francs, or 20/. each, issued at
12/., bearing interest at 5 per cent., on par, and re-
deemable at par G, 666, 660
200,000 ' bons trentenaires,' or 30-3'ear bonds, issued at
100 francs, or 4/. each, redeemable at
5/. each, bearing interest at 8 per cent,
on 4/ £] ,000,000
Less 80,000 still unissued . . . 400,000
600,000
400,000 ' bons de coupons,' or bonds of 3/. 8s. each, bear-
ing interest at 5 per cent., issued for the consolidation
of unpaid coupons on shares, redeemable at par . . 1,360,000
Of the above 400,000 shares, 176,602 belonged formerly to the
Khedive of Egypt, and Avere purchased from him by the British
Government in November 1875 for the sum of 3,976,582/. But the
Khedive, by a convention passed in 1869 between himself and Suez
Canal Company, for the settlement of disputed claims and accounts,
had alienated all dividends on his 176,602 shares up to 1894, and
placed them at the disposal of the company. Against these dividends
the company issued 120,000 ' Delegations,' which are entitled to all
sums accruing on the above 176,602 shares up to 1894 ; the dividends
6^,S
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Avhich the * Delegations ' receive are, however, lessened by an annual
sum laid aside to provide a sinking fund, sufficient to extinguish them
all by the end of the year 1894.
The statutes of the Suez Canal Company provide that all net
earnings in excess of the 5 per cent, interest on the shares shall be
divided as follows : —
1. 15 per cent, to the Egyptian Government.
2. 10 ,, to the founders' shares.
3. 2 „ to form an invalid fund for the employes of the company.
4. 71 ., as dividend on the 400,000 shares.
5. 2 „ to the Managing Directors.
The receipts of the company from transit dues on ships in the
ten years from 1870 to 1879 were as follows;
Years
Francs
£
1870
5,1.59,327
206,372
1871
8,993,732
359,748
1872
16,407,591
656,304
1873
22,897,319
915.892
1874
24,859,383
994,374
187r)
28,886,302
1,15.5,452
1876
29,974,998
1,198,999
1877
32,774.344
1,310,974
1878
31,292,347
1,251,694
1879
29,876,367
1,195,054
The total receipts, from all soiirces, of the Suez Canal Company
amoimted to 30,949,148 francs, or 1,2.37,966/ , and the total ex-
penditure to 28,0.59,800 francs, or 1,122,392/., in the year 1879. The
dividend paid to the shareholders, after placing 5 per cent, to the
sinking fund, according to the statutes, amounted to 4 francs 87
centimes for the year 1879.
Railways and Telegraphs.
Egypt had, on the 1st January 1880, a railway system of a total
length of 1,495 kilometres, or 934 Engl, miles, open for traffic,
with 800 kilometres, or 497 Engl, miles, in course of construction.
The whole of the railways are state property, with the exception of
a short line of 8 kilometres, or 5 Engl, miles.
The post-office can-ied 2,561,520 inland letters, and 1,299,000
foreign letters and postcards, in the year 1879, besides 471,400
inland and 573,000 foreign newspapers. The number of post-offices
was 210 on January 1, 1880.
The telegraphs of Egypt were, at the commencement of 1880, of
a total length of 8,570 kilometres, or 5,322 Engl, miles, the length of
wires being 13,900 kilometres, or 8,632 Engl, miles. The total in-
cludes an Engli.sh line of telegraphs from Alexandria to Cairo, 455
miles in length. All the other telegraphs are State property.
EGYPT. 639
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Egypt in Great Britain.
Egypt had no representative in Great Britain in the year 1880.
2. Of Great Britain in Egypt.
Agevt and Consul-Gencral. — Edward Baldwin Malet, C.B., formerly Secre-
tary of Embassy at Constantinople ; appointed October 10, 1879.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Egj'pt are : —
Money.
TYit Piastre, of A.0 paras . . — Average rate of exchange, 2^(7., or
97 piastres, equal to £1 sterling.
,, Kees, ov Purse, of 500 piastres = ,, „ £5 2s. 6d.
The currency of Egypt being insufficient for its vast commerce,
coins of nearly all the nations of Europe, as well as of the United
States, have becon>e legal tender. Those most in use are French
twenty-francs gold pieces and British sovereigns.
Weights and Measures.
The Killotv . . . . = 0-9120 imperial bushel.
. = I'lSl imperial gallon.
. = 226 lbs.
. = 2-8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
. =- 3 yards.
. = 3,208 square yards, or nearly
an acre.
By a decree of the former Khedive dated August 1, 1875, the
metrical system of weights and measures Avas ordered to be intro-
duced into Egypt on the 1st of January, 1876, but compulsory only
at first in all public and administrative transactions.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Egypt.
1. Official Publications.
Statistique de I'Egypte. Par E. de Eegny-Be}'. Annee 1880. Le Caire
1880.
Report by Mr. Consul Eogers on the trade of Cairo, dated Jan. 22, 1874
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufi^ctures, Commerce, &c., of their
consular districts.' Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Reports by Mr. Consid Stanley on the trade and commerce of Alexandria
and of Egypt ; by Mr. Consul West on the trade of Suez ; and by Mr. Yice-
Consul Perceval on the trade and navigation of Port Said, dated January-
February, 1874 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures, Com-
merce, &c., of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Report by Sir. Consul Perceval on the trade and navigation of Port Said
Alnu/d .
Ardeb
Oke, of 400 drams
Gasab, of 4 diraas
Feddan al risach
640 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881'.
for the year 1874, dated March 21, 1875; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report Ly Mr. Consul West on the trade, commerce and shipping of Suez,
dated Suez, March 3, 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1876.
8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Cookson on the trade and commerce of Alexandria,
and the ajjricultural produce of Egypt ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part L 187^7. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Consul Perceval on the commerce of Port Said, and by Mr.
Consul AVest on the trade and navigation at Suez, dated March 1877 and
1878 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1877, and Part III. 1878.
8. London, 1877 and 1878.
Reports by Mr. Consul Calvert on the commerce of Alexandria and of Egypt,
by Mr. Consul Perceval on the commerce of Port Said, and by IMr. Consul West
on the trade and navigation of Suez, dated March 1879; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IIL 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Egypt with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amici (F.), Essai de .statistique generale de I'Egypte. 8. Le Caire, 1879.
Ave LaHenuint (Dr. R.), Fata Morgana aus Egypten. 8. Altona, 1872.
Bardoii 1/ Gofiie:: (L.), Via^e k EgiTpto. 8. Madrid, 1871.
Barnard (M.), Notice Geographique et Historique de I'Egj'pte. 8. Paris,
1868.
Billard (A.), Les mceurs et le gouvernement de I'Egypte. 8. Milan, 1868.
5orrfe (Paul), L'Isthmc de Suez. 8. Paris, 1871.
.B^K^sc^-iJcy (Henri), Histoire d'Egypte. 2nd edit. 8. Leipzig, 1875.
Cov'ino (Prof. A.), L'Istmo di Suez. 8. Torino, 1870.
De Leon (Edwin), The Khedive's Egypt. 8. London, 1877.
Duff-Gordon (Lady), Last Letters from Egypt. 8. London, 1875.
Ebers (Georg), Aegypten in Bild und Wort. Fol. Stuttgart, 1879.
Edwards (A. B.), A Thousand Miles up the Nile. 8. London, 1877.
Gallion-Danglar (Eugene), Lettros sur I'Egypte contemporaine. 1865-1875.
8. Paris, 1876.
Lesseps (Ferdinand de), Le Canal de Suez. 8. Paris, 1875.
Loftie (W. J.), A Ride in Egypt. 8. London, 1879.
Lilttke (Moritz), Aegypten und .seine Stellung im Orient. In 'Uusere Zeit.'
8. Leipzig, 1876.
MeCoan (.J. C), Egypt as it is. 8. London, 1877.
Milhlbach (L.), Reisebriefe aus Aegj-pten. 2 vols. 8. Jena, 1871.
Ronchetti (N.). L'Egypte et ses Progr^s sous Ismail Pascha. 8, Marseilles,
1868.
Soiith (J.), The Nile and its Banks. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Stephcm (H.), Das heutige Aegypten. 8. Leipzig, 1872.
.Z/HC/lv=rK.B.), Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 8. London, 1872.
641
LIBERIA.
(United States of Liberia.)
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of the republic of Liberia is on the model of
that of the United States of America. The executive is vested in a
President, and the legislative power in a parliament of two houses,
called the Senate and the House of Representatives. The President
and the House of Representatives are elected for two years, and the
senate for four years. There are 13 members of the Lower House,
and 8 of the Upper House. The President must be thirty-five years
of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars, or 120Z.
President of Liberia. — Anthony W. Gardner, assumed office
January 7, 1878.
The President is assisted in his executive function by four minis-
ters, the Secretary of >"5tate, the Secretary of the Treasury, the
Attorney- General, and the Postmaster-General.
The establishment of the Republic of Liberia was virtually an
attempt, made by American philanthropists, to show the capacity of
the negro race for self-government ; but as such it is admitted to be
a failure. Prevailing disorder, with absence of all progress and
civilisation, mark the character of the negro republic in its more
recent history.
Population, Revenue, and Trade.
Liberia has about 600 miles of coast line, and extends back 100
miles on an average. The total population is estimated to number
720,000, all of the African race, and of which number 19,000 are
Americo-Liberians, and the remaining 701,000 aboriginal inhabi-
tants. Monrovia, the capital, has an estimated population of 13,000.
The public revenue is estimated to amount annually to 85,000
dollars, in paper currency, equal to about 17,000Z., and the expendi-
ture to 120,000 dollars, or 24,000/. The principal part of the
revenue is derived from customs duties, while the expenditure em-
braces chiefly the costof the general administration. In August 1871,
the republic laid the foundation of a public debf by contracting a
loan of 500,000 dollars, or 100,000/., at 7 per cent, interest, to be
redeemed in 15 years. The loan was issued in England, but no
interest has ever been paid on it, the Government of the republic
being actually bankrupt.
There are no statistics regarding the extent of the commercial
relations of the republic with the United Kingdom, the 'Annual
Statement of Trade and Navigation ' issued by the Board of Trade
not mentioning Liberia, but only ' Western Coast of Africa.' The
T T
642
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
value of the exports and the British imports thus designated was as
follows in the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Exports from Western Africa
Imports of British produce
to Great Britain.
into Western Africa.
£
£
1875
1,651,071
692,418
1876
1,597,764
867,360
1877
1.631,250
1,026.717
1878
1.213,270
1,038,971
1879
1,386,217
656,902
The chief article of exports from Western Africa to Great Britain
in 1879 was palm oil, of the value of 996,294^. The British
imports into Western Africa consist mainly ol cotton manufactures
of the value of 251,538/. in 1879.
diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Libkria in Gkeat Britain.
Minisfcr.— Edward William Blyden, accredited August 22, 1877.
There are no representatives of Great Britain in Liberia.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money chieHy used is that of Great Britain, but accounts are
kept generally in American dollars and cents. There is a large
paper currency. In the traffic with natives on the west coast of
Africa, gold is bought and sold by Usanos, each of 16 Akis. A
Usano of Gold contains 314:-7G English troy grains.
Weights and measures are mostly British. In the trade with the
interior of Africa, the Ardeh is the chief measure of capacity for
dry goods. The Gondar Ardeb contains 10 Madegas, or 120
Uckieh, or 1,440 Dirhems, and is equal to 7'747o British imperial
pints. The Knba is the chief liquid measure; it is equal to 1-7887
British imperial pint.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.
Official Publication.
Trade and commerce of Great Britain -with Western Africa; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
JBritish Possessions for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
Non-Official PrBLiCATioNS.
Die Negerrepuhlic Liberia. In ' Unsere Zeit.' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858.
Hutchinson (E.) Impressions of Western Africa. 8. London, 1858.
Eittcr (Karl) Begriindung und gegenwartige Zustande der Kepublic Lilieriii.
In ' Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Erdkunde.' Vol.1. 8. Leipzig, 1853.
Stockirell (G. S.~),The Republic of Liberia: its geography, climate, soil, and
productions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 1868.
Wilson (J.), AVestern Africa. 8. London, 1856.
643
MAURITIUS.
Constitution and Government.
The government of the British colony of Mauritiup, with its de-
pendencies, the island of Rodrigues, of Diego Garcia, and the
Seychelles Islands, is vested in a Governor, aided by an Executive
Council, of which the Colonial Secretary, the Advocate-General, the
Officer in Command o£ Her Majesty's Troops, the Colonial Treasurer,
and Auditor-General, are ex-officio members. Tliere is also a Legis-
lative Council, consisting of eight official and twelve non-official
members, together with such additional members, official or non-
official, as may be named by the Governor and approved by the
Crown. The official councillors comprise the five Executive members,
the Collector of Customs, the Protector of Immigrants, and the
Surveyor-General ; the non-official councillors are chosen fi'om the
landed proprietors of the island, and submitted to Her Majesty for
approval and confirmation. The Council at present consists of
twenty members.
Governor of Mauritius. — Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.IM.G. ;
born 182 1 ; educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and graduated B. A.,
1844 ; admitted to the bar at Lincoln's Inn, London, 1845 ; first
Governor of Queensland, Australia, 1859-68 ; Governor of New
Zealand, 1868-73; Governor of Victoria, 1873-79. Appointed
Governor of Mauritius, April 4, 1879.
The Governor has a salary of 6,000/., and the Colonial Secretary
1,350/. per annum.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of the tea
years from 1870 to 1879 were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
&
&
1870
608,166
591,579
1871
616,952
630,961 1
1872
703,159
650,327
1873
690,081
657,110
1874
720,130
727,063
1875
692,894
775,836
1876
732,106
719,539
1877
748,059
703,608
1878
789,544
734,579
1879
763,769
746,199
The principal source of revenue is from the customs.
;^ small public debt, amounting to 800,000/. in 1879.
T T?
There is
644
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Area and Population.
The island of Mauritius, lying in the Indian Ocean, 400 miles
west of Madagascar, comprises an area of 676 English square miles.
The island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1507, but the
first who made any settlement in it were the Dutch in 1598, who
named it Mauritius, in honour of their Prince Maurice. It was
abandoned by them in 1710, and afterwards taken possession of by
the French. The British Government captured it in 1810, and its
possession was ratified by the Treaty of Paris, 1814.
The dependent islands of Rodrigues, Diego Garcia, and the
Seychelles, under the administration of the Governor of Mauritius,
are from 300 to 900 miles distant from Mauritius. They are small,
with a very thin population, composed of settlers from Mauritius.
The following were the numbers of the population of Mauritius,
according to the last census taken in March, 1871 : —
t
1
Pojmlation 1871
1
Male
Female Total
Total of resident population .
j Military in Port Louis and elsewhere
1 Crews of mercantile shipping
193,575
564
314
122,4C7
142
7
316,042
321
i Total of population
194,453 ; 122,616
317,069
The following was the estimated population, exclusive of military
and shipping, on December 31, 1878 : —
j General ropulation
Indian Population Total
Male Female
59,519 53,210
Male
151,041
Female 1
90,853 I 354,623
The capital of the colony, Port Louis, had an estimated population
of 66,100 at the end of 1878.
Trade and Industry.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony
was as follows in each of the five yeai's from 1874 to 1878 : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
&
£
1874
2,427,813
2,697,892
1875
2,194.824
2,522,099
1876
2,284,213
3,273,827
1877
2,359,449
4,201,286
1878
2,229,346
3,777,379
MAURITIUS.
645
The exports from the colony comprise, as staple article, unreiined
sugar, and besides, coffee, cocoa nut oil, and rum. A large portion
•o£ the trade is with the British colonies of South Africa.
The commercial intercourse of Mauritius with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the total value of the
exports from Mauritius to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Mauritius, in each of the
iive years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Exports from
Imports of
Yejirs
Mauritius to the
British Produce
United Kingdom
into Mauritius
£■
X,
1875
824.411
353,647
1876
936,736
342,249
1877
1,891,031
492,637
1878
887,009
409,352
1879
641,836
341,257
The stiiple article of exports from Mauritius to the United King-
dom is unrefined sugar, the value being 486,295/., in 1879.
The other exports comprised coffee, of the value of 25,064/., and
cocoa nut oil, of the value of 23,323/. in 1879. The British imports
in 1879 consisted principally of cotton goods, valued 89,272/,, and
iron, valued 49,639/.
The colony has two lines of railways, of a total length of 92 miles,
at the end of 1879. These lines connect Port Louis, the capital,
with Grand liiver and with Savanne. An extension of the latter
line to Moka was in course of construction in 1880.
There exists a complete system of telegraphs throughout the island
• of Mam-itius.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The standard coin of Mauritius is the India rupee, with its sub-
divisions (see p. 699). All accounts are kept in rupees.
The metric system decreed by the Government of India in 1871
(see p. 700), came into force in Mauritius on May 1, 1878.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mauritius.
I. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries
-and British Possessions in the year 1879. Imp. 4. London, 1880
Statistical Abstract for the several colonial and other possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1864 to 1878. No. XVI. London, 1880.
II. Non-Official Publications.
Flemyng (M.), Mauritius, or the Isle of France. 8. London, 1862.
Manin (E. Montgomery). The British Possessions in Africa. Vol. IV. of
History of the British Colonies. 8. London, 1834.
646
MOROCCO.
(Maghrib-el-Aksa. — El Gharb.)
Reigning Sultan.
Muiey-Hassan, born 1831, eldest son of Sultan Sidi-Muley-
Mohamed ; ascended the throne at the death of his father, Sep-
tember 17, 1873.
The present Sultan of jMorocco — known to his subjects under
the title of ' Emir-al-Mumenin,' or Absolute Ruler of True Be-
lievers— is the fourteenth of the dynasty of the Alides, founded by
Muley-Achniet, and the thirty-fifth lineal descendant of Ali, iincle
and son-in-law of the Prophet. His three predecessors were : —
Sultans. Reign. I Sultan. Reign.
Muley-Soliman . . 1794-1822. o- t i\r i , ivr^i, ^^a iq^q iqt*
Muley-Abderraliman . 1822-18o9. | •'
The croAvn is hereditary in the family of the Sharifs of Fileli,.
or Tafilet. Each Sultan has the right to choose his own successor
among the members of his family, and, if not exercising this pri-
vilege, the custom of succession is that obeyed in the Ottoman
empire (see p. 457), under which the crown falls, at the demise of
the sovereign, to the eldest member of the reigning family.
Government and Religion.
The form of government of the Sultanate, or Empire of Morocco,
is that of an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or
religious. The Sultan is chief of the state as well as head of the
religion, and master of the lives and of the property of all his sub-
jects. As spiritual ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority
not being limited, as in Turkey and other countries following the
religion of Mahomet, by the expounders of the Koran, the class of
' Ulema,' under the ' Sheik-ul-Islam.' The Sultan has no regular
ministers. bi;t receives advice from and cai-ries on the executive
usually through special favourites near his person, the principal of
whom is generally invested with the title of ' Mula-el-tesserad,' or
steward of the Imperial household. The Sultan's orders are carried
out, and he raises his revenue, estimated at 500,000/f. per annum^
by an armed force of 8,000 men, of whom 5,000 constitute the
Imperial body-guard, one half infantry and the other cavalry.
The Sultan of Morocco and his subjects differ as a sectarian
body from the followers of Mahomet in Turkey, Persia, and other
countries by adopting as their text-book of liiith the commentary
upon the Koran by Sidi Beccari, the original of which is kept at
he Imperial palace, and deposited in time of war in a tent within
MOROCCO.
647
the centre of the army, around which the soldiers rally as both a
symbol of religion and national standard.
Area, Population, and Trade.
The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the
southern fi-ontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled, and claimed
alternately by the Sultan and a number of wandering tribes not in
any manner under his authority. According to the most recent
investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000
English square miles, inclusive of a conquered portion of the
vSahara. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from
2,500,000 to 8,000,000 ; and, taking the known density of popula-
tion of the neighbouring Algeria as measure, it may be fixed, Avith
probably some approximation to truth, at 2,750,000 souls. i\lore
than two-thirds of the population belong to the race commonly
known as Moors, the remaining third consisting mainly of Bedouin
Arabs, Jews, estimated at 340,000, and negroes. The number of
Christians is very small, not pxceeding 50O. A large part of the
interior of Morocco is entirely unknown to Europeans.
The trade with foreign countries is not very considerable, and is
cliielly with Great Britain and Spain; it passes mainly through the
port of Tangier. There are, besides Tangier, seven other ports
open to fureign commerce.
The following table gives the value of the exports from IMorocco
to Great Britain, and of the imports of British home produce into
Morocco, in each of the five vears from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years.
Exports from Morocco to
Great Britain.
Imports of British Home
produce into iXorocco.
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
711,294
627,453
811.954
391,369
154,270
£
342,420
396,277
392,788
191,292
245,037
The chief articles of export from Morocco to Great Britain in
the year 1879 were almonds, of the value of 52,148/., and
wool, of the value of 42,764/. The staple article of British im-
ports into Morocco consists of cotton manufactures, of the value of
98,041/., in 1879.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Morocco ix Great Britaik.
Consul. — Hadj Said Guesns, accredited Dec. 31, 1863.
2. Of Great Britain in Morocco.
Minister and Consul-General — Sir John Hay Drummond Hay, K.C.B.,
appointed Minister Plenipotentiary Sept. 1, 1872.
648 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Morocco, and the British
equivalents, are : —
MOXEY.
The Blankeel
The Ounce
The Mitkul
= 24 Fltics Approximate English value = \d.
4 BlankeeU „ „ „ = 3^.
= 10 Ounces „ ,, „ = 3s. Id.
Weights .^nd Measures.
The Kintar
= 100 Roiales
lb av.
112
The Dhra'a
= 8 Tomin .
inches.
= 22.482
The Saa
= 4 Muhds
Imperial Gallons
= 12.32541
Oil is sold by the kula, Avhich weighs 22 rotal (of Morocco), and
iri equal to about 3'o35565 British imperial gallons, or 15'155
litres, but all other liquids are sold by weight.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Morocco.
1. Official Publicatioxs.
Report by Mr. Consul White on the trade and commerce of Morocco for
the year 1875, dated Tangier, March 28, 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeports by Mr. Consul White on the commerce of Morocco ; by Mr. Vice-
Consid Lapeen on the trade of Lapeen ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Imossi on the
trade of Larai'^he ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Redman on the trade of Mazagan; by
Mr. Vice-Consul Frost on the Rabat ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Hunot on the
Trade of Saffi, dated January -May 1877; in "Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.
Part V. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Eeports by Mr. Consul Drummond Hay on the trade of Mogador, and by Mr.
Consul White on the commerce of Tangier, dated February- April 1878, in
Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IIL 1878. 8. Loudon, 1878.
Ti-ade of Morocco with the Urited Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessionb
in the year 1879." Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Nox -Official Publications.
Amlcis (E. de), Maroeco. 8. Mihmo, 1878.
Augustin (C), Marokko in seinen geographischen, historischen, religiosen,
politi.schen, militarischen und gesellschaftlicheu Zustanden. 8. Pesth, 1845.
Calderon (S.E.), Cuadro geografico, estadistico, historico, politico, del imperio
de Marrueccos. 8. Madrid, 1 844.
Hooker (Sir Joseph D.), Jouimal of a Tour in Morocco. 8. London, 1878.
Leared (Arthur),. Morocco and the Moors ; being an Account of Travels, with
a General Description of the Country and its People. 8. London, 1876.
Maltzan (Heinrich, Freiherr von), Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika :
Reisen in Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.
Eenou (C). Description geographique de Tempirede Maroc. 8. Paris, 1846.
Bohlfs (Gerhard), Land und Volk in Afrika. 8. Bremen, 18/0.
Eohlfs (Gerhard), Mein erster Aufeuthalt in Marokko. 8. Bremen, 1873.
649
NATAL.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Cape of Good
Hope settlement, was erected in 1856 into a separate colony under
the British crown, represented first by a Lieutenant-Governor, and
since 1879 by a Governor. Under the charter of constitution
granted in 1856, and modified in 1875 and 1879, the Governor is
assisted in the administration of the colony by an Executive and
a Legislative Council. The Executive Council is composed of the
Chief-justice, the senior officer in command of the troops, the
Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the Attorney- General, the Secre-
tary for Native Affairs, and two members nominated by the
Governor from among the Deputies elected to the Legislative
Council, The Legislative Council is composed of thirteen official
members, including the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the
Attorney-General, and the Secretary for Native Affairs, and of
fifteen members elected by the counties and boroughs.
Governor of Natal. — Major- General Sir George Pomeroy C alley,
C.B., C.M.G., born 1835 ; entered the army 1850, and served in
the Ashantee and other wars. Appointed Governor of Natal, Feb-
ruary 19, 1880.
The Governor has a salary of 2,500/. per annum.
Revenue and Population.
The jDublic revenue and expenditure of the colony in the six
jears from 1874 to 1879 were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1874
247,259
254,402
1875
260,271
307,025
1876
265,551
261,933
1877
272,473
283,825
1878
369,383
387,067
1879
473,478
491,883
About one-fourth of the revenue is derived from customs, and the
rest from miscellaneous sources of income, among them a ' hut-
tax on natives, the impost being fixed at 14s. per hut. In the year
1878 the tax was paid on 85,714 such huts. The chief branch of
expenditure is for police and the administration of justice. The
public debt consists of six loans, all at six per cent., three of them
650
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
contracted for harbour works, two for coolie immigration, the last
raised in 1876, for the construction of a line of railway. The total
debt o£ the colony was 1,631,700/. at the end of 1879.
The colony has an estimated area of about 18,750 English square
miles, with a seaboard of 150 miles. But the extent of some of the
districts is all but unknown.
An official return, dated 1877, stated the total population of the
colony at 325,512, comprising 157,929 males, and 167,583 females.
As to race, there were 22,654 persons of European descent, 290,035
natives of Africa, ;md 12,823 coolies. In the two towns of the
colony, Pietermaritzburg and Durban, the European and native po-
pulation were nearly equal in numbers. Comparatively few emi-
grants arrived in recent years, the former Government aid to this
effect havino; come to an end.
Trade and Commerce.
The commerce of Natal is almost entirely with Great Britain.
The subjoined table gives the value of the total exports from Natal
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the total imports of British
produce in each of the .six years 1874 to 1879 : —
Year
Total Exports from Natal
1
Total Imports of
to Great Britain
British Produce into Natal
£
£
1874
660,538
772,933
1875
754,298
872,381
1876
534,180
702,796
1877
714,899
785,341
1878
682.015
1,092,025
1879
608,516
1,449,741
The staple article of export from Natal is sheep's wool. The wool
exports to Great Britain amounted in value to 400,672/. in 1874, to
514,310/. in 1875, to 379,079/. in 1876, to 518,379/., in 1877, to
568,111/. in 1878, and to 502,539/. in 1879. Next in importance
to wool stand hides, the exports of which were of the value of
67,405/. in 1879, and raw sugar, of the value of 13,111/. in the
same year. Many of the exports of the colony, particularly wool,
come from the neighbouring Dutch republics, wdiich also absorb
more than one-third of the imports.
Since the year 1866 cotton has been grown in the colony. The
exports of raw cotton to Great Britain were of the value of 18,559/.
in 1870; and rose to 29,432/. in 1871 ; but fell to 9,791/. in 1872,
to 5,438/. in 1873; to 1,922/. in 1874; to 309/. in 1875, and to
197/. in 1876. There were no exports of raw cotton from 1877 ta
1879.
NATAL. 651
The chief articles of British imjDorts into Natal in 1879 were
apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 341,317/. and iron,
wrought and unwrought, of the value of 94,272/.
A convention for the construction of a railway system in the
colony was signed by the Government in 1875. The work is to
comprise 345 miles of single line, to be constructed at a cost of
1,200,000/., and to aid in the execution the colony made a land
grant of two-and-a-half million acres, with a further right to
certain coal fields, and a subvention of 40,000/. per annum. The
first portion of the line, along the north coast, was opened in 1878,,
and the whole is to be completed by the middle of 1881.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Natal.
1. Official Pvblications.
Report from Lievitenant-GoTernor Keate on the trade and general condi-
tion of Natal, dated Natal, March S, 1872 ; in ' Reports on the Present State
of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Part III. 8. London, 1872.
Statistics of Natal; in 'Statistical ALstract for the several Colonial and
other Possessions of the United Kingdom in each year from 1860 to 1877.'
No. XVI. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Natal with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the.
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Brooks (Henry), Natal : a History and Description of the Colony. 8.
London, 1877.
Dtmn (E. J.), Notes on the Diamond Fields. 8. Cape Town, 1871.
Elton (Capt.), Special Reports upon the Gold Field at Marabastadt and upon
the Transvaal Republic. 8. Durban, 1872.
Fritsch (Dr. G.), Drei Jahre in Siid-Afrika. 8. Breslau, 1868.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrika's ethnographisch und ana-
tomisch beschrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.
Gillmore (Parker), The Great Thirst Land. A Ride through Natal, Orange
Free State, Transvaal, and Kahalari Desert. 8. London. 1878.
Hall (H.), Manual of South African Geography. 8. Capetown, 1866.
Mann (Dr. H.), Statistical Notes regarding the Colony of Natal. In ' Journal
of the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXX. 1. London, 1869.
Meidmger (H.), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands und die Freistaatcrt
der hollandischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt a. 31
1861.
Payton (Ch. A.), The Diamond Diggings of South Africa. 8. London, 1872.
Natal Almanack, Directory, and Yearly Register. Pietermaritzburg, 1879.
Robinson (John), Notes on Natal. 8. Durban, 1872.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal.
the Diamond Fields, &c. 8. London, 1876.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to the Transvaal. 8. London, 1877.
TroZZope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 9. London, 1878.
652
TUNIS.
(Afrikija.)
Reigning Bey.
Sidi Mohamed-el-Sadok, born October 3, 1813, eldest son ot
Bey Sidy Ahsin ; succeeded his brother, Mohamed Bey, September
23, 1859.
Brother of the Bey.
Sidi Ali, second surviving son of Bey Sidy Ahsin, heir presump-
tive to the throne, born October 5, 1817.
The reigning family of Tunis, occupants of the throne since 1691,
descend from Ben Ali Tourki, a native of the Isle of Crete, who, by
force of arms, made himself master of the country, acknowledging,
however, the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey, in existence since
1575. As such they assumed the title of ' Bey,' or Regent.
This suzerainty remained in force, with short interruptions,
till the reign of the present Bey, who succeeded in obtaining
an Imperiar firman, dated October 25, 1871, which liberated him
ii-om the payment of the tribute paid by his predecessors and made
him virtually independent. Besides formalities of investiture, the sole
actual connection of Tunis with the Ottoman Empire exists in the
treaty obligation of the Bey to furnish the Sultan with a certain
number of troops in time of war.
Government, Revenue, and Army.
The Government of Tunis was a pure despotism till the accession
of the present sovereign, who issued, immediately after assuming the
govennnent, an ' Organic Law,' establishing courts of justice, and
guaranteeing individual and religious liberty. By the terms of this
law the general administration of the country was vested, under the
Bey, in a Ministerial Council, composed of six members, presiding
over the departments of Foreign Affairs, held by the Prime Minister, of
the Interior, of Justice, of War, of Marine, and of Public Works.
There was likewise established, as a consulting body, a ' Conseil de
la regence,' composed oi' all the foreign consuls, various Government
officials, and the members of the municipality of the capital.
The total revenue of the Government in the financial year ending
-the 30th June, 1875, amomited to 273,'292Z., and the total expendi-
ture to 251,874/. The principal sources of revenue and chief
tranches of expenditure were as follows, in the year 1874-75 : —
TUNIS.
653
Sources of Revenue, 1874-1875,
1
!
Customs duties on exports ....
Taxes and tithes on olive trees ....
Tobacco and salt monopolies ....
Customs duties on imports ....
Miscellaneous receipts, including stamp duties .
Total Revenue .
1
117.623 j
35,459 !
18,172
17,557 i
84,481
273,292
Branches of Expenditure, 1874-75.
Cost of General Administration
Interest and management of public debt .
Payment of arrear coupons of the delit
Total Expenditure
£
6,053
223.105
22,716
251,874
It will be seen that, besides tlie general administration of the
country, carried on at a very small cost, the bulk of the expenditure
was for the public debt. The public liabilities Avere mainly contracted
between the years 1856 and 1808, and at the latter date amoimted,
exclusive of a floating debt, to 182,000,000 francs, or 7,280,000/.,
a portion of it contracted in Tunis, but the greater part in foreign
countries, mainly France. No interest being paid to the creditors,
the French and other Governments made reclamations, in pursuance
of which the Bey consented to establish an International Finance
Commission, to provide for the settlement and gradual extinction
of the public debt. Called into existence in 1869, the Commission
has been working since that time, with highly satisfactory results to
both the Government of Tunis and its creditors. The International
Finance Commission is divided into two departments, namely, the
Administrative Section, composed of the Prime Minister of Tunis
as president, of a French Inspector of finance, and another Tunisian
functionary representing the Government ; and the Section of Con-
trol, comprising six delegates elected by the English, French, and
Italian creditors respectively. The Acts of the Administrative
Section, having a reference directly or indirectly to financial matters
connected with the interests of the foreign creditors, have no executive
force unless they are approved by the Section of Control, particu-
larly in respect of any new loans or financial operations, Avhich may
in any way affect the public revenue. There is a sub-committee
known as the ' Council of Administration of the Conceded Revenues,'
composed of five members, namely, one English, one French, one
Tunisian, an Italian, and one taken indiscriminately from among
654 THE statesman's year-book, 1881,
the most respectable residents of any other nationality. They
are named by the Finance Commission for three years, at the
expiration of which period any of them may be re-elected for
another year. A member of the Board of Control assists at its
deliberations, besides which it submits its half-yearly accounts to
the Finance Commission, which, after being audited and approved
by it, are published for the information of the public.
Each foreign delegate of the Finance Commission receives yearly
240Z. to meet his extra expenses, while the members of the sub-
committee, who are expected to give up all their time to the
performance of their several duties, receive a salary of 400/., and
their president 480/. The total amount of the annual expenditure
incurred by the sub-committee is 6,000/., inclusive of 2,238/., being
the commission chax-ged by the bankers ^or the payment of the
coupons in Europe and other outlays.
Under the arrangements made by the International Finance Com-
mission, the total pTiblic debt of Tunis stands fixed at present at
125,000,000 francs, or 5,000,000/., the whole bearing Interest at
five per cent. The annual surplus of revenue over expenditure is
devoted to the gradual extinction of the debt.
The army of Tunis is divided into two distinct parts, the first
consisting of regular, and the second of irregular troops. The first
comprises seven regiments of infantry, of 3,900 men ; four battalions
of artillery, of HOO men ; and a cavalry troop of 100 men. The
irregular army is computed to amount to 11,500 men, about one-
fourth of them horsemen.
Tunis possessed two small armed steamers, an aviso of 500 tons,
with 8 guns, and engines of 160 horse-power, and a transport of
400 tons, with 2 guns, and of 140 horse-power, at the end of June
1878. It was reported at the s;ime date that two ironclad monitors
were being constructed in France by order of the government.
Area, Population, and Trade.
The kingdom or ' Regency ' of Tunis, formerly one of the so-called
Barbary States, comprises the tract of country included in the ancient
Roman provinces of Zeugitana and Byzacium. It takes its present
name from its modern capital Tunis, the Roman Tunes, the XevKorj
Tvtri-ci of Diodorus of Sicily. The present boimdaries are on the
north and east the Mediterranean Sea, on the west the Franco-
Algerian province of Constantine, and on the south the great
desert of the Sahara and the Turkish Pachalik of Tripoli ; rfnd
reckoning its average breadth from west to east to be 100 miles, it
covers an area of about 42,000 English square miles, including that
portion of the Sahara which is to the east of the Beled Djerid,
extendinc: towards Gadames.
TUNIS.
655
The number of inhabitants is only known by estimates, no
attempt of enumeration having ever been made. It is stated in
the,' Almanacco Tunissino ' for 1877, that the total population is
calculated to number 2,100,000, comprising 2,028,000 Mahometans,
45,000 Jews, 25,100 Eoman Catholics, 400' Greek Catholics, and 100
Protestants. But recording to other reports, there are, at the utmost
1,500,000 inhabitants. According to all accounts, the population,
which numbered 17 millions in the tenth century, and 5 millions in
the middle of the eighteenth century, is gradually decreasing. The
majority of the population is mainly formed of Bedouin Arabs and
Kabyles.
The capital, the city of Tunis, is situated 10 miles south-
east of the site of ancient Carthage, built on the western side of a
lake, some 20 miles in circumference, which separates it from its
port Goletta The city walls measure five miles in circumference,
and the inhabitants are variously estimated from 100,000 to 120,000,
comprising Moors, Arabs, Negroes, and Jews.
There are twelve ports open to foreign trade, but the bulk of the
commerce passes through Tunis-Goletta. The total foreign -trade
averages 2,400,000/. per annum, comprising 1,100,000Z. imports,
and 1,300,000/. exports. The principal articles exported are wheat,
olive oil, and barley. The foreign trade is carried on mainly with
Italy, France, and Great Britain.
In the returns of the Board of Trade the commerce of Great Britain
with Tunis is thrown together with that of Tripolis. The following
table shows the exports from Tunis and Tripolis to Great Britain,
and the imports of British home produce into Tunis and Tripolis, iii
each of the five years from 1874 to 1878 : —
Exports from Tu"is arid
Imports of British home
Years.
Tripolis to the United
produce into Tunis
Kingdom.
and Tripolis.
£
£
1875
416,985
122,557
1876
391,459
60,097
1877
501,578
37.664
1878
345,214
45,995
1879
408,833
57,393
The principal article of export from Tunis and Tripolis to Great
Britain in the year 1879 was Esparto grass, for making paper, of
the value of 376,284/., while the principal article of import of British
produce consisted in cotton manufectures, of the value of 41,983/,
Tunis has three short lines of railway, running from the capital to
Goletta, and other places in the environs, of a total length of 38 Engl,
miles, opened for traffic at the end of June 1878, A line to the
656 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Algerian frontier, 80 English miles, was under construction at the
same date.
There were 650 miles of telegraphs in operation at the end of June
1880.
Diplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of Tdnis in Great Britain.
There were no diplomatic representatives of Tunis in Great Britain in 1880.
2. Of Grf.at Britain in Tunis.
Political Agent and Consul-General. — Thomas F. Rcade.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The monej', weights, and measures of Tunis, and the British equivalents, are
as follows : —
Monet.
The Piastre, of 16 karuhs .... average value 6c?.
The gold and silver coins of France and Italy are In general use.
Weights and Measures.
The Caiitar, of 100 roftolos = 109'15 pounds.
., Kaffis, of 16 whibas, each of 12 sahs = 16 bushels.
The pic. or principal long measure, is of three lengths, viz., 073o9 of a
yard for cloth ; ()-51729 of a yard for linen ; 0-68975 of a yard for silk.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Tunis.
1. Official Publications.
Alraanacco Tunisino per I'anno 1880. 8. Tunis, 1880.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Wood on the trade, industry, and finances-
of Tunis, dated Tunis, September 27, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Parti. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Dupuis on the trade and commerce of Susa in
1875, dated Susa, January 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV.
1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul-General Wood on the exports and imports of Tunis ;
in 'Reports' from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Dupuis on the commerce of Susa ; in ' Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1877, Part III. 1878, and Part II. 1879. 8.
London, 1877, 1878. and 1879.
Trade of Tunis and Tripoli with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual State-
ment of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions, for the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Xon-official Publications.
De Flaiur (M.), La Regence de Tunis. 8. Paris, 1866.
Bilhan (Ch.\ Ilistoire abregee de la Regence de Tunis. 8. Paris, 1867.
Eo7isseau (F.), Annales Tunisiennes. 8. Paris, 1864.
Trmpie (Sir G.), Excursions in the Mediterranean. 2 vols. 8. London,
1856.
657
III. ASIA.
CEYLON.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of Ceylon was established by
Letters Patent of April 1831, and supplementary orders of March
1833. According to the terms of this constitution, the administra-
tion is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council
of five members ; viz. the Officer Commanding the Troops, the
Colonial Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Treasurer, and the
Auditor- General ; and a Legislative Council of 15 members, in-
cluding the members of the Executive Council, four other office-
holders, and six unofficial members.
Governor of Ceylon. — Sir James Robert Longdeti, K.C.M.G., born
1825 ; President of the Virgin Islands, 1861-65 ; Lieut.-Governor
of Dominica, 1865-67; Lieut.-Governor of British Honduras,
1867-70 ; Governor of Trinidad, 1870-74 ; Governor of British
Guiana, 1874-76. Appointed Governor of Ceylon, July 3, 1877.
The Governor has a salary of 8,000/., and the Colonial Secretary
of 2,200/.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of the
ten years 1870 to 1879, were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1870
1,091,606
1,026,870
1871
1,121,679
1,064,184
1872
1,174,698
1,062,994
1873
1,290,918
1,176,258
1874
1,324,328
1,184,192
1875
1,354,123
1,241.519
1876
1,375,888
1,276,930
1877
1,596,205
1,437,266
1878
1,642,609
1,545,063
1879
1,474,867
1,468,783
The principal soiurces of revenue are the customs, of an average
produce of 300,000/. ; licences, including the arrack monopoly,
uu
658
inE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
retui-niug 220,000/. ; and sales, with rents of public lands, pro-
ducing together about 230,000/. per annum. The civil and judicial
establishments of the colony cost nearly 370,000/., and the con-
tribution to military expenditure amounts to 160,000/. annually.
For public works, from 200,000/. to 250,000/. have been expended
in recent years, and about 20,000/. for education.
To aid in the establishment of a line of railway, a public debt, to
the amount of 900,000/., was raised in LS61-67. There is a sink-
ing fund provided for the gradual extinction of tlie debt, which had
been reduced, at the end of 1878, to 350,000/. The Colony had,
at this date, a railway, 118 miles in length, constructed at the ex-
pense of the Government, the annual profits of which go to the
sinking fund of the debt.
Population.
The island of Ceylon was first settled in 1505 by the Portuguese,
who established colonies in the west and south, which Avere
taken from them early in the next century by the Dutch. In
1795-9fi, the British Government took possession of the foreif^n
settlements in the island, which were annexed to the Presidency
of Madras; but two years after, in 1798, Ceylon was erected into a
separate colony. In 1815 war was declared aG:ainst the native Go-
vernment of the interior ; the Kandyan King was taken prisoner,
and the whole island fell under British rule.
The extreme length of the colony from north to south, that is,
from Point Palmyra to Dondera Head, is 266 miles ; its greatest
width, 140^ miles from Colombo on the west coast to Sangeman-
kande on the east ; its area is 24,702 English square miles.
The following table gives the area and population of the seven
provinces of Ceylon, according to the last census, taken March 26,
1871, together with the estimates of population on January 1, 1876 : —
Area: English
square miles
5,770
4,404
3,345
2,596
1,927
3,510
3,150
24,702
•
Population j
March 1871
January 1876
Central
North Central
Western .....
North-western
Southern ....
Eastern .....
Northej-n ....
Military ....
1 494,626 1
776,930
276,033
399,452
118,077
340,169
2,405,287
1,408
437,463
56,621
848,896
290,053
408.807
116.677
299,309
2,457,826
1,716
Total (including military) .
24,702 2,406,695 | 2,4 59,542
CEYLON.
659
Of the total population enumerated, at the census of 1871, there
were 4,732 British; 14,201 other whites of European descent, and
the rest coloured. The census returns stated 635,585 persons, or
over one-fourth of the population, to be engaged in agriculture.
The religious creeds were returned as follows : — Buddhists,
1,520,575; Sivites, 464,414 ; Roman Catholics, 182,613; Mahome-
dans, 171,542 ; Protestants, 24,756 ; Wesleyans, 6,071 ; Presbyte-
rians, 3,101; and Baptists, 1,478. The whole of the Christians
belonged to the European population.
Trade and Industry.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony,
including bullion and specie, was as follows in each of the five years
i872 to 1876 :—
Years
Imports
Kxports
£
£ i
1872
6,169,524
3,139,060 1
1873
5.574,358
5,439,591
1874
5,336,119
4,394,427 1
1875
5.361,240
6,375,410 '
1876
5.562,884
4,509,595
The commercial intercourse of Ceylon is mainly with the United
Kingdom and India. The amount of trade with the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports from Ceylon to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Ceylon, iu each of the five years fi-om 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
Exports from Ceylon to
tlie United Kingdom
Imports of British Home
Produce into Ceylon
£
4,380,821
3,134,183
4,498,579
2,922,219
3,568,965
£
1,076,752
1,073,505
1,045,200
803,339
780,918
The staple article of exports from Ceylon to the United King-
dom is coffee, of the declared value of 3,743,505/. in 1875 ; of
2,550,688/. in 1876 ; and of 3,942.664/. in 1877; of 2,508,893/. in
1878; and of 3,001,075/. in 1879. Besides coffee, the only other
exports of note are cocoa-nut oil, and cinnamon, the former amount-
ing in value to 216,358/., and the latter to 103,820/. in the year
t7 T7 2
660 THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
1870. Manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 329,351?. in
1879, form the staple articles of British imports into Ceylon.
Ceylon had 126 miles of railway open for traffic, and 12 under
construction, at the end of June 1880.
Money, Weights, and Measures
The weights and measures of Ceylon are the same as those of
the United Kingdom. The money of the country is the rupee of
British India. For value see page 699.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.
1. Official Publications.
Report of Governor Sir HrTCiiles G. E. Robinson, dated Colombo, Septem-
ber 14, 1867; in 'Reports, showing the Present State of H.M.'s Colonial
Possessions.' Part III. Eastern Colonies. Fol. London, 1868.
Report of Governor Sir Hercules Robinson, dated Colombo, September 14,
1871 ; in ' Reports on the Past and Present State of H.M.'s Colonial Posses-
.lions.' Part II. London, 1872.
Report of Governor the Right Hon. W. H. Gregory on the revenue, trade,
&e., of Ceylon, dated Colombo, Octolier 13, 1873 ; in ' Papers relating to H.M.'s
Colonial Possessions.' Part I. 1874. 8. London, 1874.
Statistics of Ceylon; in 'Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Pos-
sessions of the United Kingdom.' No. XVII. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Ceylon with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Offictal Publications.
BaJccr (S. W.), Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.
Ceylon: being a General Descripiion of the Island, Historical, Physical,
Statistical. By an OfRcer, late of the Cejlon Rifles. 2 vols. 8. London,
1876.
Duncan (George), Geography of India. Part II. Ceylon. 8 Madras,
1865.
Fergvsou (A. M. & J.), The Ceylon Directory and Handbook of useful in-
formation. 1876-78. 8. Colombo, Ceylon, 1878.
Fndham (C), Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon. 2 vols.
8. London, 1849.
Bansoiuui- Villi's {~S>i\roi\Y^. von), Ceylon: Skizzen seiner Bewohner, seines
Thier- und PflanzenL bens. Fol. Brunswick, 1868.
Schmarda (L. K.), Reise nm die Erde : Zeilon. Vol. i. 8. Braunschweig,
1861.
<Sm-(H. C), Ceylon and the Cingalese. 2 vols. 8. London, 1851.
Tcnnent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical,
Historical, and Topographical. 5tli ed. London, 1860.
66 1
CHINA.
(Chung Kwo, 'the Middle Kingdom.')
Reigning Emperor.
Tsatt'ien, Emperor — Hwangti — of China, born 1871, the son of
Prince Ch'un, brother of the Emperor Hien-fung; succeeded to
the throne by proclamation, at the death of Emperor T'oung-che,
January 22, 1875.
In olficial language the sovereign of China is called T'ien-tse, the
Son of Heaven, and also described as feng tHen ming, one who has
received the Divine commission as ruler ; he is the Vicegerent of
Heaven upon earth. The Hwangti is both the secular and spiritual
ruler of the Emjiire, exercising at once the highest legislative and
executive power, without limit or control.
The present sovereign, surnamed Kwangsu, or ' Continuation of
Glory,' is the ninth Emperor of China of the Tartar dynasty of Tsing,
* The Subhmely Pure,' which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming,
^ The Bright,' in the year 1644. There exists no law of hereditary
succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign to appoint
his successor from among the members of his family. The late
Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of age, did not
designate a siiccessor, and it was in consequence of a palace intrigue,
directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the Emperor Hienfung,
predecessor of T'oung-che, in concert with Prince Ch'un, that the in-
fant son of the latter was made the nominal occupant of the throne.
Government and Public Revenue.
The fundamental laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-tsing-
hwei-tien, or ' Collected Regulations of the Great Pure dynasty,'
which prescribe the government of the state to be based upon the
government of the family. The Emperor is considered the sole high
priest of the empire, and can alone, with his immediate representa-
tives and ministers, perform the great religious ceremonies. No
ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the public expense, nor any
priesthood attached to the Confucian or State religion.
The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction
of the ' Interior Council Cliamber,' comprising four members,
two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants
from the Han-lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing
is done contrary to the civil and religious laws of the empire, con-
tained in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien, and in the sacred books of Con-
662 THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
fucins. These members are denominated ' Ta-liyo-si,' or Ministers
of State. Under their orders are the Liu-poo, or six boards of
government, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a
Chinese. They are: — 1. The board of civil appointments, which
takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil
officers; 2. The board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs;
3. The boai'd of rites and ceremonies, which enforces the laws and
customs to be observed by the people ; 4. The military board,
superintending the administration of the army ; 5. The board of
public works ; and 6. The high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction.
Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the
central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, or board of public
censors. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents,
the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient
custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged
to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor must be
present at the meetings of each of the six Government boards.
The amount of tlie public revenue of China is only known by
estimates. According to the most authentic of these, the total
receipts of the government in recent years averaged 25,000,000/.,
derived from taxes on land, grain, licences, and customs duties upon
exports and imports. The receipts from customs alone are made
public. They amoimted to 7,872,257 haikwan tael, or 2,361,677/.
in 1864, and gradually increasing, had risen to 12,483,988 haikwan
tael, or 3,745,196/., in 1878. The customs duties fall more upon
exports than imports, The expenditure of the Government is
mainly for the army, the maintenance of which is estimated to cost
15.000,000/. per annum on the average.
China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. In December
1874 the Government contracted a loan of 627,675/., bearing 8 per
cent, interest, secured by the customs revenue. A second 8 per
cent, foreign loan, likewise secured on the customs, to the amount
of 1,604,276/., was issued in July 1878.
Army and Navy.
The standing military force of China consists of two great divi-
sions, the first formed by the more immediate subjects of the ruling
dynasty, the Tartars, and the second by the Chinese and other
subject races. .Under the first are included the Manchu, Mongol,
and Chinese Bannermen, distributed in permanent garrisons over
tlie great cities of the empire, while the second is made up of purely
Chinese troops. The Manchu Tartars, founders of the present
dynasty, when they conquered China, in 1644, divided their army
into four corps, distinguished as being under white, blue, red, and
CHINA. 66$
yellow banners. Four bordered banners of the same colours were
subsequently added, and in course of time there were added to these
eight similar corps of Mongols and eight of Chinese, who had cast
in their lot with the invaders. The chief command of these corps
— which are of a mixed civil and military organisation, all being
liable to bear arms, but not all being paid as soldiers — is vested in
high officers of the three uationalitips, the Manchu, on the whole,
predominating. Permanent Manchu garrisons under Mancliu officers
are established in the great cities on the coast and along the frontier.
The purely Chinese army is altogether distinct from this force, and
is mainly composed of natives of China. It is broken up into a
multitude of camps widely distributed over the empire, each province
having probably from 20,000 to 100,000 men during time of war.
But the standing Chinese army is mainly used to act as a constabulary
in the various departments of the empire.
The foundation for a navy of war, intended, primarily, for defence
of the coast, was laid in June 1877, when four ironclad gunboats,
built in England, called the Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta, were
received by the Government. They were followed, in 1879, by the
Ep.silon, Zeta, Eta, and Theta, also constructed in England, on the
same designs. These ironclads have a displacement of from 400 to
450 tons, engines of 310-horse poAver, a speed of 9 knots, and a
draught of only 8 feet, the first four carrying each a 27^-ton gim
and the others a 38-ton gun, all worked by hydraulic power. With
slight differences in construction, the length of each of these gun-
boats is 125 feet, and the breadth, between perpendiculars, 30 feet.
The guns are fixed irremovably along the centre line of the boat, and
rests upon trunnion blocks which work upon a couple of beam slides.
The projectiles are brought by steam from the magazines below to
the loading position, and are thrust home by a mechanical rammer
working beneath the glacis plates at the bow. Coast defence is the
main object of these gunboats.
Area and Population.
The population of Chiiia is believed to be very dense, but nothing
accurate is known respecting either the area or the number of
inhabitants. One of the causes of uncertainty regarding the popu-
lation of the empire is that its limits are undefined, the imperial
Government claiming the allegiance of the inhabitants of many of
the neighbouring territories, which appear to be more or less in-
dependent. According to various missionary reports, none of which,
however, can lay claim to be more th.m vague estimates, the
area of the empire and its dependencies embraces 186,887 geo-
graphical, or 3,924,027 English square miles, with a population of
382,447,183, distributed as follows: —
664
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
Area
Population
Engl. sq. miles
China proper
1,534,953
362,447,183
Dependencies : —
Manchuria
362,313
3,000,000
Mongolia.
1,288,035
2,000,000
Thibet ....
643,734
6,000,000
Corea ....
90,300
8,000.000
Liaotong ....
j Total
2,982
1,000,000
3,922,317
382,447,183
China proper is often designated by its inhabitants as ' the eighteen
provinces ' — Shih-pa-sheng — from its administrative divisions. Ac-
cording to the latest official returns, the area and popidation of each
of the eighteen provinces are as follows : —
Area :
Population
Provinces
English square
Population
per
miles
square mUe
Chihli .
58,949
27,990,871
475
Shantung .
65,104
28,958,764
444
Shansi
55,268
14,004,210
253
Honan
65,104
23,037,171
354
Kiangsu .
44,500
37,843,501
850
Anhwei .
48,461
34,168,059
705
Kiangsi .
72,176
23,046,999
320
Chehkiang
39,150
26,256,784
671
Fukien
53,480
14,777,410
276
Hupeh
70,450
27,370,098
389
Hunan
84,000
18,652.507
223
Shensi
67,400
10,207,256
152
Kan.su
86,608
15,193,125
175
Szechuen .
166,800
21,435,678
128
Kwangtung
79,456
19,174,030
241
Kwangsi .
78,250
7,313,895
93
Kweichow
64,554
5,288,219
82
Yiinnan .
107,969
5,561,320
51
Shengking
227,274
2,167,286
10
T
jtal
1,534,953
362,447,183
236
The above popitlation ai^pears to be excessive, considering that some
of the outlying portions of the immense territory are by no means
densely inhabited. Nevertheless, other returns give still higher figures.
It is stated that in 1842 the population of China was officially ascer-
tained to number 414,686,994, or 320 per EngHsh square mile, and
that in 1852 it had risen to 450,000,000, or 347 inhabitants per square
mile. There is great probability that the present population of
China, devastated as the country has been for years by internecine
wars and occasional famines, does not surpass 800 milhons.
According to a return of the ImDerial customs airthorities, the
CHINA.
665
total number of foreigners in China was 3,661 at the end of 1872.
Among them were 1,771 natives of Great Britain and Ireland, 541
of the United States; 481 of Germany; and 239 of France, all
other nationalities being represented by very few members. More
than one half of the total number of foreigners, namely, 2,047, re-
sided at Shanghai, and 308 at Canton, the remainder being scat-
tered in small numbers over the ports open to foreign commerce.
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the United
Kingdom and the British colonies. The total imports into China
amotmted in 1878 to 70,804,027 haikwan tael, or 21,241,208^., and
the total exports to 67,172.179 haikwan tael, or 20,151,654/. In
the ten years from 1869 to 1878 the imports increased 18 per cent,
and the exports 25 per cent.
Great Britain has, in virtue of various treaties with the Chinese
Government, the right of access to twenty-two ports of the Empire.
The following is a list of these twenty-two ports, known as Treaty
ports, with the name of the provinces in which they are situated,
and the date at which they were opened to trade : —
Names of Ports
Opened to Trade
Newchwang
Tientsin
Chefoo
Ichang
Hankow
Kiukiang .
Wubii
Nanking
Cliinkiang .
Shanghai .
Ningpo
Wenchow .
Foochuw
Tamsui
Kelung
Taiwan
Takow
Amoy
Swatow
Canton
Kiungchow
Pakhoi
Shengking
Chihli
Shantung
Hupeh
Kiangsi
Anhwei
Kiaugsii
Chehkianr
Fukien
Kwaiistunff
May 1864
May 1861
March 1862
April 1877
January 1862
January 1862
April 1877
April 1861
April 18.34
May 1861
April 1877
July 1861
September 1863
September 1863
September 1863
March 1864
April 1862
January 1860
October 1859
April 1876
April 1877
The i^ort of Nanking, which the Chinese Government consented to
throw open by a Treaty made with France in 1858, in which
England participated under the ' most favoured nation ' clause, had
Jiot been opened at the end of 1879.
666
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The value of the total exports from China to the United Kingdom,
id of the i]
China, was
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
fiis as follows in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
The exports from China to Great Britain and Ireland are made up,
to the amount of more than two-thirds, of one article of merchandise,
namely, tea. Diu-ing the ten years from 1870 to 1878, the quanti-
ties and value of the exports of tea from China to the United
Kinfrdom were as follows : —
Years | Quantities
Value
lbs.
£
1870 ....
122,197,167
8,556,761
1871 .
148,118,667
9,763.276
1872 .
152,283,847
10,290,365
1873 .
130,493,426
8,806,786
1874 .
127,345,285
8,678.418
1875 .
158,060,126
10,642,052
1876 .
142,963,455
9,288,444
1877 .
143,243,058
8,959.361
1878 .
154,372,138
9,344,229
1879 .
128,542,216
7,379,190
Besides tea, the only other important article of export from China to
Great Britain is raw silk, the value of which amounted to 3,001,976L
in 1877, to 2,836,913^. in 1878, and to 2,656,778/. in 1879.
Manufactured cotton and Avoollen goods, the former of the value of
3,177,028/., and the latter of 928,316/., in the year 1879, constitute
the bulk of the imports of British produce into the Chinese empire,
exclusive of the goods passing in transit through the colony of Hong
Kong. (Seepage 673.) _
According to the best authorities, there are mimense coal-tields.
in the empire, but almost unwovked, the total amount of coal raised
at present being under three millions tons per annum. All the 18-
provinces contain coal; and, although the extent of the coal-fields-
CHINA. 66y
and the age and quality of the coal vary, yet China may be regarded
as one of the first coal countries of the world.
China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, and
though most of them are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried
on over them, and by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers.
It is stated that the most populous part of China is singularly well
adapted for the establishment of a network of railways, and a first
attempt to introduce them into the country was made by the con-
struction of a short line from Shanghai to Woosung, forty miles in
length. One-half of this line, from Shanghai to Kangwang, was
opened for trafiic June 3, 1876, but closed again in 1877, after having:
been purchased by the Chinese authorities.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of China ix Great Britaix.
Envoy and Minister. — Marquis Tt^eng, accredited March 20, 1879-
English Secretary. — Dr. Halliday Macartney.
2. Of Geeat Britain in China.
Envoy, Minister, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade. — Sir Thomas-
Francis Wade, K.C.B., appointed July 22, 1871.
Secretaries. — Henry Fraser ; Ralph MilLanke.
Chinese Secretary. — E. Colborne Baber.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures, in ordinary use at the treaty
ports, and in the intercourse with foreigners, are as follows : —
Money.
The Haikwan Tael= 10 Mace =100 Candareens= 1,000 Ca«A = Average rate of
exchange, &s.
There are no national gold and silver coins in China, and foreign,
coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken by weight.
Weights and ^Measures.
The Leang, or Tad
Picvl
Cutty
Chih
Chang
Lys, or Li
= 1^ oz. avoirdnpois.
= 133 lbs.
= If „.
= 14j^ inches.
= llffeet.
= 194 to a degree, or about A English mile.
In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China,
the Chih of H^t^ English inches has been adopted as the legal stan-
dard. It is the only authorised measure of length at all the ports of"
trade, and its use is gradually spreading all over the empire.
668 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China.
1. Officiax Publications.
Eeturns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China for the year 1879.
Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Custoras Revenue Statistics, from 1867 to 1879.
Part II. Statistics of the Trade at each Port. 4. Shanghai, 1 880.
Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Pre-
sented to the House of Commons. 4. London, 1871.
Report of Mr. Frederick F. Low, Minister-Resident of the United States, on
' China : its Social and Political Organisation ; its Relation with the People
and Governments of other Nations, and its possible Future ;' dated Peking,
Jan. 10, 1871; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United
States.' 8. Washington, 1871.
Report of Mr. George F. Seward, Consid-General of the United States, on
the Religious, Educational, and Moral State of the Chinese People,' dated
Shanghai, August 22, 1871 ; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of
tlie United States.' 8. Washington, 1872.
Report of the Delegates of the Shangliae Cliamber of Commerce on the
Trade of the Upper Yangtsze river. Presented to Parliament. Fol. London,
1870.
Report by Mr. Mallet, British Secretary of Legation, upon the Fluctuations
of the Foreign Trade of China between the years 1864 and 1871. Presented to
Parliament. 8. London, 1873.
Returns relative to Trade with China. (Reports from British Consuls at
thirteen of the Treaty Ports.) 8. Loudon, 1873.
Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the opium
trade in China, dated Peking February 2o, 1878, in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Great Britain with Cliina; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2, Non-Official Publications.
Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momien : a Narrative of tlie two expeditions
to Western China of 1868 and 187-5 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace
Browne. 8. London, 1876.
5a6/i:rt??(Dr.A.).DieVolker des OestlichenAsiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.
Came (L. de). Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans Tcmpire chinois. 18. Paris,
1872.
Chinese Topography, being an Alphabetical List of the Provinces, Depart-
ments, and Districts in the Chinese Empire, with their Latitudes and Longi-
tudes. Canton, 1844. Reprinted in 1864.
Courcy (Marquis de), L'Empire du milieu ; description geographique, precis
historique, institutions sociales, religieuses, politiques, notions sur les sciences,
les arts, Findustrie et le commerce. 8. Paris, 1867.
David (Abbe A ), Journal de mon troisieme voyage d'exploration dans 1' empire
chinois. 2 vols. 18. Paris. 1875.
Baiis (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1857.
JJenays (N. B.) and iVayers (W. T.), China and Japan: a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hongkong,
and Macao. 8. London, 1867.
Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Com-
mercial Relations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.
CHINA. ■ 669
Edkins (Joseph, D.D.), Keligion in China, containing an Account of the
three Religions of the Chinese. 8. London, 1877.
Ferrari (Joseph), La Chine et 1' Europe. 8. Paris, 1867.
Finipertuis (Ad. Front de), La Chine et le Japon et TExposition de 1878. 8.
Paris, 1878.
Fontpertvis (Ad. Front de\ L'emigration chinoise, son caractere, son import-
ance et sa distribution ; in 'Eevue Scientifique,' ler liars, 1879. 4. Paris, 1879.
Gray (Ven. John Henry), China : a History of the Laws, Manners, and
Customs of the People. 2 vols. 8. London. 1877.
Gutzlaff{C. F. A.), China Opened : or a Display of the Topography, History,
Arts, Commerce, &c. of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 1838.
Hippishy (Alfred E.), China: a geographical, statistical, and political sketch.
4. Shanghai, 1877.
Hue (L'Abbe E. E.), L'Empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.
Laidure {Comte d'Escayrac de),M.emoives sur la Chine: Gouvernement. 4
Paris, 1864.
Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord
Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.
Macdonald (James), The China Question. 8. London, 1870.
Martin (Dr.), Sur la statistique relative an denombrementde la population en
Chine. In 'Bulletin de la Societe de geographie de Paris.' 8. Paris, 1872.
Martin (D.), L'Opium en Chine ; etude statistique et morale. 8. Paris, 1872.
MedJturst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London. 1872.
Oliphant (Oscar), China ; a popular history. 8. London, 1857.
Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Eelations in China. 8.
London, 1860.
Pallu (Lieutenant Leopok>), Eolation de I'Expedi'tion de Chine en 1860,
redigee d'apres les documents officiels. 4. Paris, 1864.
Plath (N.), Ueber die lange Dauer und Entwicklung des Chinesischen Eeichs.
8. Miinchen, 1861.
.fffl;'£'(?^ (Friedrich), Die Chinesische Auswanderung. 8. Breslan, 1876.
Bichthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), China : Ergebnisse eigener Eeisen und
darauf gegriindeter Studien. Vol. I. 4. Berlin, 1877.
Bichthofen (Ferd. Freiherr von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and
Nganhwei : and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.
Scherzer (Dr. K. von). Die -wirthschaftlichen Zustande im Siiden und
Osten Asien's. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.
Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. 6. Paris, 1872.
Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of tlie Expedition to explore the
Trade Eoutes to China via Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.
Speer (W.), The Oldest and the Newest Empire : China and the United
States. 8. Hartford. U.S. 1870.
Thomson (J.), The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China. 8. London
1875.
Werner (Eeinhold), Die preussische Expedition nach China, Japan und
Siam. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1863.
Williams (Dr. S. Wells), Tlie Middle Kingdom : a survey of the geography,
government, &c., of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. New York, 1848.
Williamson (Eev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern
Mongolia. With some account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
070
HONG KONG.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
•ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was con-
firmed bv the treaty of Nanking, in August 1842 ; and the charter
bears date April 5, 1843. Hong Kong is mainly a factory for
British commerce with China, and a military and naval station.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary,
the officer commanding the troops, and the Attorney-General.
There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor,
and composed of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, the
Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor- General, and four
imofficial members nominated by the Crown.
Governor of Hong Kong. — Hon. John Pope Hennessy, C.M.G. ;
born 1834; studied law, and was called to the bar of the Inner
Temple, London; M.P. for King's County, Ireland, 1859-65
Governor of Labuan, 1868-71 ; Governor of the West African
Settlement, 1872-73; Governor of the Bahamas, 1873-75; Governor
of the Windward Islands, 1875-76. Appointed Governor of Hong
Kong, November 10, 1876.
The Governor has a salary of 6,000Z. per annum.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The occupation of Hong Kong at its outset was effected at con-
siderable cost to Imperial iunds, the vote from Parliament in the year
1845 bein"- nearly 50,000/. in addition to military expenditure. The
colony may be considered to have paid its local establishments in
1855, since which year it has held generally a surplus of revenue
over and above its fixed expenditure. Hong Kong at present pays
20,000Z. a-year to the British Government as military contribution.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony were as follows
in each of the five years from 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Eevenue
Expenditure
£
&
1875
186.813
181,337
1876
184,406
178,569
1877
206,954
169,787
1878
189,526
182.104
1879
200,822
193,066
HONG KONG.
671
Above one-half of the public reveniie of the colony is derived
from land, taxes, and licences, and an opium monopoly, which to-
gether more than cover the expenses of administration. A large
portion of the expenditiire has to be devoted to the maintenance of
a strong police force.
Hong Kong formerly had a small public debt, amoimting to 15,625Z.
in 18G7, but which became extinct in 1868.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is one of a number of islands called by the Portuguese
* Ladrones,' or thieves, from the notorious habits of the old inhabi-
tants. It is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the
mouth of the Canton river, about 40 miles east of Macao. The whole
of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge, stretching
nearly east and Avest ; its abrupt peaks rising to the height of 1,800
feet above the sea level. The length of the island is about 1 1 miles,
its breadth from 2 to 5 miles, and its area rather more than 29 square
miles. It is separated from the mainland of China by a narrow
strait, knowm as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, wdiich does not exceed half a
mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Koo-loon was ceded to
Great Britain by a treaty entered into in 1861 with the Govern-
ment of China, and now forms part of Hong Kong.
The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval
establishments, Avas as follows at the last census, taken April 2, 1871 :
Men
Women
Total,
including
Children
Eesident Europeans and Americans
British, military .
„ naval establishment
Europeans, police.
„ and Americans, mercantile, ship- ")
ping in the harbour .... J
Eurspeans and Americans, temporary residents
„ „ prisoners
1,831
709
1,022
109
1,080
57
60
684
36
8
29
2,736
821
1,022
126
1,109
57
60
Total Europeans and Americans .
4,868 1 757 5,931
Goa, Manila, Indian, and others of mixed 1
blood, resident ...../
Goa, Manila, Indian, and others of mixed ^
blood, crews of mercantile vessels inharbour J
Indians, military ......
„ police .... . .
Goa, Manila Indian, and others of mixed")
blood, prisoners . . . . j
Total Indians, &c
470
697
1,094
285
15
97
6
10
8
685
1
703
1,122
298
15
2,561 1 121 1 2,823
6/2
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Men
Women
Total, f
including s
children ,.
Chinese in employ of Eiu-opeans, resident .
in harbour .
» _ >' "
„ police ......
employed by naval and military "\
establishments ... . . /
Chinese residing in Victoria ....
,, „ villages and Kowloon
Boat population in Victoria ....
„ „ other than in Victoria
Prisoners .......
5,436
548
223
458
47,647
6,325
6,021
5,136
391
8i)8
■ 2
14,269
2,051
2,542
3,010
13
6,609
550
223
458 1
72,984
10,507 !
12,309
11,400
104
Total Chinese
72,185
22,695
115,144
Total
79,614
23,573
123,898
At the end of 1876, the total population was estimated at 139,144,
comprising 101,232 males and 37,912 females.
The resident population of Hong Kong was composed of the
following nationalities at the census of April 2, 1871 : —
Native Countries
Men
Women
Boys
Girls
Total
Great Britain .
524
160
102
83
869
Portugal .
447
467
290
163
1,367
Germany .
152
14
—
4
170
United States .
94
17
11
11
133
France
48
9
1 ''
2
60
Denmark .
22
1
—
—
23
Italy
11
13
—
1
25
Spain
35
—
2
—
37
Switzerland
8
—
—
8
Austria
1
1
—
4
Norway .
7
—
—
—
7
Sweden
9
—
—
—
9
Kussia
6
—
—
—
6
Belgium .
! 4
"~
—
—
4
Mexico
1 ^
1 —
—
—
3
Netherlands
! 2
—
—
—
2
Turkey
1 3
1
—
—
4
Hungary .
2
i 1
1
—
3
Greece
2
1
t
2
. '
1,381
684
407
264
2,736
There is a constant flow of emigratioo from China passing through
Hon"- Kong. In the eight years from 1872 to 1879 there passed
throvigh the colony annually upwards of 12,000 Chinese emigrants,
the majority going to the United States.
HONG KONG.
673
Trade and Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part of
the commerce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, the United
States, and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the
total imports and exports. There are no official returns of the value
of the imports and exports of the colony, fi"om and to all countries,
but only mercantile estimates, according to Avhich the former average
four, and the latter two, millions sterling.
The amount of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong
and the United Kingdom is shown in the following table, which gives
the value of the total exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures into Hong Kong, in each of the five years 1874 to 1878 : —
_
Exports from Hong Kong
Imports of British Produce
to Great Britain
into Hong Kong
£
£
1875
1,154,910
3,599,811
1876
1,356,850
3,080,376
1877
1,895,310
3,507,977
1878
1,174,469
2,870,796
1879
1,327,085
2,947,984
The chief article of exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain in
the year 1879 was tea, of the value of 746, 774^. The British
imports into Hong Kong consist almost entirely of manufactured
textile fabrics, mainly cotton goods, in transit for China.
The subjoined table gives the value of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures from 1869 to 1878, exhibiting
separately the imports into China and into Hong Kong, and jointly to
both, so as to show the share of Hong Kong in Chinese commerce
during the ten years Irom 1870 to 1879 : —
Imports of
Imports of
Tears
British Produce
British Produce
into China
into Hong Kong
China and Hong Kong
£
£
£
1870
6,139,633
3,407,930
9,547,563
1871
6,628,236
2,787,714
9,415,950
1872
6,624,511
2,872,673
9,497,184
1873
4,882,701
3,411.968
8,294,669
1874
4,751,103
3,650,963
8,402,066
1875
4,928,500
3,599,811
8,528,311
1876
4,611,180
3,080,376
7.691,556
1877
4,404,686
3,507,977
7.912,663
1878
3,738,125
2.870,796
6,608,921
1879
4,649.978
2,947,984
7,597,962
I
X X
6/4 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
It will be seen that the British trade with Hong Kong underwent
considerable fluctuations in the ten years from 1869 to 1878, biit
which corresponded throughout with the general Chinese commerce,
differing only in so far as showing a decrease in the value of the
British imports coming direct to China during this period, and an
increase in those arriving by way of Hong Kong.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, Aveights, and measures in use at Hong Kong, and the
British equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Mexican -Do^^ar = 100 Cents = Average rate of exchange, 4s. 2d.
„ Chinese Tael = 10 Mace -
100 Candarcens = 1,000 Cash = „ „ „ 6s. Sd.
The Mexican dollar is the only legal tender of payment for sums
above two hundred cents, but silver dollars, bearing the effigy of the
British sovereign, are issued fi-om the Hong Kong mint.
Weights and Measures.
The Tael = Ig- oz. avoirduf^ois.
„ Picul = 133 lbs.
„ Catfi/ = If „
„ Chih — 14^ inches.
„ Chang = 1 If feet.
Besides the above weights and measures of China, those of Great
Britain are in general use in the colony.
Statistical and othex Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.
1. Official Publications.
Eeport of Governor Sir Arthur Kennedy, dated Hong Kong, July 15,
1873; in ' Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Part I. 1874.
London, 1874.
Report of Lieutenant-Governor Major-General Whitfield ,on the trade,
commerce, and population of Hong Kong; in 'Reports on the Present State
of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Part II. 8. London, 1872.
Statistics of Hong Kong ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial
and other Possessions of the United Kingdom in each year from 1862 to 1876.
No. XV. London, 1879.
Trade of Hong Kong with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Dcmu/s (N. B.,) and Maf/crs(\Y. T.), China and Japan : a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong
and Macao. 8. London, 1867.
Topogi-aphy of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude
and Latitude. 8. Hong Kong, 1864.
Wells (S. Williams), Chinese Commercial Guide. 8. Hong Kong, 1863.
675
INDIA.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is e«tab-
lished by the Act 21 and 22 Victoriae, cap. 106, called ' An Act for
the better Government of India,' sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
the terms of this Act, all the territories heretofore mider the
government of the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty,
and all its powers are exercised in her name ; all territorial and
other revenues and all tributes and other payments are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the pui-poses of the
government of India alone, subject to the provisions of this Act.
One of Her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, called the
Secretary of State for India, is invested with all the powers hitherto
exercised by the Company or by the Board of Control. By Act 39
& 40 Victoria, cap. 10, proclaimed at Delhi, before all the princes
and high dignitaries of India, January 1, 1877, the Queen of Great
Britain and Ireland assumed the additional title oi Indice Imperatinx,
or Empress of India.
The executive authority in India is vested in a Governor-General
or Viceroy, appointed by the Crown, and acting imder the orders of the
Secretary of State for India. By Act 24 and 25 Victorige, cap. 67,
amended by Acts 28 Victoi'i^, cap. 17, and 32 and 33 Victorije, cap.
98, the Governor- General in Council has power to make laws for all
persons, whether British or native, foreigners or others, within the
Indian territories mider the dominion of Her Majesty, and for all
subjects of the Cro^vn within the dominions of Indian princes and
states in alliance with Her Majesty.
Governor- General of India Right Hon. George Frederick
Samuel Kobinson, Earl De Grey and JRipon, born 1827, eldest son
of the first Earl of Ripon; returned M.P. for Huddersfield, 1853,
and for the West Riding of Yorkshire, 1857 ; succeeded to the
earldom, 1859; Under Secretary of State for War, 1859-61;
Secretary of State for War, 1863-66 ; Secretary of State for India,
February to July 1866 ; Lord President of the Council, Decem-
ber 9, 1868, to September 9, 1873. Appointed Governor-General
6/6
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of India, as successor to Lord Lytton, May 6, 1880 : assumed the
government at Simla, June 8, 1880.
The salary of the Governor-General is 25,000/. a year, exclusive
of allowances, which are estimated at 12,000/.
The following is a list of the Governors-General of India Avith
the dates of their appointments : —
Warren Hastings . . .1772
Sir J. M'Pherson . . .1785
Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis .1786
Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore) 1793
Earl of Mornington (Marquis
Wellesley) . . .1798
Marquis Cornwallis . . .1805
Sir G. Barlow .... 1805
EarlofMinto .... 1807
Earl Moira (Marquis of Hastings) 1813
Earl Amherst .... 1823
Lord W. Bentinck . . .1828
Lord Auckland
1835
Lord Ellenborough .
1842
Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge .
1844
Earl Dalhousie
1847
Lord Canning .
1855
Lord Elgin
1862
Sir John Lawrence .
1863
Earl of Mayo .
1868
Lord Northbrook
1872
Lord Lytton
1876
Marquis of Ripon
1880
The average term of office of the Governors- General, during the
period from 1772 to 1880, was five years.
The government of the Indian Empire is entrusted by Act 21 and
22 Victorias, cap. 106, amended by 32 and 33 Victoria?, cap. 97,
to a Secretary of State for India, aided by a Coimcil of fifteen mem-
bers, of whom at first seven were elected by the Court of Directors
fi'om their own body, and eight were nominated by the CroAvn. In
future, vacancies in the Comicil will be filled up by the Secretary
of State for India. But the major part of the Coimcil must be of
persons who have served or resided ten years in Lidia, and not have
left India more than ten years previous to the date of their appoint-
ment ; and no per.son not so qualified can be appointed unless nine
of the continuing members be so qualified. The office is held for a
term of ten years ; but a member may be removed upon an address
from both Hoiises of Parliament, and the Secretary of State for
India may for special reasons re-appoint a member of the Coimcil
for a further term of five years. No member can sit in Parliament.
The duties of the Council of State are, under the direction of the
Secretary of State, to conduct the business transacted in the United
Kingdom in relation to the government of and the correspondence
with India ; but every order sent to India must be signed by the
Secretary, and all despatches from governments and presidencies in
India must be addressed to the Secretary. The secretary has to
divide the Council into committees, to direct what departments
shall be under such committees respectively, and to regulate the
transaction of business. The Secretary is to be president of the
Council, and haa to appoint from time to time a vice-president,
INDIA.
^71
The meetings of the Council are to be held when and as the
secretary shall direct ; but at least one meeting must be held every
week, at which not less than five members shall be present.
The Government in India is exercised by the ' Council of the
Governor-General,' consisting of five ordinary members, and one
extraordinary member, the latter the commander-in-chief. The
ordinary members of the Council preside over the departments of
foreign aiFairs, finances, the interior, military administration, and
public works, but do not form part, as such, of what is designated
in European governments a ' Cabinet.' The appointment of the
ordinary members of the ' Council of the Governor-General,' the
governors of Presidencies, and of the governors of provinces is made
by the Crown. The lieutenant-governors of the various provinces
are appointed by the Governor-General, subject to the approbation
of the Secretary of State for India.
Revenue and Expenditure.
According to the Act of 1858, the revenue and expenditure of
the Indian Empire are subjected to the control of the Secretary in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of the revenue
can be made without tlie concurrence of a majority of the Coim-
cil. Such parts of the revenues of India as may be remitted to
England, and moneys arising in Great Britain, must be paid into
the Bank of England ; and paid out on drafts or orders signed by
three members of the Council, and countersigned by the secretary
or one of his under-secretaries.
The subjoined table gives the total gross amount of the actual
revenue and expenditure of India, distinguishing Indian and home
expenditure, in each of the ten fiscal years, ending March 31, fi-om
1870 to 1879.
Years
Expenditure
1
ended
March 3
Revenue
Total
Expenditure
In India
In Great Britain
£
£
£
£
1870
50,901,081
41,363,021
9,419,391
50,782,412
1871
51,413,686
39,899,435
10,031,261
49,930,696
1872
50,110,215
37,282,803
9,703,235
46,986,038
1873
50,219,489
38,205,212
10,248,605
48,453,817
1874
49,598,253
42,094,995
9,310,926
51,405,921
1875
50,570,171
40,760,583
9,490,391
50,250,974
1876
51,310,063
40,486,068
9,155,050
49,641,118
1877
55,955,785
44,710,800
13,467,763
58,178,563
1878
58,969,301
48,4 64,038
14,048,350
62,512,388
1879
65,199,602
49,314,060
13,851,296
63,165,356
6/8
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The following table shows the distribution of the revenue and
expenditure over the various presidencies and provinces in each of
the two financial years, ending March 31, 1878, and 1879 : —
Revenue
Presidencies and Provinces
India imder the Governor-G-eneral
Bengal, with Assam
North-West Provinces
Oudh
Punjab
Central Provinces
British Biirmah
Madras
Bombay, including Sind .
Revenue in India
Revenue in Great Britain
Total revenue
1878
£
10,524,777
17,688,216
5,498,642
1,609,085
3,050,470
1,078,662
1,847,147
6,986,438
10,393,992
58,677,429
291,872
58,969,301
1879
£
9,335,887
18,987,131
8,770,497
/
I
3,665,766
1,204,851
2,039,233
9,908,079
11,047,063
64,958,507
241,085
65,199,592
ExPENDITtTBE
India under the Governor- Gene:
Bengal, with Assam
North-West Provinces
Oudh
Punjab
Central Provinces
British Bumiah
Madras
Bombay, including Sind
Expenditure in India
Expenditure in Great Britain
Total expenditure
15,786,826
7,034,508
2,237,938
570,422
2,011,471
743,188
944,243
10,622,517
8,512,925
48,464,038
14,048,350
62,512,388
17,589,063
7,262,735
j 4,097,322
" 2,547,238
815,430
1,124,364
7,384,163
8,491,745
49,312,060
13,851,296
63,163,356
In the budget estimates for the financial year 1878-79, the
revenue was assessed at 64,562,000/., and the ordinary expen-
diture at 65,917,000/., leaving a deficit of 1,355,000/. Besides
the ordinary expenditure, a sum of .3,500,000/. was set down as
probable extraordinary expenditure for public works, raising the
total deficit to 4,855,000/. The Budget estimates for 1879^80
fixed the total revenue at 64,620,000/., and the total expenditure at
65,950,000/. including 2,000,000/. for the expenses of the Afghan
War. The excess of ordinary expenditure over revenue in the
INDIA. 679
budget of 1879-80 was estimated at 1,395, OOOZ. and the capital
expenditure on productive public works at 3,500,000/.
The following table, compiled from official documents, exhibits
the growth of the three most important sources of the public
revenue of India, namely, land, opium, and salt, in the ten financial
years from 1870 to 1879 :—
Years ended
March 31
Land
Opium
Salt
£
£
£
1870
21,088.019
7,953,098
5,888,707
1871
20,622,823
8,045,459
6,106,280
1872
20,520,337
9,253,859
5,996,595
1873
21,348,669
8,684,691
6,165.630
1874
21,037.912
8,324,879
6,150,662
1875
21,296.793
8,556,629
6,227,301
1876
21,503,742
8,471.425
6,244,415
1877
19,857,152
9,122,460
6,304,658
1878
20,026,036
9,182,722
6,460,082
1879
22,330,586
9,399,401
6,941,120
The following table shows the distribution of the three great
sources of revenue over the different presidencies and provinces in
the financial year ending March 31, 1879 : —
Presidencies and Provinces
Land
Opium
Salt
India under the Governor-
£
£
£
General ....
84,424
1,631,927
Bengal, with Assam
4,146,600
7,006,132
2,375.765
Madras .
4,965,548
—
1.463,215
Bombay .
3,691,659
2,393,269
1,458,066
Punjab .
1,991,867
North-West Provinces
r
Oudh .
; 5,942,197
Central Provinces .
1 " 607,244
British Burmah
901,947
12,147
22,331,486
9,399,401
6,941,120
The most important soiu-ce of public revenue to which rulers in
India have, in all ages, looked for obtaining their income is the land,
the revenue from which, in the year before the Mutiny, ftimished
more than one-half of the total receipts of the East India Company's
Treasury. At present, when the necessities of the Indian exchequer
require that Government should resort more largely to the aid of
duties levied on the continually increasing trade of the country, the
revenue from land produces not quite so much in proportion, but it
still forms two-fifths of the total receipts of the empire.
680 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
The land revenue of India, as of all Eastern covintries, is generally
regarded less as a tax on the landowners than as the result of a joint
proprietorship in the soil, under which the produce is divided, in
unequal and generally imcertain proportions, between the ostensible
proprietors and the State. It would seem a matter of justice,
therefore, as well as of security for the landowner, that the respective
shares should, at a given period, or for specified terms, be strictly
defined and limited. Nevertheless, the proportion which the
assessment bears to the full value of the land varies greatly in the
several provinces and districts of India. Under the old native
system, a fixed proportion of the gi'oss produce was taken; but the
British system ordinarily deals with the surplus or net produce which
the land mav yield after deducting the expenses of cultivation.
In Bengal, a permanent settlement was made by Lord Cornwallis,
l)y which measure the Government was debarred fi:om any further
direct participation in the agricultural improvement of the country.
The division of Benares was also jiermanently settled about the same
time. In the north-western provinces, a general settlement of the
revenue was completed in 1840, fixing the amount to be paid by
each village for a period of thirty years ; and a similar course was
adopted in the Punjab. Some of the districts of the Punjab were
inadequately assessed at former settlements, and these have therefore
been confirmed for a term of ten years only. In many cases these
expired in 1874 and 1875, and the revised settlements which were
subsequently made were generally for thirty years. It is estimated
that in most cases the assessment is about two-thirds of the yearly
value — that is, the surplus after deducting expenses of cultivation,
profits of stock, and wages of labour. In the revised settlements,
more recently made, it was reduced to one-half of the yearly value.
In the Madras Presidency there are three different revenue
systems. The zemindary tenure exists in some districts, principally
in the northern Circars ; the proprietors, of whom some possess old
ancestral estates, and others Avere created landliolders in 1802, hold
the land direct from the Government, on payment of a fixed annual
sum. In the second, the village-renting system, the villagers stand
in the position of the zemindar, and hold the land jointly fi-om the
Government, allotting the different portions for cultivation among
themselves. Under the third, the ryotwar system, every registered
holder of land is recognised as its proprietor, and pays direct to the
Government. He can sublet, transfer, sell, or mortgage it ; he cannot be
ejected by the Government, and, so long as he pays the fixed assess-
ment, he has the option of annually increasing or diminishing the
cultivation on his holding, or he may entirely abandon it. In
unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are granted for loss of
produce. The assessment is fixed in money, and does not vary from
INDIA. 68 r
year to year, except when water is obtained from a Government
soui'ce of irrigation ; nor is any addition made to the rent for
improvements effected at the ryot's own expense. He has, therefore,
all the benefit of a perpetual lease without its responsibilities, as he
can at any time throw up his lands, but cannot be ejected so long as
he pays his dues, and receives assistance in difficult seasons. An
annual settlement is made, not to re-assess the land, but to determine
upon how much of his holding the ryot shall joay ; when no change
occurs in a holding, the ryot is not affected by the annual settlement,
and is not required to attend it. The lyotwar system may be said
essentially to prevail throughout the Presidency of Madras, as the
zemindar and village renter equally deal with their tenants on this
principle.
In Bombay and the Berars the revenue management is generally
ryotwar ; that is, as a rule, the occupants of Government lands settle
for their land revenue, or rent, with the Government officers direct,
and not through the intei-vention of a middle-man. Instances,
however, occasionally occur in which the Government revenues of
entire villages are settled by individual superior holders, imder
various denominations, or by a co-partnership of superior holders.
The survey and assessment of the Bombay Presidency has been
almost completed on a system introduced and careflilly elaborated
about twenty years ago. The whole country is surveyed and mapped,
and the fields distinguished by permanent boundary marks which it
is penal to remove ; the soil of each field is classed according to its
intrinsic qualities and to the climate ; and the rate of assessment to
be paid on fields of each class in each subdivision of a district is fixed
on a careful consideration of the value of the crops they are capable
of producing, as affected by the proximity to market towns, roads,
canals, railways, and similar external incidents, but not by improve-
ments made by the ryot himself This rate was probably about
one-half of the yearly value of the land, when fixed ; but, owing to
the general improvement of the country, it is not more than from a
fourth to an eighth in the districts Avhich have not been settled quite
recently. The measurement and classification of the soil are made
once for all ; but the rate of assessment is open to revision at the end of
every thirty years, in order that the ryot, on the one hand, may have
the certainty of the long period as an inducement to lay out capital,
and the State, on the other, may secure that participation in the advan-
tages accruing from the general progress of society to which its joint
proprietorship in the land entitles it. In the thirty years' revision,
moreover, only public improvements and a general change of prices,
but not improvements effected by the ryots themselves, are con-
sidered as grounds for enhancing the assessment. The ryot's tenure
is permanent, provided he pays the assessment.
682 . THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The important questions of the expediency of settling in per-
pettdty the amount of revenue to be paid to the Government by land-
holders, of permitting this revemie to be redeemed for ever by the
payment of a capital sum of money, and of selling the fee simple of
waste lands not under assessment, have been within the last few
years ftdly considered by the Government of India. The expediency
of allowing owners of land to redeem the revenue has long been
advocated as likely to promote the settlement of Em-opean colonists;
but experience seems to show that advantage is very rarely taken of
the power Avhich already exists in certain cases to redeem the rent by
a quit payment ; and it appears unlikely that such a permission
would be acted upon to any great extent, %vhile the rate of interest
afforded by an investment in the purchase of the land assessment is
as low as at present in India.
Next in importance to the land-revenue, as a great source of Indian
receipts, is the income derived Irom the opium monopoly. The
cultivation of the poppy is prohibited in Bengal, except for the
purpose of selling the juice to the officers of the Government at a
certain fixed price. It is manufactm-ed into opium at the Govern-
ment factories at Patna and Ghazipore, and then sent to Calcutta, and
sold by auction to merchants who export it to China. In the
Bombay Presidency, the revenue is derived from the opium which is
manufactured in the native states of Malwa and Guzerat, on which
passes are given, at the price of GOZ. per chest, weighing 140 lbs. net,
to merchants who wish to send opium to the port of Bombay. The
poppy is not cultivated in the Presidency of Madras. The gross
revenue derived from opiinn averaged diu-ing the ten years 1869 to
1878 the sum of eight and a-half millions stei'ling.
The largest branch of expenditure is that for the army, equal to
the aggregate annual reveniie from salt and opium. The mainte-
nance of the armed force to uphold British rule in India cost
12,000,000/. the year before the great mutiny, and subsequently
rose to above 25,000,000/.; but after the year 1861 sank, for a
short period, to less than 15,000,000/. It was 16,793,306/. in the
financial year 1865-66; 16,329,739/. in 1869-70; 15,228,429/. in
1873-74; 15,308,460/. in 1875-70; 16,639,761/. in 1877-78;
and 17,092,488/. in the financial year 1878-79.
The amount of the public debt of India, including that incurred in
Great Britain, was 59,943,814/., on April 30, 1857. In the course
of the next five years the debt was largely increased, and on April
30, 1862, it had risen to 99,652,053/. From 1862 to 1868, the
Government were enabled to pay off some portion, and at the end
of the financial year 1868, the total had been reduced to 95,054,858/.
In the course of the eleven years 1868 to 1878 there was
again an increase of nearly 39 millions sterling in the total debt.
INDIA.
685
The subjoined table shows the amount of the public debt of
British India, both that interest and not interest bearing, and dis-
tinguishing the debt in India and in Great Britain, in each of the
ten financial years from 1870 to 1879 : —
In India
In Great Britain
March 31
Bearing
Not bearing
Bearing
Not bearing
Interest
Interest
Interest
Interest
1870
66,553,731
35,196,700
1871
66,573,347
125,421
37,606,700
20,917
1872
66,499,704
1,356,981
38,991,700
20,917
1873
66,168,427
289,941
39,991,700
20,917
1874
66,273,249
144,041
41,095,700
21,917
1875
69,757,679
92,280
48,576,116
20,917
1876
72,705,641
67,340
49,776,116
20,917
1877
71,865,936
57,190
55,376,116
20,917
1878
74,906.450
48,070
59,656,116
20,917
1879
1
78,797,856
41,070
59,008,200
20.917
The total debt in India and Great Britain amoimted to 96,1 94,642Z.
on the 31st March 1869, and had increased to 137,868,043/. on the
olst March 1879. Not included in the latter total were ' obligations' —
including treasury notes and bills, service funds, and savings bank
balances — to the amount of 13,127,919/., bringing the entire
liabilities up to 150,995,962/. The total interest on debt and
obligations amounted to 4,954,021/. in the financial year 1878-79.
The currency of India is chiefly silver, and the amount of money
coined annually is large. In the ten financial years from 1870 to
1879, the value of the new coinage was as follows: —
Tears
Ending March 31
Gold
Silver
Copper
Total
£
£
£
£
1870
78,510
7,473,560
5,432
7,557,502
1871
4,143
1,718,197
6,121
1,728,461
1872
15,413
1,690,395
25,049
1,730,857
1873
31,795
3,981,436
10,500
4,023,731
1 1874
15,498
2,370,013
14,461
2,399,972
i 1875
14,034
4,896,884
111,334
5,022,252
1 1876
17,150
2,550,218
150,660
2,718,028
1 1877
—
6,271,122
123,429
6,394,551
j 1878
15,636
16,180,326
148,591
16,344,553
[ 1879
85
7,210,770
66,648
7,277,503
On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of India,^
providing for the issue of a paper currency through a Government
department of Public Issue, by means of promissory notes. Circles
684
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of issue were established from time to time, as found necessary, and
the notes were made legal tender within the circle in which they
were issued, and rendered payable at the place of issue, and also at
the capital city of the Presidency within which that place was
situated. Under the provisions of further laws, consolidated by a
statute known as Act III. of 1871, the issue was regulated in seven
descriptions of notes, namely, for 10,000 rupees, or 1,000Z. ; for
1,000 rupees, or lOOZ. ; for 500 rupees, or 50Z. ; for 100 rupees, or
lOZ. ; for 50 rupees, or 5/. ; for 20 rupees, or 21. ; for 10 rupees, or
IZ., and for five rupees, or 10s. There are ten currency circles,
the head-quarters of which are at Calcutta, Allahabad, Lahore,
Nagpore, Madras, Calicut, Cocanada, Bombay, Kurrachee, and
Akolah. — (Official Communication.)
The following were the total amounts of notes in circulation —
calculated at 'Is. the rupee — on March 31 in each year, since the
inti-oduction of the State paper currency in 1861 : —
larch 31,
&
March 31,
&
1862
3,690,000
1871
. 10,437,291
1863
4,926,000
1872
. 13,167,917
1864
o,3o0,000
1873
. 12,864,037
1865
7,427,327
1874
. 11,145,191
1866
6,898,481
1875
. 10,670,407
1867
8,090,868
1876
. 11,352,662
1868
9,069,-569
1877
.11,641,654
1869
9,959,296
1878
. 13,250,247
1870
10,472,883
1879
. 13,190,508
Nearly two-thirds of the total note circulation are in the currency
circles of Calcutta and Bombay. The circulation in Calcutta was
to the amount of 6,436,556?., and in Bombay to the amount of
3,345,067?. on the 31st of March 1879.
Army.
The Act of Parliament which transferred the Government of India
to the Crown, in 1858, directed that the military forces of the East
India Company should be deemed to be Indian Military Forces of
Her Majesty, and should be ' entitled to the like pay, pensions,
allowances, and privileges, and the like advantages as regards pro-
motion and otherwise, as if they had continued in the service of the
said Company.' It was at the same time provided, that the Secretary
of State for India should have ' all such or the like powers over all
officers appointed or continued under this Act as might or should
have been exercised or performed by the East India Company.'
The following table gives the established strength of the Eiwopean
and native army in British India — exclusive of native artificers and
followers — on the 31st of March 1879 : —
INDIA.
68$
Corps
Total ' 1
Officers
Non-Commissioned
Officers and Privates
Total
EimoPEAN Aemt.
Royal Artillery ....
610
11,629
12,239
Cavalry
252
4,095
4,347
Royal Engineers ....
357
—
357
Infantry
1,650
44,312
45,962
Invalid and Veteran Establishment
45
120
165
Staff Corps
1,221
—
1,221 ;
General List, Cavalry .
87
—
87
G-eneral List, Infantry.
206
—
206
Unattached Officers
12
—
12
General Officers unemployed
Total European Army
Native Army.
130
—
130
4,570
60,156
64,726
1
Artillery .....
18
883
901
Body Guard ....
8
194
202
Cavalry
303
18,043
18,346
Sappers and Miners
220
3,019
3,239
Infantry .....
Total Native Army
Total, European and Native Army
1,068
101,115
102,183
1,617
123,254
124,871
6,187
183,410
189,597
In the army estimates laid before Parliament in the session of 1880,
the strength of the British Regular Army in India for the year
1880-81 was given as follows : —
Troops
1 Non-com-
Officers 1 missioned
1 officers
Rank and Total
File 1 Strength
Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Royal artillery & engineers
Infantry of the line .
88
216
861
1,450
166
423
724
3,318
2,044 1 2,298
3,672 1 4,311
8,626 10,211
41,000 45,768
1 Total
2,615 t 4,631 j 55,342 62,588
Returns of the year 1879 reported the combined armies of the
native chiefs of India to number 305,235 men, with an artillery of
5,252 large gitns. Hyderabad had 36,890 infantry, 8,202 cavalry,
and 725 guns ; Bundelcund 22,163 infantry, 2,677 cavalry, and 421
guns ; Cashmere 18,436 infantry, 1,393 cavalry, and 96 guns; Gwalior
16,050 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 210 guns; Kattywar 15,300
686
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 504 guns; and Oodeypore, 15,000 in-
fantry, and 6,240 cavalry. The rest do not exceed 11,000 men.
Area and Population.
The first general census of British India was taken during the
years 1868 to 1876. According to the revised returns of this census,
the total population numbered 191,096,603, living on an area of
899,341 English square miles, being an average of 212 inhabitants
to the sqiiare mile. The following table shows the area, population,
and population per square mile, of each of the divisions of India
under direct British administration : —
Presidencies and Provinces under the
Administration of
Area :
square miles
Poijulation
Bensity of
Popul. to
sq. mile
The Governor-General of India :
1
Ajmere
2,711
396,889
146 i
Berar
17,711
2.227,654
126
Mysore
29,325
6,055,412
172
Coorg
2,000
168,312
84 \
Governoi-s :
Madras
138,856
31,672,613
228
Bombay (includuig Siud) .
123,142
16,349,206
132
Lieutenant-Governors :
Bengal
156,200
60,502,897
388
North-West Provinces
81,403
30,781,204
378
Punjab
104,975
17,611,498
168
Chief Commissioners :
Oudh
23,992
11,220,232
468
Central Provinces ....
84,208
8,201,519
97
British Burmah ....
88,556
2,747,148
31
Assam ......
Total British Administration . '
1
45,302
4,162,019
92
898,381
191,096,603
213
Besides the provinces of India under direct British administration,
there are, more or less under the control of the Indian Government, a
number of feudatory, or Native States, covering an extent of 573,516
EngKsh square miles, with 48,298,895 inhabitants. They are : —
Native States under—
sq. miles
Population
Governor- General of India
308,677
28,748,403
Lieut. -Governor of Bengal
38,953
312,473
,, ,, North-West Provinces
6,125
657,013
„ , „ Punjab
114,739
5,410,389
,, „ Central Provinces
28,834
1,049,710
Governor „ Madras
9,815
3,289,392
„ „ Bombay .
67,370
6,831,515
Total Native States
573,613
46,298,895
According to the last official reports, the native States exceed 450
in number. Various frontier countries, like Nepaul, merely acknow-
INDIA.
687
ledge British superintendence ; wliile others pay tribute, or provide
military contingents. New States are gradually drawn within the
circle of British supremacy, either for the consolidation or the pro-
tection of the existing boundaries. The latest movement in this
direction, towards the north-west, was the invasion of Afghanistan,
a country of about the size of the United Kingdom, with an esti-
mated population of four millions.
Including the Feudatory states, the total area and population of
British India according to the enimierations taken fi-om 1868 to 1876,
together with the latest official estimates, are as follows : —
Provinces under direct British administration
Feudatory or Native States
Total. British India
Area:
Eng. sq. miles
899,341
573,513
Population
191,096,603
46,298,895
1,472,854 237,395,498
The following table gives the administrative divisions, the number
of executive districts, and the number of villages and of inhabited
houses of each of the presidencies and provinces of India under
British administration, at the enumerations of 1868 to 1876 : —
ia
Proviuces
11
ExecntiTe
Districts
Number of
Villages
Number of
Inhabited
Houses
j Provinces under the Governor-
j General of India : —
Province of Ajmere
1
5
936
93,464
„ „ Coorg
1
14
510
22,900
„ ,, Mysore
3
81
35,218
1,012,738
,, ,, Berar
2
19
5,694
495,760
Bengal Presidency : —
Province of Lower Bengal .
6
80
100,189
1
,, „ Behar
„ „ Orissa
2
1
36
9
48,285
22,119
Uo,481,132
,, ,, Chota Nagpore .
1
8
25,766
J
„ ,, Assam
2
16
4,737
670,078
North-west Provinces
7
177
91,226
6,359,092
Province of Oudh
4
43
24,760
2,438,006
„ „ Punjab
10
132
34,466
4,124,857
Central Provinces .
4
57
34,272
1,674,291
British Burmah .
3
129
13,151
535,533
Madras .....
3
156
27,802
5,857,994
Bombay Presidency : —
Bombay and Siud .
Total .
'
152
17,930
3,277,679
53
1,114
487,061
37,043,524
688
THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
The following table gives the population of each of the fifty-three
divisions, or coramissionerships, of British India, distinguishing males
and females, at the enumerations of 1868 to 1876 : —
Population
Provinces
Divisions or Commis-
sionerships
Ajmere
Persons
Males
Females
156,786
Ajmere .
426,268
269,482
Coorg .
Coorg .
168,312
94,454
73,858
Mysore .
Nandidroog .
2,079,547
1,039,668
1,039,879
Ashtagram .
1,611,604
795,886
815,718
Nagar .
1,364.261
700,370
663,891
Berar .
East Berar .
1,183,590
608,396
580,194
West Berar .
1,042,975
544,801
498,174
dengal, Lower
Burdwan
7,286,957
3,572,108
3,714,849
Presidency Division
6,545,464
3,383,867
3,161,597
Rajshahye
8,893,738
4,448,843
4,444,895
Cooch Behar
1,045,942
548,535
497,407
Dacca .
9,517,498
4,786,531
4,730,967
Chittagong .
3,480,136
1,739,595
1,740,541
Behar .
Patna .
13,122,743
6,477,356
6,645,387
Bhaugiilpore
6,613,358
3,320,293
3,293,065
Orissa .
Orissa .
4,317,999
2,140,061
2,177,938
Chota Nagpore
Chota Nagpore
3,825,571
1,933,380
1,892,191
Assam .
Cooch Behar
524,761
270,654
254,107
Assam .
1,682,692
872,419
810,273
North - West
Meenit
4,973,190
2,684,509
2,288,681
Provinces .
Kumaon
743,170
386,891
356,279
Rohilkund .
5,435,550
2,916,412
2,519,138
Agra .
5.038,136
2,749,528
2,288,608
Jhansie
934,747
495,751
438,996
Allahabad .
5,466.116
2,861,422
2,604,694
Benares
8,178,147
4,312,320
3,865,827
Oude .
Lncknow
2,583,019
1,341,068
1,241,951
Heetapore
2,603,426
1,398,321
1,205,105
Faizabad
3,384,130
1,751,612
1,632,518
Rai Bareli .
2,650,172
1,331,662
1,318,510
Punjab .
Delhi .
1,920,912
1,029,757
891,155
Hissar ,
1,226,703
669,185
557,518
Ambala
1,652,728
908,891
743,837
Jullundhur .
2,464,019
1,327,734
1,136,285
Amritsnr
2,743,880
1,512,480
1,231,400
Lahore
1,889,495
1,048,120
841,375
Rawalpindi .
2,197,401
1,177,668
1,019,733
Mooltan
1,474,574
817,164
657,410
Deerajat
991,255
633,541
457,714
Peshawur
1,035,785
556,743
479,042
Central Pro-
Nagpoor
2,299 535
1,169,458
1,130,077
vinces
Jubbulporc .
2,446,118
1,267,627
1,178,491
Nerbudda
1,080,510
576,669
503,841
Ghutteesghur
3,239,877
1,637,391
1,602,486
INDIA.
689
Population
Provinces
Division or Commis-
sionerships
Persons
Males
Females
British Burmah
Arrakan
461,136
240,675
220,461
Pegu .
1,524,422
781,459
742,963
Tenasserim .
576,765
298,796
277,969
Madras .
Northern Range .
6,794.912
Central Eangtj
10,436,821
16,156,549
10,154,593
Southern Eange .
14,079,409
Bombay
Northern Division \
including Bombay j
5,269,262
2,786,142
2,483,120
Southern Division
7,043,011
3,634,194
3,408,817
Sind .
Siud
1.730.323
892,847
837,476
Enumerations to ascertain the religious creed of the inhabitants of
India were taken in the various provinces during the years 1868 to
1876 — in Berar and the Punjab 1868, in Oude 1869, in Ajmere and
Coorg, 1871, and in the remaining provinces from 1872 to 1876.
A verification of all these returns with the results of tlie general
census of India furnished the following classification of the leading
creeds in the provinces under British administration : —
Creeds. Numbers.
Hindoos 139,248,568
Mahomedans 40,882,537
Buddhists 2,832,851
Sikhs 1J74'436
Christians . . . ' 897,216
Other Creeds 5,102,823
' Rehgion not kno-wa ' _ . 1,977,400
Total .... 192,115,831
The following table shows the number of Hindoos, Mahomedans,
Buddhists, and Christians, in each of the provinces of India under
British administration : —
Provinces
Hindoos
Mahomedans
Bhuddists
Christians
Bengal
38,975,418
19,553,831
84,974
90.763
Assam
2,679,507
1,104,601
1,521
1,947
North-west Provinces .
26,568,071
4,189,348
—
22,196
Ajmere
252,996
62,722
. —
807
Oude ....
10,003,323
1,197,704
—
7,761
Punjab
6,125,460
9,337.685
36,190
22,154
Central Provinces
5,879.772
233,247
36,569
10,477
Berar ....
1,912,155
154,951
—
903
Mysore
4,807,425
208,991
13.263
25,676
Coorg ....
154,476
11,304
112
2,410
British Burmah .
36,658
99,846
2,447,831
52,299
Madras
28,863,978
1,857,857
21,254
533,760
Bombay
Total
12,989.329
2,870,450
191.137
126,063
139,248,668
40,882,537
2,832,861
897,216
Y Y
690
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The Britisli-born population in India, exclusive of the army (for
number of which see p. 685), amounted according to a census taken
June 15, 1871, to 64,061 persons. Of these, there were 38,946 of
the male, and 25,115 of the female sex. The largest number, at
the date of the census, was in the province of Lower Bengal,
namely, 16,402, comprising 10,625 males and 5,777 females; the
next largest number in the province of Bombay, namely 10,921, com-
prising 6,786 males and 4,135 females; and the next largest number
in the North West Provinces, namely 6,910, comprising 3,843 males
and 3,067 females. In the Central Provinces there Avere, at the date
of the census, only 276 British-born subjects, namely, 173 males and
103 females. In the three capital cities of India the number of
British subjects was as follows at the census of June 15, 1871: —
British-bom population
Males
Females
Total
Calcutta
Bombay
Madras
5,536
2,996
778
2,784
1.800
1 528
8,320
4,796
1,306
The ages and conjugal condition of the British-born subjects in
India were as follows at the census of June 15, 1871 : —
Under twenty
years
All ages
TT ■ , f Males
Unman-ied | ^^^^^^^^ _
■RT ■ 1 /"Husbands
Married < -.ht-
L Wives
,H7. 1 , f Widowers
Widowed •; -.nj. ,
l^ W^idows .
Total .
13,227
12,030
45
781
4
21
26,108
26,355
13,604
11,320
9,690
1,271
1,821
64,061
The occupations of the Bi-itish-born subjects in India were as
follows at the census of 1871, under the six classes adojDted by the
English Registrar- Gen era! : —
Classes
Number
14,822
I. Professional class, incl. civil service
II. Domestic class ....
12,708
III. Commercial class ....
7,993
IV. Agi-icultural class ....
614
V. Industrial class ....
2,595
VI. Indefinite and non-productive class.
including women and children
Total
25,329
64,061
INDIA.
691
At the last enumerations there were in British India 44 towns
with over 50,000 inhabitants, as follows: —
Towns
Popnlation
1 Towns
Population
Calcutta (with suburbs)
794,645
Bhaugulpoor
1
69,678
Bombay
644,405
Dacca .
69.212
Madras
397,552
Mirzapoor
67.274
Lucknow
284,779
Gya .
66,843
Benares
175,188
Moradabad
62,417 '
Patna .
158,900
Monghyr
59,698
Delhi .
154,417
Muttra
[ 59,281
Agra .
149,008
Peshawiu-
58.555
Allahabad
143,693
Allyghur
' 58,539
Bangalore
142,513
Mysore
57,815
Umritsur
135,813
Mooltan
56,826
Cawnpoor
j 122.770
Jubbulpoor
55,188
Poona .
! 118,886
Kurracliee
53,626
Ahmedabad
116,873
Sholapoor
53,403
Surat .
107,149
1 Tanjore
52,175
Bareilly
1 102,982
1 Madura
51,987
Lahore
i 98,924
! Bellary
51.766
Rangoon
1 98,745
Groruekpoor
51,117
Howrah
! 97,784
Cuttack
50,878
Nagpoor
1 84,441
1 Salem .
50,012 1
Meerut
81,386
!
Furruckabad
79,204
1 Total population of the 1 - .,, , ni.> 1
All ^ i. )■ o,o94,913
1 44 largest towns .J
Trichinopoly
76,530
Shahjehanpoor
72,136
The occupations of the adult male population of British India,
calculated to number 57,508,150, were classified as follows at the
last enumerations: —
Classes
Number of adnlt
males
Government service and professions .
Domestic occupations .
Agriciilture .....
Commerce ......
Industrial occupations
Labourers ......
Independent and non-productive persons
2,404,855
4,137.429
37,462,220
3,440,951
8.746,503
8.174,600
2,264,868
Total adult male population .
66,631,416
In the North-Western Provinces and Madras the foundation has
been laid of a national system of education ; while public instruc-
Y T 2
692
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 188L
tion throughout the whole of India has made great progress
in recent years. Three universities, at Calcutta, Madras, and
Bombay, "were incorporated by Acts of the government of India in
1857. In the year ending March 1878 there passed 1,098 candi-
dates for admission at Calcutta, 356 at Madras, and 261 at Bombay.
Trade and Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports of the Indian empire,
including bullion and specie, was as foUows, in each of the ten fiscal
years, ending March 31, from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years ended
March 31
Total Imports
Total Exports
£
53,513,729
1870
£
46,882.327
1871
39,913,942
57,556,951
1872
43,665,663
64,685,374
1873
36,431,210
56,540,042
1874
39,628,562
56,940,073
1875
44,363,134
57,984,539
1876
44,188,062
60,291,731
1877
48,876,751
65,043,789
1878
58,819,644
67,433,324
1879
44,857,343
64,919,741
The total imports, if divided into merchandise and ' treasure,'
the latter term meaning bullion and specie, were as follows in each
of the ten fiscal years 1870 to 1879 : —
Years ended
March 31
Imports
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
1
£
£
£
1870
32,879,643
13,954,807
46,834,450
1871
33,348,246
0,444,823
38,793,069
1872
30,810,776
11,573,813
42,384,589
1873
30,473,069
4,556,585
35,029,654
1874
31,628,497
5,792,534
37,421,031
1875
34,645,262
8,141,047
42,786,309
1876
37,112,668
5,300,722
42,413,390
1877
35,367,177
11,436,118
46,803,295
1S78
39,326,00.'5
17,355,459
66.681,462
1879
36,566,194
7,056,749
43,622.943
The exports in the same ten years, classified as merchandise and
treasure, were as follows : —
INDIA.
693
Years ended
Exports
March 31
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
£
£
£
1870
52,471,376
1,042,353
53,513,729
1871
00,336,186
2,220,765
57,556,951
1872
63,209,282
1,476,094
64,685,376
1873
55,250,763
1,298,079
56,548.842
1874
54,996,010
1,914,071
56,910,081
1875
56,359,240
1,625,309
57,984,549
1876
58,091,495
2,200,236
60.291,731
1877
61,013,891
4,029,898
65,043,789
1878
65,222,328
2,210,996
67,433,324
1879
60,937,513
3,982,228
64.919.741
The imports, including treasure, were distributed as follows
between the four great commercial divisions of India : —
Years ended
Imports into
Imports into
Imports into
Imports into
March 31
Bengal
British Burmah
Madras
Bombay
£
£
£
£
1870
19,496,082
1,067,391
4,086,478
22,232,435
1 1871
18,588,706
1,128,744
4,032,341
15,108,938
1 1872
19,741,420
1,439,656
3,792,232
17.684,252
1873
16,492,741
1,753,345
3,894,058
13,676,002
1874
17,169,310
1,852,459
3,861,057
15,054,121
1875
20,257,175
2,215,258
3,812,848
16,501,002
1876
18,847,720
1,685,576
4,454,291
17,425,803
1877
19,319,279
2,238,297
3,879,433
21,366,286
1878
24,348,845
2,283,196
3.622,444
26.426,977
1879
18,432,196
2,979,702
3,331,176
18,876,869
The exports, including treasure, were divided as follows : —
Years ended
Exports from
Exports from
Exports from
Exports from
March 31
Bengal
British Biirmah
Madras
Bombay
£
£
£
£
1870
20,971,121
1,779,412
6,072,375
24,690.819
1871
23,455,045
2,452,659
5,150,725
26,494,161
1872
27,849,329
2,807,136
7,297,324
26,708,152
1873
24,694,519
3,795.580
6,460,646
21,573,829
1874
23,201,820
3,480,407
7,258,147
21,694,571
1875
22,772,218
3,042,820
6,794,938
25,294,992
1 1876
24,493,003
3,738,677
7,478,352
24.463,237
1877
26,699,849
3,864,544
7,007,874
27,331,945
1878
31,265,524
4,670,427
5,864,591
25,540,307
1879
29,850,034
5.346,008
6,519,489
23,073,625
694
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The amount of bullion and specie imported annually into India
is very large, but though it has been greatly on the increase in recent
years, it is, on the whole, very fluctuating, especially as regards
silver. The following table gives the imports, distinguishing gold
and silver, in each of the ten fiscal years, ended March 31, from
1870 to 1879 :—
Tears ended
Imports of
Imports of
Total Bullion
March 31
Gold
Silver
and Specie
£
£
£
1870
5,690,400
8,264,4071
13,954,807
1871
2,782,574
2.662,249
5,444,823
1872
3,573.778
8,000.035
11,573,813
1873
2,622,371
1,934,214
4,556,585
1874
1,648,808
4,143,726
5,792,534
1875
2,089,236
6,051,811
8,141,047
1876
1,836,381
3.464,341
5,300,722
1 1877
1,443,712
9,992,408
11,436,120
1878
1,578,927
15,776.532
17,355,459
1879
; 1,463,050
5,593,699
7,056,749
The following table shows the exports of biillion and specie^
distingiiishing gold and silver, in each of the ten fiscal years, ended
March 31, from 1870 to 1879 :—
Tears ended
Exports of
B.xports of
Total BulUon
March 31
Gold
Silver
and Specie
£
£
£
1870
98,283
944,070
1,042,353
1871
500,453
1,720,312
2.220,765
1872
8,434
1,467,660
1,476,094
1873
79,009
1,219,070
1,298,079
1874
260,169
1,647,902
1,914,071
1875
215.701
1,409,608
1,625,309
1876
291,250
1,908,986
2,200,236
1877
1,236,362
2,793,536
4,029,898
1878
1,110,798
1,100,198
2,210,996
1879
2,359,223
1,623,005
3,982,228
The imports of bullion and specie into India are mainly from the
United Kingdom and from China, while the exports are shipped
principally to the United Kingdom, Ceylon, China, and South Africa.
The extent of the commercial intercom-se between India and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table which gives the
total value of the exports from India to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British produce and manufactures into India^
in each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
INDIA.
695
Years
Exports from India to
Great Britain and Ireland
Imports of
British Home Produce
into India
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
25,090,163
30,737,385
33,682,156
29,890,802
31,198,446
30,137.295
30,025,024
31,224,763
27,470,473
24,698,213
19,303,920
18,053,478
18,471,394
21,354,205
24,080,693
24,246,406
22,405,420
25,338,286
23,276,890
21,374,404
The staple article of export from India to the United Kingdom is
raw cotton ; but the quantities, and still more the value of the
exports, have been greatly on the decrease within the decennial
period. The following table exhibits the quantities and value of
the exports of raw cotton from India to Great Britain in each of
the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantities
1 Value
C\\'ts.
£
1870
3,041,165
9,434,674
1871
3,843,491
1 1,711,349
1872
3,934,546
12,862,300
1873
3.278,986
19,812,086
1874
3,668,928
0,325,630
1875
3,413,546
19,173,275
1876
2,448,738
5,874,704
1877
1,725,582
4,230,803
1878
1.433,104
3,513,595
1879
1,616,633
3.914,301
Next to cotton, the most important articles of export from India
to the United Kingdom in the year 1879 were jute, 4,725,255 cwts.,
of the value of 3,238,648/. ; rice, 6,336,571 cwts., of the value of
3,126,926/.; flax and linseed, 603,427 qrs., of the value of
1,514,241/.; tea, 38,241,030 lbs., of the value of 2,911,842/.; and
untanned hides, 360,827 cwts., of the value of 1,084,503/.
The chief articles of British produce imported into India are cotton
goods and iron. The imports of cotton manufactures, averaging two-
thirds of the total British imports into India, were of the value
of 12,835,744/. in 1870; of 13,101,645/. in 1871; of 13,078,831/.
in 1872; of 15,020,646/. in 1873; of 16,216,491/. in 1874 ; of
15,699,713/. in 1875; of 14,934,370/, in 1876; of 16,692,865/. in
1877; of 15,078,497/. in 1878; and of 14,415,456/. in 1879. Of
696 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
iron the imports amounted to 1,637,584/. in 1876, to 1,923,820/. in
1877, to 1,767,526/. in 1878, and to 1,535,901/. in 1879.
Next to the United Kingdom, the countries having the largest
trade with India are China, the Straits Settlements, and Ceylon.
The intei'nal commerce of India has been vastly developed of
late years by the construction of several great lines of railways,
made under the guarantee of the Government. In the year 1845
two great private associations, were formed for the purpose of
constructing lines of railroad in India; but the projectors found it
impossible to raise the necessary ftinds for their proposed schemes
Avithout the assistance of the State. It was, therefore, determined
by the Indian Government to guarantee to the raihvay companies,
for a term of 99 years, a rate of interest of 5 per cent, upon the capital
subscribed for their undertakings ; and, in order to guard against the
evil effects of failure on the part of the companies, power Avas
reserved by the Government to supervise and control their proceed-
ings by means of an official director. The lands are given by the
Government free of expense, and the stipulated rate of in-
terest is guaranteed to the shareholders in every case, except
that of the traffic receipts of the line being insufficient to cover
the working exi^enses, in which event tlie deficiency is charge-
able against the guaranteed interest. Should the net receipts be in
excess of the sum required to pay the guaranty, the surplus is divided
in equal parts between the Government and the shareholders, until the
charge to the Government for interest in previous years, with simple
interest thereon, has been repaid, after which time the whole of the
receipts are distributed among the shareholders. The Government has
the power, at the expiration of a period of 25 or 50 years from the
date of the contracts, of pm-chasing the railways at the mean value of
the shares for the three previous years, or of paying a proportionate
annuity until the end of the 99 years, when the whole of the lands
and works Avill revert from the companies to the Government. In
1869 the Government of India decided on carrying out all the new
railway extensions by means of direct State agency, that is, without
the inteivention of guaranteed companies.
The progress of the railway system in India since 1854 is ex-
hibited in the following table, which gives the length of hues
open for traffic in 1860, in 1867, in 1872, and from 1877 to 1879,
at the commencement of each year : —
On 1st of January —
1854
1860
1867 1872 1878
1879
1880
21
624
3,567
5,072 ; 7,324
7,994
8,228
INDIA.
697
The following table shows the length of the various lines of railway ,
divided into Guaranteed and State railways, open for traffic, and in
course of construction, on January 1, 1880: —
Railways
Jan. 1, 1879.
Jan. 1, 1880.
Guaranteed.
iUles
Miles
East Iniliau, including JaLljalp' or branch .
1M)2
1,504
Eastern Bengal .....
159
159
Oucle and Rohilkuud .
.544
.')47
Scind, Punjab, and Delhi
663
663
Great Indian Peninsula
1,280
1,282
Bombay, Baroda, and Ceutral India
421
421
Madras
857
857
South Indian ....
Total, guaranteed lines
607
615
6,034
6,048
State.
Calcutta and South eastern ....
28
28
Nalhan
27
27
Northern Bengal .
185
225
Tirhoot
79
So
Patna-Grya .
—
52
Punjab Northern .
103
103
Indus Valley
375
500
Muttra-Hathras .
29
29
Rajputana .
400
400
Western Rajputana
22
10
Sindia ....
34
35
Neemuch
61
86
Holkar
86
86
Patri ....
22
22
Gaekwar of Baroda's .
20
30
Khamgaon .
8
8
Amraoti ....
6
6
Wardha Valley .
46
46
Nizam's
121
121
Dhond-Manmad .
145
118
Rangoon and Irawaddy Valley
163
163
Total, State railways .
1,960
2,180
Total, Guaranteed and State railways ' 7,994
8,228
The number of passengers carried on the railways of India largely
increased in the course of ten years, rising from 15,999,633 in
1869, to 43,14:4,608 in 1879.
The gross receipts of all the railways during the year 1879,
amounted to 11,231,108/., while the gi-oss expenses in the same year
were 5,858,512/., equal to 52'16per cent of the earnings.
The total amount of guaranteed capital raised for the construction
698
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of raihrays up to the 31st March 1879 amounted to 96,444,666/.,
while the total outlay upon railways, both State and guaranteed,
amounted to 119,979,139/. at the same date.
The constrviction of railways, besides fostering trade and com-
merce, has produced social and moral effects indicated, to some
extent, by a vastly increased postal intercom-se. In the fiscal year
ended March 31, 1879, the number of letters which passed through
the Post-office of British India was 118,599,609 ; of newspapers
10,276,990; of parcels 998,901 ; and of books and patterns2,023,768;
being a total of 131,899,268. The following table gives the number
of letters, newspapers, etc., carried, and the number of offices and
receiving houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure
of the Post-office — including tliat of the non-postal branches — in
each of the ten fiscal years 1870 to 1879 : —
The number of letters carried by the Post-office nearly
doubled in Bengal and Madras during the ten years 1870 to 1879.
In 1870 the number was 15, .511,495 in Bengal, and 12,167,455 in
Madras, while in 1879 it was 25,520,209 in Bengal, and 22,198,961
in Madras. The increase was not in anything like the same pro-
portion in the other provinces of India.
In the fiscal year, ending March 1870, the mails travelled over
50,281 miles, of which total 40,586 miles was done by boats and
'runners;' 5,460 miles by carts and on horseback; and 4,235
miles by railways. Ten years after, in the fiscal year ending
March 31, 1879, the mails travelled over 57,954 miles, of which
total 46,562 miles was done by boats and 'rimners;' 3,269 miles
by carts and on horseback ; and 8,123 miles by railways.
The following table gives the number of miles of lines, the total
receipts, and the working expenditure of all the telegraphs in India,
in each of the ten fiscal years from 1870 to 1879 : —
INDIA.
699
Years ended
Number of miles
Number of
Total
Working Ex-
March 31
of wire
miles of line
Receipts
penditure
1870
21,378
14,489
&
121,064
235,567
1871
22,834
15,102
126,953
229,562
1872
28,893
15,336
153,962
228,997
1873
30,681
15,705
183,216
254,610
1874
32,556
15,980
196,820
255,711
1875
33,798
16,649
203,881
266,823
1876
36,193
17,145
213,054
276,943
1877
39,700
17,840
249,646
265,387
1878
42,687
18,210
306,089
279,879
1879
44,470
18,589
353,741
305,381
The total number of messages despatched on the telegraph lines
of India in the fiscal year ending March 31, 1879, was 1,379,312.
Of these, 1,158,870 were paid private messages and on the public
service, and the rest unpaid messages on the news and telegraph
service. There were 250 telegraph offices on March 31, 1879.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Pie .
4 Fice, or 12 Fie
16 Annas
16 Biipees
I Farthing.
U
I5 Pence.
2 Shillings.
1/. 12.S.
= 1 Pice
= 1 Anna , .
= 1 Rupee
= 1 Gold Mohnr |.
The relative value of the money of India and England fluctuates
in the Money market ; thus, a Eupee is sometimes worth 2s. 2d.f
and sometimes only Is. 9d.; but 2s. is the medium, or, as it is
called, its par value.
The sum of 100,000 rupees is called a ' lac,' and of 10,000,000'
a ' crore,' of rupees.
In 1835 the Government remodelled the currency of India,
establishing a more uniform system, in conformity with which
accoimts are mostly kept at present in Eupees, reckoned of the value
of 2 shillings. Silver is the only legal tender and standard of value.
Weights and Measu
The Maund of Bengal, of 40 seers
„ „ Bombay .
„ ,, Madras .
„ Candy, of 20 niaunds
„ Tola ....
,, Gtiz of Bengal
RES.
= 2-054 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 28 lbs.
= 25 lbs.
= 24-3 bushek.
= 180 gr.
= 36 inches.
An Act ' to provide for the ultimate adoption of an uniform system
700 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
of weights and measures of capacity throughout British India ' was
passed by the Governor-General of India in Council in 1871.
The Act orders : Art. 2. ' The primary standard of weight shall be
called a ser, and shall be a weight of metal in the possession of the
Government of India, equal, when weighed in a vacuiun, to the
weight known in France as the kilogramme.' Art. 3. ' The units
of Aveight and measures of capacity shall be, for weights, the said
ser ; for measures of capacity, a measure containing one such ser of
water at its maximum density, weighed in a vacuum.' Unless it be
otherwise ordered, the sub-divisions of all such weights and mea-
sures of capacity shall be expressed in decimal parts.'
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British India with
Foreign Countries, and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies,
together with Miscellaneous Statistics relating to the Foreign Trade of British
India, from various periods to 1877-79. Imp. 4. Calcutta, 1880.
Correspondence respecting the relations between the British Government and
that of Afghanistan since the accession of the Ameer Shere Ali Khan. Fol.
London, 1879-80.
Finance and Revenue Accounts ; and Miscellaneous Statistics relating to
the Finances of British India. Part I. Revenues, Charges, and other Cash
Transactions of British India. Fol. Calcutta, 1880.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part II. Revenues and Charges of each
Presidency and Province. Fol. Calcutta, 1880.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part III. Revenues and Charges, Statis-
tics for the Administration of Revenue, and Miscellaneous Statistics. Fol.
Calcutta, 1880.
Indian Army and Civil Service List. Issued by permission of the
Secretary of State for India in Council. 8. London, 1880.
Memorandum on the Census of British India of 1871-72. Fol. London, 1875.
Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the Railways in
India for the year 1879-80. By Julian Danvers, Government Director of
Indian Railway Companies. Fol. Loudon, 1880.
Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India
during the year 1878-79. Fol. London, 1880.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1864 to 1878. No. XVI. 8. London, 1880.
Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1869-70 tol878-9. No. XIV.
8. London, 1880.
Trade of India with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adams (W. H. Davenport), Episodes of Anglo-Indian History. 8. London,
1880.
Andrew (W. P.), India and her Neighbours. 8. London, 1878.
Banks (J. S.), Our Indian Empire, its rise and growth. 16. London, 1880.
Blair (Charles), Indian Famines; their historical, financial, and other
aspecis. 12. London, 1874.
INDIA. 701
Carnegy (P.) Notes on the Land Tenures and Eerenue Assessments of
Upper India. 8. London, 1874.
Dilke (Sir Charles "Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain : a record of travel
in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1869.
j?;/^;' (Sir H. M.), History of India. 8 vols. 8. London, 1869-78.
Forbes (C. J. T.), British Burma and its people. 8. London, 1889.
Fitzgerald (W. P. Vesey), Egypt, India, and the Colonies. 8. London, 1870.
Fontpertuis (Ad. Frout de), L'Inde britannique. 8. Paris, 1878.
Gamier (Lieut. Fr.), Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine, efFectue pendant
les annees 1866, 1867, et 1868. 2 vols. 4. Paris, 1873.
Gordcni (Lieut.-Col. T. E.), The Roof of the World, being a narrative of a
journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian frontier and the Oxus
sources in Pamir. 8. Edinburgh, 1876.
Grant Duff {M. E., M.P.), Notes of an Indian Journey. 8. London, 1876.
Griffin (Lepel H.), The Rajas of the Punjab, being the history of the prin-
cipal states in the Punjab. 2d edit. 8. London, 1872.
MtH^'er (Dr. W.W.), The Indian Musulmans. 2nded. 8. London, 1871.
Jacolliot (L.) Lois, pretres, et castes dans I'lnde. 8. Paris, 1877.
Kaye (John William), The Administration of the East India Company: a his-
tory of Indian progress. 8. London, 1853.
Knight (Robert), The Indian Empire and our financial relations therewith. 8.
London, 1866.
Latham (R. G.), Ethnology of India. 8. London, 1859.
Low (Charles Rathbone), The History of the Indian Navy. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1878.
ilf«^on (Lord), Rise of oiu' Indian Empire. 8. London, 1858.
Malleson (Col. G. B.), The Native States of India, in subsidiary alliance with
the British Government. 8. London, 1878.
Markham (Clements R.), Memoir of the Indian Surveys. 8. London, 1871.
Marshman (John Clark), The History of India, from the earliest period to the
close of Lord Dalhousie's administration. 3 vols. 8. London, 1867-70.
Martin (R. Montgomery), The Progress and Present State of British India.
8. London, 1862.
ilfflri;me«i« (Rev. A.), British Rule in India. 12. London, 1857.
Priehard (J. T.), The Administration of India from 1859 to 1868. 2 vols.
8. London, 1869.
Bousselet (L.), India and its Native Princes. 4. London, 1876.
Boutledge (James), English Rule and Native Opinion in India. 8. Loudon,
1878.
Sherring (Rev. M. A.), History of Protestant Missions in India. 8. Be-
nares, 1875.
Thornton (W. T.), Indian Public Works. 8. London, 1875.
Torrens (Wm. T. M'CuUagh), Empire in Asia : How we came by it. 8.
London, 1872.
Tyrrell (Lieut.-Col. F.), Waterways or Railways, or the Future of India. 8.
London, 1874.
Watson (J. Forbes), and Kaye ( Jn. Wm.), The People of India : a Series of
Photographic Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and
Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols. Imp. 4. London, 1866-70.
Wheeler (J. Talboys), The History of India from the earliest ages. 4 vols.
8. London, 1874-76.
Williams (Dr. Monier). Modern India and the Indians. 8. London, 1879.
702
JAPAN.
(Sho Koku. — Nippon.)
Constitution and Government.
The system of government of the Japanese empire is that of an
absohate monarchy. It was adopted in the year 1869, when the now
ruling sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power of the Tycoon,
together with that of the principal Daimios, or feudal nobles, reducing
the latter to the position of simple tenants of the vast estates in their
hereditary possessions. The sovereign bears the name of Supreme
Lord, or Emperor ; but the appellation by which he is generally
known in foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado, or 'The
Venerable.'
Mikado of Japan. — Mutsu TJito, born at Yedo, Sept, 22, 1852 ;
succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, 1867 ; married, Dec. 28, 1868,
to Princess Haru-ko, born April 17, 1850, daughter of Prince
Itchidgo.
The power of the Mikado is absolute and unlimited, in temporal
as well as spiritual affairs. He acts through an executive ministry,
divided, in imitation of that of France under Napoleon III., into
eight departments, of the Imperial House, of Foreign Affairs, War,
Navy, Finances and the Interior, Justice, Public Instruction, and
Ecclesiastical Affairs. At the side of the Ministry stands the ' Sain,'
or Senate, composed of thirty members, and the ' Sho'i'n,' or Council
of State, of an unlimited number of members, both nominated by
the Mikado, and consulted by him at his pleasure.
There exists no regular law of succession to the throne, but in case
of the death or abdication of the Mikado, the crown devolves generally,
not on his son, but on either the eldest or the most distinguished
member of his house. It is not uncommon that palace intrigues
settle the choice, the only condition of legality of which is that the
elect should be member of the Shi Shinno, the ' Four Imperial
Pelatives,' or Royal Families of Japan. The throne can be, and
has frequently been, occupied by a female, who, however, is not
allowed to remain single, but must seek a consort within the limits
of the Shi Shinno.
The government is at present organised on a basis which is
partly European. The Mikado is, theoretically, an absolute Sove-
reign, who reigns and governs ; but the work of government is
carried on by the Great Council, which is divided into three sections
JAPAN. 703
denominated Centre, Eight, and Left. The Centre is composed of
the Prime Minister, Vice-Prime Minister, and five advisers. The
Left is made up exclusively of the Council of State, the functions of
which are analogous to those of the French Conseil d'Etat, so far
as the preparation and discussion of laws is concei'ned. The Eight
includes all the Ministers and Vice-Ministers of the eight depart-
ments into which the administration is divided. The Ministers,
either individually or united in a Cabinet, decide all ordinary
questions ; but points of real importance are reserved for the Great
Council, presided over by the Mikado. A Parliament was formed
in 1869, with deputies selected by the provincial Governments, but
it was soon dissolved, its deliberations taking no effect. The local
administration in the provinces is in the hands of prefects, one of
them residing in each of the 75 districts into which Japan is
divided. The powers and the attributes of these prefects are far
more extensive than those of any similar functionaries in Europe.
There is, however, a limit to their judicial action, for they cannot
carry into execution sentences involving banishment or death untU
they have been confirmed by the Minister of Justice.
Previous to the last change of government, which placed all power
in the hands of the INIikado, a large share of administrative authority
rested with the Daimios, the feudal proprietors of the soil, an official
list of whose names was published periodically at Yedo, the
capital. The list gave the family name and genealogy of each, as
well as the fullest particulars of his family, the number of his
residences, the extent and value of his territorial and other property,
the uniform of his retamers, the design of his coat of arms, and the
flag carried on his ships. A list of Daimios, published at Yedo in
1862, stated their number at 266, with incomes varying from 10,000
to 610,500 koban, or from about 15,000Z. to 915,500/. The terri-
tory of each Daimio formed a sovereignty within itself, governed,
in the case of the more powerful magnates, by a Secretary of State,
called Karo, and a number of assistant ministers, and many of them
Avere possessed of large bodies of troops. All these, with their
fortified castles, and every attribute of authority, the Daimios sur-
rendered, after more or less resistance, to the hereditary Emperor.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Since the year 1875, regular accounts of public receipts and
expenses have been issued by the Government, and though only, as
yet, in the form of estimates, they are believed to be veiy correct.
The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure for each of
the two financial years, ending June 30, 1876-77 and 1877-78 were
given as follows : —
704
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Sources of Revenue
1876-77
1877-78 ;
£
Branches of Expenditure
1876-77
1877-78
£
£
Customs
352,509
353,428
Redemption of Domes-
Land tax
9.311.349
7,707,769
tic debt
747,363
3,162,111
Royalty on mines
2,221
2.026
Ditto of Foreign debt .
362,926
354,097
Salary tax .
18,716
15,850
Civil List and appan.ages
165,500
174,700
Tax on pensions .
439.783
—
Pensions
3,541,071
56,.542
Tax on revenue of
Council of State .
98,800
58,500
Hokkaido
74,118
75,515
Senate ....
41.400
29,260
Tribute from Loochoo.
6,985
9,331
Assembly of Local Offi-
6,000
—
Tax on alcoholic li-
cials ....
quors
474,773
482,406
Ministry of For. Affairs
37,120
35,100
Tax on tobacco .
107,989
64,856
,. Interior .
529,744
320,420
Stamp duties
106,376
97.514 !
., Finance .
359,720
307,620
Post Office stamjjs
130,577
l.W.OOO
Wai- .
1,4.50,000
1,170,000
Other stamps
104,717
52,586 ]
„ Marine
709,940
643,500
Other taxes and duties
160,873
119,029
PubL Inst.
340,960
234,000
Mineral i)roduce .
242,565
204.936
Publ.Wors.
14,600
—
Railways
138,594
162,266
„ Pub.Works
980,000
585,000
Telegraphs .
32,772
41,604
„ Justice
284,100
249,600
Manufactories .
77,142
75,541
„ Imperial
Mint ....
154,160
154,160
Household
63,200
54,600
Sale of Government
Colonisation Departm.
381,132
291,420
property .
138,554
118,586
Land tax Reform Office
94,200
29,260
Rents from public
Post Office .
210,219
209,800
lands
27,943
34.345
Cities and Prefectures.
832,.500
764,644
Forests.
25,954
25,085
Prefect.of Police in Yedo
239,000
214,-500
Miscellaneous receipts
205,369
75,510
Pohce in cities and Pref .
1.50,000
185,849
Repayment of loans to
Shinto Shrines .
44,000
36,120
Government .
265,099
228,954
Repairs in cities and
Prefectures
327,800
393,300
!
Legations &i Consulates
109,660
100,000
1
Miscellaneous exjienses
111,810
75,344
j
Fund for Charitable
purposes .
100,000
100,000
1
Fund for contingent
Total revenue
1
expenses .
Total expenditure .
266,000
12,598,765
416,000
12,599,138
10,251,287
10,251,287
The public debt of Japan amounted, at the end of June 1878, to
363,225,677 yen, or 72,645,135/., of which 349,826,661 yen, or
69,965,332/. constituted the home debt, and 13,399,016 yen, or
2,679,803Z., the foreign debt. The home debt was made up as
follows : —
Home Debt
Yen
£
4 per cent. ....
5 „ ....
? :: : ; ; :
8 „ ....
10 „ ....
AVithout interest .
Total .
Paper money in circuliition .
Total home debt
11,450,950
46.174,165
27,056,195
109,454,155
16,204,725
8,563,275
2,290,190
9,234,833
5,411,239
21,890,831
3,240,945
1,712,655
218,903,465
9,868,465
228.771,9^0^^
121,054,731
43,780,693
1,973,693
45,754,386 "
24,210,946
349,826,661
69,965,332
JAPAN. 705
To this home debt there was added a loan of 12,500,000 yen, or
2,500,000/., issued in August 1878, for developing the resources of
the country.
The foreign debt of Japan was raised in England. It comprises
a 9 per cent, loan of 1,000Z. issued in 1876, and a, 7 per cent, loan
of 2,400,000/. contracted in London, at the price of 92^, in January
1875. This total of 3,400,000/. had been reduced, by"the action of
a sinking fund, to 2,679,803/. at the end of Jime 1878.
Army and Navy.
The armed force of Japan is composed, since 1869, of a single
element, the troops kept by the Mikado, who constitute the imperial
army. By a decree of the Mikado, dated December 28, 1872, the
liability to arms was made universal, but it was reported in 1878
that this order had not been carried out. At present the Im]ierial
array, under the command of the Mikado, is very small. Its exact
strength is not known, but it probably does not exceed 80,000 men,
comprising all arras. A number of Japanese officers and sub-officers
Avere in recent years instructed by French military men at Yokohama.
The navy of Japan consisted at the end of June 1878, of one iron-
clad frigate ; two ironclad corvettes ; two wooden corvettes ; three
schooners; one gunboat; one transport, and one yacht. The largest
of these ships, the ironclad frigate Foo-soo, was built by Messrs.
Samuda Brothers, at Poplar, near London, in 1876-77, and de-
spatched to Japan in March 1878. The Foo-soo has a burthen of
3,700 tons displacement, with engines of 3,500 horse-power. The
armour is from 7 inches to 9 inches in thickness, while the armament
consists of foiu: 15|^-ton and two 5i-ton steel breechloaders by
Ivrupp, so arranged as to command every point of the horizon.
The second largest ship of the navy is an ironclad corvette, called
the Kon-go, constructed in 1876-77 at Earle's shipbuilding yard,
Hull, after the design of Mr. Edw. J. Eeed, left England for Japan
in February 1878. The Kon-go has a burthen of 2,800 tons dis-
placement, with engines of 2,500 horse-power, and has a belt oi
armour 4-g- inches thick. The armament consists of 12 Krupp gims,
capable of throwing steel shells of 142 pounds. A sister ship to
the Kon-go, the Hi-jei, also built at Hull, left England for Japan
in April 1878. Besides the ships built in English dockyards, the
Japanese Government had an ironclad corvette, the Li-ki, constructed
at home in 1874-75. The Li-ki, built after the designs of M.
Chiboudier, a native of France, superintendent of the Arsenal of
Yokoska, is 191 feet in length, with a breadth of 22 feet, and carries
five guns on the upper deck.
The navy of Japan was manned in 1878 by 1,200 sailoi-s,
including 67 artillerymen, and 260 marines. Naval instruction is
z z
7o6
THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
given to the personnel of the Japanese navy by 8 commissioned and
twenty-three non- commissioned English officers, who arrived in the
country in 1873.
Population, Trade, and Industry.
The total area of Japan is estimated at 160,474 square miles,
with a population of 32,794,897, namely, 16,733,698 males, and
16,061,199 females, according to official reports of the year 1875.
According to a census taken in December 1878, the population of
Japan numbered 34,338,304 souls. Yedo, which at one time had
the reputation of being the most populous city in the world, con-
tained, at this enumeration, 1,036,771 inhabitants dwelling in
236,961 houses.
The empire is geographically divided into the three islands of Nip-
pon, the central and most important territory ; Kiushiu, ' the nine pro-
vinces,' the south-western island ; and Shikoku, ' the four states,' the
southern island. Administratively, there exists a division into seven
large districts, called ' Do,' or i-oads, which are subdivided into
thiity-five ' Ken,' or provinces.
The total value of the foreign trade of Japan is estimated at
8,000,000/. per annum, divided nearly equally between imports and
exports. The two staple ai"ticles of import into Japan are cotton
and woollen fabrics, and the staple articles of export, raw silk and tea.
The commercial intercourse of Japan is carried on mainly Avith
two countries, namely. Great Britain, and the United States of Ame-
rica, the former absorbing more than two-thirds of the whole.
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom is shown in the sub-
joined table, which gives the value of the total exports fi'om Japan
to Great Britain, and of the total imports of British produce and ma-
nufactures into Japan in each of the five years 1875 to 1879 : —
Years
Exports from .Tapan to
Great Britain
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Japan
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
377.791
657,145
734,399
628,805
450,945
A
2,400,227
2,032,685
2.203,153
2.615,616
2,638,002
The staple article of export from Japan to Great Britain in the
year 1879 was raw silk, of the value of 207,540Z. The other chief
exports were rice, of the value of 76,305/. ; tea, of the value of
I0,412Z. ; and tobacco, of the value of 21,003/., in 1879. The
staple article of British imports into Japan consists of cotton goods,
JAPAN. 707
the value of which was 1,707,444/., in 1879. Besides cotton manu-
factures, the British imports consisted chiefly of woollen fabrics, of
the value of 408,929Z., and of iron, wrought and unwrought, of
the value of 145,542Z., in the year 1879.
By treaties made with a number of foreign Governments —
mth the United States in March 1854 ; with G-reat Britain in
October 1854 ; with Russia and the Netherlands in 1855 ; with
France in 1859 ; with Portugal in 1860 ; with Prussia and the
Zollverein in 1861 ; with Switzerland in 1864: with Italy in 1866 ;
and with Denmark in 1867 — the Japanese ports of Kanagawa
(Yokohama,) Nagasaki, Hiogo- Osaka, Hakodate, and the city of
Yedo, renamed Tokio more recently — containing a population of
780,621, according to an enumeration taken in 1875 — were thrown
open to foreign commerce.
The first line of railway, from Hiogo to Osaka, 25 miles long, was
opened on the 12th of June 1875. At the end of Jime 1879 there
were open for traffic 76 miles of railway, 140 miles in course of
construction, and 455 additional miles sanctioned by the Government.
The ports of Hiogo-Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate, are con-
nected with each other, and with Eiu-ope, by lines of telegraphs.
The post office, first established in 1871, after European models,
carried 29,0 18,659 letters, 13, 5 11, 740 postcards,andl 1,3 12, 643 news-
papers in the fiscal year 1878-79. The charges for the letters are ^d. in
all the large towns, and Id. for the rest of the empire, while postcards
are sold at one-half these prices. The revenue of the post-office in
1878-79 amounted to 949,357 yen, or 189,871/., and the expendi-
ture to 826,379 yen, or 165,276/. There were 3,927 post offices in
Japan at the end of June 1879.
There Avere telegraphs of a length of 1,935 Engl, miles in Japan
at the end of 1879. The number of telegrams carried was 410,150
in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1879.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Japan in Grkat Britain.
Envoi/ and Minister. — Jiishii Mori Arinori, accredited Feb. 1880.
English Secretary. — E. Stuart Lane.
2. Of G-reat Britain in Japan.
Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul- General. — Sir Harry Smith
Parkes', K.C.B.. appointed March '28, I860.
Secretari'S - -John Gorden Kennedy ; George W. Buchanan.
Japanese Secretary. — Ernest M. Satow.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in common use at the three
open ports of Japan, and the British equivalents, are : —
z 2 2
708 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Money.
The Ichihu (silver), average rate of exchange . . Is. 4^^?.
,, Yen, OT Dollar „ . . 4s.
The gold yen, the unit of account, very shghtly differs, as to the
quantity of gold contained in it, from the quantity of gold con-
tained in the standard gold dollar of the United States.
The Chinese system of taking money only for its strict metal
value, and using it indiscriminately, either whole or in pieces,
exists also in Japan ; but, unlike the Chinese, the Japanese have
national coins. These coins were made out of the country rmtil
the latter part of 1870, when the Government purchased at Hong
Kong the conq)lete machinery of a mint, manufactured in England,
and set it up at Osaka, in a building constructed for the purpose.
The new coinage issued irom this mint consists of gold 10, 5, and 2^
dollar pieces, equal to Mexican dollars in shape, Aveight, and fineness;
of silver dollars, and 50, 20, and 5 cents ; besides copper 1 and ^
cents and 1 mil, the latter said to be the smallest modern coin.
They are made of iron, copper, silver and gold, and an alloy of gold
and silver, and are of different shapes— rectangular, square, circular,
and oval. There is also an extensive paper currency, consisting of
banknotes of one-quarter, one-half, and one Rio, but it is at a large
discount, generally averaging fi-om 25 to 30 per cent.
Weights and Measuees.
The Picul, or ton
„ Kin = 160 momme
„ Shaku = 10 sun .
„ Ri = ZGchu
„ Cho, land measure .
13.3 lbs. avoirdupois.
u,,
llj inches.
2\ miles.
2.T acres.
It is stated to be the intention of the Govei-nment to introduce
into Japan at an early period a new system of weights and measures,
based on the decimal system of France.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Japan,
1. Official Publications.
Eeport (eighth) of the Postmaster-General of Japan, for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1879. 8. Yokohama, 1880.
Eeports of Journeys in China and Japan performed by Mr. Alabaster, Mr.
Oxenham, Mr. Markham, and Dr. Willis, of H.M.'s Consular Service. Pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. A. H. Mounsey, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances and
Government of Japan, dated Yedo, March 5, 1877; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. II. 1877. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. A. H. Mounsey on the finances and public debt of Japan,
dated Yedo, January 31, 1878 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' Part IIL 1878. 8. London, 1878.
JAPAN. 709
Report by Mr. A. H. Mounsey on the public revenue and expenditure of
Japan, dated Yedo, October 14, 1878; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1879. 8. London, 1879.
Trade of Japan with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with foreign Coimtries and
British Possessions for the year 1878.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Adams (F. 0.), History of Japan, from the earliest period to the present
time. 2 vols. 8. London, 1875.
Alcock (Su- Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a narrative of a thi-ee
years' residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. Loudon, 1863.
Bousquet (George), Le Japon contemporaiu. Situation economique et finan-
ciere. In ' Revue des deux Moudes.' Vol.17. 8. Paris, 1876.
Cornwallis (Kinahan), Two Joiu-ueys to Japan, 1856-57. 8. Loudon, 1859.
Dickson (Walter), Japan, being a sketch of the history, government, and
officers of the Empire. 8. London, 1869.
Du Pin (M.), Le Japon: Mosurs, coutumes, rapports avec les Europeens.
8. Paris, 1868.
Eden (C. H.), Japan : Historical and Descriptive. 8. London, 1877.
Fisscher (J. F. Van Overmeer), Bijdrage tot de kennis van het japansche
rijk. 4. Amsterdam, 1833.
Fontpertuis (Ad. Frout de), La Chine et le Japon, et I'Exposition de 1878
8. Paris, 1878.
Fraissinet (Ed.), Le Japon, histoire et description, mceurs, coutumes et
religion. Nouvelle edition, augmentee de trois chapitres nouveaux, rapports et
traites avec les Europeens. 2 vols. 12. Paris, 1866.
Grijjis (Wm. Elliot), The Mikado's Empire. 8. New York, 1876.
Hdliimld (Friedrich von), Das Moderue Japan. In ' Unsere Zeit.' 8.
Leipzig, 1876.
Reine (W.), Japan : Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Landes und seiner Bewohner
Fol. Leipzig, 1873.
Jephson (R. M.) and Ebnkirst (E. P.), Oiu- Life in Japan. 8. London, 1869.
Humbert (Aime), Le Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.
Leupe (P. A.), Reise van Maarten Gren-itz-Uries in 1643 naar het Noorden en
Oosten vau Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.
Mossman (Samuel), New Japan, the land of the rising sun. 8. London, 1875.
Osborn (Capt. S.), A Cruise in Japanese Waters. 8. London, 1859. '
Po/iipe dc Meerdervoort (J. L. C), Vijf Jaren in Japan, 1857-^3. Bij-
dragen tot de kennis van het japansche keizerrijk en ziine BevoUdng 2 volt
8. Leyden, 1867.
Siehold (Ph. Franz von), Nippon : Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan 8
Leyden, 1834-7.
Siebold (Pr. Franz von), Urkuudliehe Darstellung der Bestrebungen Nieder-
lands und Russlands zur ErofFnung Japans. 8. Leyden, 1854.
Spiess (Gust.), Die preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wahrend der Jahi'ft
1860-62. Reise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der Indischen Inselwelt
8. Berlin, 1865.
Taylor (B.), Japan in our day. 8. New York, 1871.
Titsingh (Isaac), Nipon o Dai Itsi Ran, ou Annales des empereurs du Japon.
Ouvr. coiT. sur I'original japonais-chinois par M.J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834,
WuUerstorf-Urbair (Bmvon W/O, Reise der Oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara
urn dieErde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Beschreibender Tlieil von Dr.
Karl V. Scherzer. 2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.
•jio
JAVA.
(Nederlandsch Oost-Indie.)
Constitution and Government.
Java, the most important of tlie colonial possessions of the Nether-
lands, is administered, politically and socially, on a system established
by General Johannes Van den Bosch, in 1832, and known as the
' culture system.' It is based in principle on the officially superin-
tended labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a
sufficiency of food for themselves, but the largest quantity of colonial
produce best suited for the European market. To carry out the
' culture system,' there exists a complicate machinery of govern-
ment, the fiuictions of which descend into the minutest details of
administration.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura
— is divided into twenty-three provinces, or residencies, each
governed by a Resident, who has under him several Assistant-
Residents and a number of inspectors, called Controleurs. All
these fimctionaries must be citizens of the Netherlands, and must
have gone through an examination previous to their appointment
by the Government. The Resident and his assistants exercise ab-
solute control over the province in their charge; not, however,
directly, but by means of a vast hierarchy of native officials.
There is a regular and unceasing personal intercour.se between the
native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the immediate agents
of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries or per-
centages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives, and
of the quantities of coffee delivered by them into the Government
stores. Formerly, the ' culture system ' comprised the forced labour
oi" the natives, employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo,
pepper, tea, tobacco, and several other articles. At present, the
labour of the natives is only required for the produce of coffee and
sugar. By the terms of a bill which passed the legislature of the
Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of the sugar cane will
be totally abolished in 1890. — (Official Communication.)
The superior administration of Java, and executive, is in the
hands of a Governor-General, who is at the same time Governor of
all the Netherland possessions in the East Indies. He is assisted by
a Council of five members, who, however, have no share in the
executive, and can act only as a Coixrt of Advice.
Governor- General. — Johan Will em Van Lansherge^ formerly Envoy
of the Netherlands to Belgium ; assumed office as Governor- General
March 26, 1875.
The Governor-General represents not only the executive power
JAVA.
711
of government, but he has the right of passing laws and regulations
for the administration of the colony, so far as the authority is not
reserved to the legislature of the mother-coimtry. But he is bound
to adhere to the constitutional principles on whieh Java and its de-
pendencies are governed, and which are laid down in the ' Kegula-
tions for the Government of Netherlands' India,' passed by the King
and States-General of the mother-coimtry in 1854.
Revenue and Expenditure.
Java produces, for the benefit of the Nethei-lands, a large surplus
revenue, after paying for its own government. The local revenue
is derived from taxes on houses and estates, fi-om licences, customs
diities, personal imports, the income of crown lands, the Government
monopolies of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But
the chief portion of the large profits derived fi-om Java is indirect,
being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of colonial produce,
grown under the ' culture system,' and sold in India and Europe.
The subjoined tabular statement gives the total revenue and
expenditure of the colony, with the annual surplus, during each of
the ten years from 18G9 to 1878, the first eight actual, and the
last two budojet estimates : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1869
107,487,338
93,269,033
14,218,305
1870
115,508,064
97,451,247
18,056,817
1871
127,868,047
98,623,086
29,244,961
1872
130,177,159
109,228,368
20,948,791
1873
139,315,833
125,703,676
13,612,157
1874
139,106,612
118,754,060
20,352,552
i 1875
127,183,275
117,071,590
10.111,685
1876
140,958,294
130,107,839
10,850,455
1877
146,666,146
136,691,274
9,974,872
1878
138,962,364
138,883,324
79,040
The sources of revenue were stated as follows in the budget for
the year 1878: —
Receipts in the Netherlands from sales of Government coffee and
other produce .........
Eeceipts in India from sales of opium (16,417,140 guilders), im-
port, export, and excise duties ; trade licenses, stamps, rent of
public lauds (16,300,000 guilders); sales of coffee in Java, &c.
(6,105,000 guilders) ; and from all other sources of revenue .
Total revenue .... 138,967,364
About one-third of the annual expenditure is for the army and
navy, and another third for the general administration, both in Java
and in the Netherlands.
Guilders
50,868,846
88,098,518
712 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Army and Navy.
The peculiar system of government of Java necessitates a com-
paratively large army, numbering, on the average, about 30,000
rank and file, commanded by 1,200 commissioned officers. In 1880,
the strength of the army was 32,106, comprising 1 1,730 Europeans
and 20,376 natives. The European troops consist of natives of
various countries, recruited by voluntary enlistment. No portion
of the regular army of the Netherlands is allowed to be sent on
colonial service ; but individual soldiers are at liberty to enlist, by the
permission of their commanding officers, and they form the nucleus
of the garrison of Java. The native and European soldiers are not
divided into separate corps, but generally mixed together in the
same battalions. The artillery is composed of European gunners,
with native riders, while the cavalry are at present Eiiropeans.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in
Java, is divided into field and garrison battalions. In the former
there is a greater proportion of Europeans than in the latter. Each
company is composed separately either of Europeans or of natives,
but the European and native companies are mixed in the same
battalion, in the proportion of one-third to two-thirds. Each bat-
talion is composed of six companies, the two flank companies con-
sisting- of European soldiers, and the forir centre companies of natives.
The companies often contain ' half-castes,' negroes, and Christianised
natives of India, all on a footing of perfect equality with the
Europeans. The native companies are composed of the different
Mahometan and heathen tribes of Netherlands' India, mixed together
so as not to allow of any great preponderance of race or religion.
The whole of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the
exception of a few natives of high rank — to the number of seven
in July 1878 — and in each of the companies composed of natives
at least one-half of the non-commissioned officers must also be
Europeans. A great mmiber of the soldiers, both Europeans and
natives, are married, and are allowed to be always accompanied by
their families, except Avhen on active service in the field. Every
man-ied man, when not actually quartered in a town, has a small
plot of land which he may cultivate, and on which his family may
live. Schools, both lor adults and children, are attached to every
battalion.
Unlike the Java army, which is purely colonial, the fleet of war
in Netherlands' India forms a part of the royal navy, and its expenses
are borne partly by the mother-country and partly by the colony.
The fleet consisted, in the summer of 1880, of one screw frigate,
two corvettes, and twenty-six smaller steamers, manned by 3,161
Europeans, and 2,304 natives. — (Official Communication.)
JAVA.
713
Area and Population.
The area of Java, including Madura, embraces 51,336 English
square miles, with a population of 19,067,829 at the end of 1878,
or 366 per square mile. The population more than quadrupled
since the year 1816, when the British Government, after a tempo-
rary occupation extending over five years, restored the colony to
the Netherlands. The following table gives the numbers of the
population at various periods, and annually, on the 3 1st of Decem-
ber, from 1816 to 1878, according to official returns : —
Arabs and
Years
Dec. .31
Europeans
Chinese
other foreign
Orientals
Natives
Total
1816
_
_
4,615,270
1826
—
—
—
. —
5,403,786
1836
—
—
—
—
7,861,551
1849
16,409
119,481
27,687
9,420,553
9,584,130
1853
17,417
130,940
27,554
10,114,134
10,290,045
1861
20,523
139,960
24,451
12,834,174
13,019,108
1871
27,585
174,540
16,943
16,233,100
16,452,168
1873
27,009
190,603
22.958
17.545.550
17,786,120
1874
27,571
191,821
23,481
17,882,396
18,125,269
1875
28,229
195,384
22,866
18,088,212
18,334,691
1876
28,121
193,594
13,206
18,285,487
18,520,408
1877
28,672
198,233
13,340
18,559,553
18,799,798
1878
29,998
200,303
12.954
18,824,574
19,067.829
Slavery was abolished in Java by a law of the States-General
of the Netherlands, passed in 1856, which took effect on January 1,
1860. There were at this date 5,265 slaves in the colony, for
each of whom, without regard to age or sex, the owner received
400 florins, or about 33/., in compensation.
The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government
property, and it is only in the re-sidencies in the north-western part
of Java that there are private estates, chiefly owned by natives of
the Netherlands. The bulk of the people are agricultural labourers.
The landlords, whether under Government or private landowners,
enforce one day's gratuitous work out of seven from all the labourers
on their estates ; they Avere formerly also entitled to as much work
as they chose to claim, on the sole condition of paying each man
the wages of the district, but this was abolished in 1872. Great
power is vested in the Eesident and his European and native officials
to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.
714
THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
The whole population of Java is legally divided into Enropeans
and persons assimilated with them, and natives and persons assimi-
lated with them. The former are generally under the laws of the
mother-country, while in the jurisdiction of the latter their own
customs and institutions are considered. The division of the whole
population into two classes is a fmidamental principle in the policy
of the administration, and enacted in the code specifying the limits
and conditions for future legislation in Netherlands' India. It is there-
by withdrawn from the competence of the Governor-General and all
other local legislative powers, and entirely preserved from alteration,
except by the paramount legislative authority of the King and States-
General of the Netherlands. — (Official Communication.)
Trade and Commerce.
The greater part of the trade of Java is with the Netherlands, and
the commercial intercourse with other countries is comparatively
small. On the average of the three years 1875 to 1877, the total
imports amounted in value to 84,120,000 guilders, or 7,010,000Z.,
and the total exports to 120,240,000 guilders, or 10,020,000Z.
About two-thirds of the imports came from the Netherlands, and not
far from three-fourths of the exports were shipped to the mother
country. The principal foreign countries trading with Java are
Great Britain, France, the United States, and Germany.
The principal articles of export from Java are sugar, coffee, rice, in-
digo, and tobacco. With the exception of rice, about one-half of
which is shipped for Borneo and China, nearly four-fifths of these
exports go to the Netherlands.
The subjoined table shows the vakie of the trade of Java with
the United Kingdom in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879: —
Exports from Java to
Imports of British Home
Years
Great Britain
Produce into Java
£
&
1870
259,846
897,505
1871
470,264
826,476
1872
733,281
743,428
1873
436,163
727,365
187'4
1,311,939
1,208,734
1875
1,442,607
1,577,980
1876
1,421,745
1,562.883
1877
1,955,586
1,907,056
1878
1,850,643
1,455,934
1879
1,784,140
1,553,431
JAVA, 715;
The chief and almost sole article of export fi-om Java to the
United Kingdom is sugar in an iinretined state. In the year 1873
the exports of sugar were of the value of 425,271/.; in 1874 of
1,209,610/.; in 187,5 of 1,425,918/. ; in 1876 of 1,400,981/. ; in
1877 of^ 1,923,796/.; in 1878 of 1,850,643/.; and in 1879 of
1,766,285/. The staple article of British home j^roduce imported
into Java is manufactured cotton, including cotton yarns, of the value
of 1,120,826/., in the year 1879.
The whole of the exports from Java to the Netherlands, on account
of the Government, are carried by the ' Nederlandsche Handel Maats-
chappij .' This trading society was established at Amsterdam in 1824,
with a capital of 37,000,000 guilders, or upwards of three millions
sterling, but which was subsequently reduced to 24,000,000 guilders,
or 2,000,000/. The King of the Netherlands, Willem I., was one
of the principal shareholders, and to create confidence in the com-
pany, he promised a guarantee of 4^ per cent, per annum to his asso-
ciates. His Majesty had to pay this interest from his own purse up
to the year 1832, when the introduction of the ' culture system '
in Java laid the foundation for the prosperity of the company, which
has since been iminterrupted. The capital to start and work the
' culture system ' Avas advanced by the ' Nederlandsche Handel
Maatschappij,' on an interest of 4^ per cent, guaranteed by the State ;
and the company, at the same time, was appointed sole agent for
buying and importing into Java all Government supplies, and for ex-
porting the produce of the colony and selling it in Eiu-ope. — (Official
Communication. )
The railways of Java consist of two lines, constructed under Go-
vernment concessions, by the ' Netherlands' Indian Railway Com-
pany,' formed in 1863. At the end of 1879, the total length of
railways opened for ti-affic was 263 kilometres, or 163 Engl, miles,
the total comprising a main line, 203 kilometres long, fi-om the port
of Samarang, on the northern coast of the Island, to Djokdjokarta,
and a local railway, 58 kilometres in length, connecting Batavia,
the capital, with Buitenzorg, the coimtry seat of the Governor-
General.
A railway connecting Sourabaya with Passoeroean and the Malang
coffee district was in course of completion at the end of 1879. A
bill for the construction of a network of railways in Java, at the cost
of the government, was adopted in the session of 1875 by the
States- General of the Netherlands, and the immediate execution of
them was ordered by royal decree of July 4, 1878. These state
railways (staatsspoorwegen) were designed partly for military pur-
poses, and their management was vested in a .special staff, under
the Governor-General.
7l6 THE statesman's year-book, 1881.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Java, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Guilder, or Florm = 100 Centen = Is. M.
Weights and Measures.
The Amsterdam Pond . = 1"09 lbs. avoirdupois,
,, Pccid . . . = 133 lbs.
., Catty . . . = 1^ „
„ Chang . . . = 4 yards.
The only legal coins, as well as weights and measures, of Java
are those of the Netherlands.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Java.
1. Official Publications.
Koloniaal Verslag van 1880. 8. s'Gravenhage, 1880.
Jaarboek van het mijnwezen in Noderlandsch Oost-Indie. Uitgegeven op
last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien. 1880. 8. Amsterdam, 1880.
Jaarboek van Naamregister van Nederlandsch-Indie voor 1879. Batavia,
1879.
Regerings-Almanak voor Nederlandseh-Indie. 1880. 8. Batavia, 1880.
Statistiek van den Handel, de Seheepvaart en de inkoniende en uitgaande
Regten op Java en Madura. 8. Batavia, 1879.
Verslag van den staat van het sehoolwezen in Nederlandsch-Indie. 8.
Batavia, 1879.
Verslag over het jaar 1878, zamengesteld door de Kamer van koophandel
en nijverheid te Batavia. 8. Batavia, 1879.
Report by Mr. Ward, British Secretary of Legation, on the progress of the
Netherlands' East India possessions since 1857, dated January 17, 1863; in
' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. VI. London,
1863.
Report by JVIr. T. J. Hovel Thm-low, British Secretary of Legation, ' on Java
and its Dependencies,' dated the Hague, July 1, 1868 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. V. and VI. 1868. London,
1869.
Report by H. P. Fenton, British Secretary of Legation, on the railways of
Netherland's India, dated The Hague, January 1875 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Report by Mr. Consul M'Lean on the trade, commerce, shipping, and popu-
lation of Java, for the year 1873 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I.
1875. 8. London, 1875.
JAVA. 717
Eeport hj Mr. Consul Fraser on the commerce and industry of Java, dated
Batavia, December 25, 1875 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part VI.
1876. 8. London, 1876.
Eeport by Mr. Consul Fraser on the imports and exports of Java, dated
Batavia, September 20, 1876 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Parti. 1877.
8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Consul Fraser on the trade, commerce, and general condition
of Java, dated Batavia, July 11, 1877; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part I. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Java with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom for the year 1879-' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
5ic^»2ore (H. S.) Travels in the East Indian Archipelago. 8. London, 1868.
BleeJcer (P.), Nieuwe bijdragen tot de kennis der bevolkingstatistiek van Java.
Uitgegeven door het koninklijk instituut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indie. 8. s' Gravenhage, 1880.
Be Jonge (Jhr. M. J. K. J.), De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch gezag over
Java. II.— VII. The Hague, 1869-75.
Beventer (JSz., S. van), Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op
Java, op last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D. Fransen van de
Putte, bijeenverzameld. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1865.
Goeverneur (J. J. A.), Nederlandsch Indie of de bewoners dezer streken, ge-
schetst in tafereelen uit hun dagelijks leven, zeden en gebruiken. 8. Leiden,
1870.
Hellwald (Fr. Von), Das Colonialsystem der Niederlander in Ostindien. 8.
Leipzig, 1873.
Money (J. W. B.), Java, or. How to Manage a Colony ; showing a practical
solution of the questions now affecting British India. 2 vols. 8. London,
1861.
il/ij^fer (Joh.), Beschreibung der Insel Java. 8. BerKu, 1860.
i?«i!^e ( J. M. C. E. le), Moko-Moko. Eene bijdrage tot de land en volken-
kunde van Neerlandseh Indie. 8. s' Gravenhage, 1870.
Vliet (L. van Woudrichem van), Over Grondeigendom en heeredienstpligtigheid
op Java. 8. Amsterdam, 1864.
Wallace (Alfred Russel), The Malay Archipelago. 8. Loudon, 18C9.
Wenzelburger (Theodor), Niederliindisch-Ostindien. In ' Unsere Zeit." Vol.
IX. 8. Leipzig, 1873.
Wullings (H. E.), Neerlandsch Indie, met een kort overzicht onzer be-
zittingen in andere werelddeelen. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1870.
7i8
PERSIA.
(Arjana. — EranO
Reigning Shah.
Nassr-ed-Din, born Sept. 4, 1829, eldest son of Shah Mohammed;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, Sept. 10, 1848.
Sons of the Shah.
I. Muzaffer-ed-lL)m, heir-apparent, bom in 1850.
II. 2);VZaZ-ed-Dauleh, born in 1853.
The Shah of Persia — by his official title, 'Shah-in-shah,' or king of
kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of the
lives and goods of all his subjects.
The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent
sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private fortune.
That of the present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to
four millions sterling, one-half represented by diamonds — the largest
the Derya-i-Noor, of 178 carats — and other precious stones, forming
the crown jewels.
The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty of
the Kadjars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war
extending over fifteen years, irom 1779 to 1794. The date of
accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty
was as follows : —
Aga-Mohammed . . 1794 I Mohammed . . . 1835
Feth-Ali . . . 1797 | Nassr-ed-Din . . . 1848
It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to over-
rule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown, with
disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their family.
Government, Religion, and Education.
The form of government of Persia is in its most important features
similar to that of Txirkey. All the laws are based on the precepts
of the Koran, and though the jDower of the Shah is absolute, it is
only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the
Mahometan religion, as laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet,
his oial commentaries and sayings, and the interpretation of the
same by his successors and the high priesthood. The Shah is
regarded as vicegerent of the Prophet, and it is as such that he
claims implicit obedience. Under him, the executive government
PEKSIA.
719
is carried on by a ministry, formerly consisting of but two high
functionaries, the Vizier-i-Azem, or gi-and vizier, and the Ameen-ed-
Doulah, or lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into seven
departments, after the European fashion. However, the grand vizier
and the lord treasurer are still the most important members of the
executive, the vizier directing the foreign poHcy of the government,
and acting as commander-in-chief of the army.
The country is divided for administrative and other purposes into
tAventy provinces, each under the rule of a Beglerbeg, or civil and
military governor, usually a member of the royal family. The pro-
vinces again are subdivided into districts, superintended by a Hakim,
or governor-lieutenant, whose chief duty is the collection of the revenue.
There is a certain amount of self-government in towns and villages,
the citizens of the former electing, at fixed times, a Ketldiodah, or
magistrate, and of the latter a Muhuleh, who administer justice.
The vast majority of the inhabitants of Persia are Mahometans, the
total number of dissenters not amounting to more than about 74,000.
The latter consist of Armenians, Nestorians, Jews, and Guebres, or
Parsees. The Armenian population is estimated at 4,660 families,
or 26,035 souls; the Nestorians at 4,100 families, or 25,000 souls;
the Jews at 16,000 souls; and the Guebres at 7,190 souls.
The Mahometans of Persia are of the sect called Shiites or Sheahs,
diifei'ing to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical
belief, from the inhabitants of the Turkish empire, who are called
Sunnites. The Persian priesthood consist of many orders, the chief
of them at the present time being that of Mooshtehed, of whom
there are but five in number in the whole country. Vacancies in
this post are filled nominally by the members of the order, but in
reality by the public voice, and the Shah himself is excluded from
all power of appointment. Next in rank to the Mooshtehed is the
Sheik-ul-Islam, or ruler of the faith, of whom there is one in every
large town, nominated by, and receiving his salary from, the go-
vernment. Under these dignitaries there are three classes of
ministers of religion, the Mooturelle, one for each mosque or i^lace
of pilgrimage ; the Muezzin, or sayer of prayers, and the MoUah, or
conductor of rites. The Armenians are under two bishops, one of
them Roman Catholic, and both residing at Ispahan. There is wide
tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, but the Jews
and Guebres suffer under great oppression.
Education is in a comparatively advanced state, at least as far
as the iipjoer classes are concerned. There are a great number of
colleges, supported by public funds, in which students are instructed
in religion and Persian and Arabian literature, as well as in a certain
amount of scientific knowledge, while private tutors are very com-
mon, being employed by all families who have the means. A larger
720 THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
portion of the population of Persia are possessed of the rudiments
of education than of any other country in Asia, except China.
Revenue and Army.
The revenue and expenditure of the Government are known only
from estimates, as no budgets or other official accounts have ever
been published. According to the most recent estimates, based on
consular reports, the total receipts of the Government amounted, on
the average of the years 1872 to 1875, to 1,900,000^. per annum, while
the expenditure during the same period was at the rate of 1,756,000/.
per annum. The receipts of the year 1875 amounted to 4,361,660
tomans, or 2,026,354/. in money, besides payments in kind, con-
sisting of barley, wheat, rice, and silk, valued at 550,840 tomans, or
255,911/., making the total revenue equal to 4,912,500 tomans, or
2,282,265/. The bulk of the public expenditure is for the main-
tenance of troops, and salaries, with pensions, to the Persian priest-
hood, while each annual surplus is paid into the Shah's treasury.
About one-fourth of the receipts are constituted by payments
in kind, mostly reserved for the use of the army and the Shah's own
household. The Avhole revenue is raised by assessments upon
towns, villages, and districts, each of which has to contribute a fixed
sum, the amount of which is changed from time to time by tax-
assessors appointed by the Government. Almost the entire bvirthen
of taxation lies upon the labouring classes, and, among these,
upon the Mahometan subjects of the Shah. The amount of revenue
collected from the Christian population, the Jews, and the Guebres,
is reported to be very small. The Government has no public debt.
The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of
War, numbers 10.5,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery,
70,000 the infantry, and 30,500 the cavalry, regular and irregular.
Of the total of these troops, however, only one-third are employed
on active service, the standing army of Persia consisting, on the
peace footing, of : —
Artillery, o Ijatteries 1,000
Infantry, 70 battalions 18,000
Irregular cavalry ........ 10,000
Regular cavalry ........ 500
Total 30,000
The remainder of the 105,500 troops enumerated in the Govern-
ment returns form the reserve. The soldiers composing it are
allowed to reside in their own villages and districte, where they may
engage in agricultural and other pursuits, subject to no drill or
military discipline, the infantry and artillery being usually disarmed
when placed on this footing. They, as well as the irregular cavalry.
PERSIA. 721
are liable, however, to be called out at any moment, on the requi-
sition of the Minister for War. By a decree of the Shah, issued in
July 1875, it was ordered that the army should for the future be
raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies, and that a
term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old
system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life.
The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts.
A province fiu-nishes several regiments ; a tribe gives one, and
sometimes two, and a district contributes one battalion to the army.
The comiuanding officers are almost invariably selected from the
•chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised.
The Christians, Jews, and Guebres in Persia are exempt from all
military service.
Area, Population, and Trade.
The area and population of Persia are known only by estimates.
According to the latest and most trustworthy of these, the countiy
— extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and for 900
miles from east to west — contains an area of 648,000 square miles.
A vast portion of this area is, however, an absolute desert, and the
population is everywhere so scanty as not to exceed, on the average,
seven inhabitants to the square mile. According to a carefully-
made estimate, furnished by the British Secretary of Legation, in May
1868, the population of Persia at that period numbered : —
Inhabitants of cities 1,000,000
Population belonging to wandering tribes . . 1,700,000
Inhabitants of villages and country districts . . 1,700,000
Total popidation . . . 4,400,000
The largest cities of Persia are — Tauris, or Tabreez, with 120,000 ;
Tehran, with 85,000 ; Meshed, with 70,000 ; Ispahan, with 60,000 ;
and Yezd, with -10,000 inhabitants. The one million of inhabitants
of towns constitute the pure Persian race, and more than half of the
remaining population belongs to the Turkish, Lek, Koordish, and
Arab tribes, which are spread over the whole of the territo^)^
The whole external trade of Persia may be roughly valued at
4,000,000/. sterling annually, of which 2,500,000/. may be taken as
the value of the imports, and 1 ,500,000/. as that of the exports. A
diminution in the latter to the extent of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling
has taken place within the last three years, owing to the failure of
the most important industry of the country, the silk production.
The greater part of the commerce of Persia centres at Tabreez,
which is the chief emporium for the productions of Northern India,
Samarcand, Bokhara, Cabul, and Beloochistan. There are no
3 A
722
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
official returns of the value of the total imports and exports, the
former of which are estimated to have averaged 1,000,000/., and
the latter 500,000/. per annum in the years 1875 to 1878. The
principal article of import into Tabreez during the five years
consisted of cotton goods of British manufacture, of the average
annual value of 800,000/. ; while the chief article of export was
silk, shipped for France and Great Britain, of the average annual
value of 110,000/. All the European merchandise that reaches
Tabreez passes by Constantinople to Trebizonde, whence it is for-
warded by caravans.
The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom is very
small. In each of the five years 1875 to 1879 the value of the
exports of Persia to Great Britain and of the imports of British
produce and manufactures into Persia was as follows : —
Years
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
Exports from Persia
to Great Britain
Imports of British home
produce into Persia
£
44,331
63,384
148,294
173.358
71,921
£
45,723
71,067
158,220
149,191
163,063
The direct exports from Persia to Great Britain in 1879 consisted
mainly of opium, valued at 19,977/. Cotton goods, of the value of
131,945/., were the staple article of British imports in 1879.
Persia has a system of telegraphs, established by Europeans. At
the end of July 1878 there were 2,490 miles of telegraph lines,
and 4,782 miles of telegraph wire in operation. The number of
telegraph offices was 56 at the same date. The number of despatches
forwarded in the year 1877 was 605,000, the revenue of the year
from telegraphs amounting to 13,000/. An extension of the telegraph
lines, connecting the chief towns with each other, was in course ot
construction in the years 1879 and 1880.
The first regular postal service, also established by Europeans,
was opened in January 1877. Under it, mails are conveyed from
Julfa, on the Russian frontier, to Tabreez and Tehran, and from
tlience to the port of Resht, on the Caspian Sea.
liplomatic Eepresentatives.
1. Of Persia in Great Brit.un.
Envoi/ and Minister. — Priuce Nazom Malcom Khan, accredited April 1, 1873
Secretaries. — Mirza Mikael Khan ; Mirzii Mohaiced Aly ; Mirza Aly.
PERSIA. 723
2. Of Great Britain in Persia.
Envoy, Minister, and Consul- General. — Ronald Ferguson Thomson; ap-
pointed Envoy, Minister, and Consul-General, June 27, 1879.
Secretaries. — W. H. D. Haggard ; "Walter Baring ; A. Larcom.
Oriental Secretary. — \V. J. Dickson.
Money, "Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Persia, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Reran = 1,000 Dinars, or 20 Shahis = U\d.
„ Toman = 10 Kcrans . . = 9s. SJc/.
In the year 1872 the first Persian mint was established at Sal-
tanet Abed, near Teheran. The mint issues gold pieces of 2 tomans,
1 toman, and ^-toman, and silver pieces of one and two kerans.
Weights and Measures.
The Batman = 40 Sik>-s, or 640 Miscals . = 13^ 11 )s. avoirdupois.
„ CoUofhun = S^ C'pichas, OT 6^ Chenicas— 1 '809 Imper-al gallon.
,, Artata = 8 CoUofhun . . . = 1'809 Imperial bushel.
,, Zer = 16 Gcnhs . . . . = 38 inches.
„ Fersakh, or Parasang . . . . = 4^ miles.
Besides the weights and measures here enumerated there exist
a great variety of local standards. In foreign commerce, Russian
weights and measures are largely used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia.
1. Official Publications.
Eeport, by Mr. Ronald F. Thomson, British Secretary of Legation, on the
population, revenue, military force, and trade of Persia, dated Tehran,
April 20, 1868; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.
8. No. IV. 1868.
Report by Mr. W. J. Dickson on the Trade of Persia, dated Tehran, February
21, 1871; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No.
II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.
Reports by Mr. Abbott, British Consul at Eesht, and Consul-General at
Tabreez, dated March 31, 1865, and April 30, 1866, on the imports and
exports of Persia ; in ' Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office,
1865-66.' 8. London, 1866.
Report by Mr. Consul-General .Jones on the trade and com;nercp of Tabreez
and the industries of Persia, dated Tabreez, March 31, 1874 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Eastern Persia : an Account of the .Tourneys of the Persian Boundary Com-
mission, 1870-72. 2 vols. 8. 1876.
Reports by Lieut.-Col. Ross and Major S. B Miles, Political Agents, and of
3 A 2
724 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Mr. Consul Churchill, on the Trade and Industry of Persia, dated 1875 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.
Report by Mr. Consul Churchill on the trade and commerce of the Pro-
vince of Ghilan, dated Resht, December 31, 1878 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part II. 1870. 8. London, 187S.
Report by Mr. Consul Churchill on the trade and commerce of Ghilan,
Mazenderan, and Asterabad, dated Resht, .January 10, 1877; in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consiils.' Part III. 1877. 8. London, 1877.
Report by Mr. Consul Churchill on the trade, population, and industry of
the province of Ghilan, dated Resht, December 31, 1877; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1878. 8. London, 1878.
Trade of Persia with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Andersen (T. S.), My Wanderings in Persia. 8. London, 1880.
Blaraniherg (General), Statistical Survey of Persia, made in the years
1837-40. (in Russian.) 8. St. Petersburg, 1853.
Bimi (Dr. Otto), Commerzielle Zustiinde Persiens. 8. Berlin, 1858.
Bruqsch (Dr. Heinr.). Reise der k. preussischen Gesandtschaft naeh Persien,
1860 lind 1861. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864.
Eastwick (E. B.), Journal of a Diploraate's Three Years' Residence in
Persia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Kinneir (J. M.), Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire. 4. London,
1813.
MarJcham (Clements R.), A General Sketch of the History of Persia. 8.
London, 1874.
Marsh (Capt. Hippisley Cunliflfe), A Ride through Islam : being a Journey
through Persia and Afghanistan to India. 8. London, 1877.
Molon (Ch. df), De la Perse: Etudes sur la Geographic, le Commerce, la
Politique, I'lmlustrie, I'Administration, &c. 8. Versailles, 1875.
MoH7isey (Augustus), A Journey through the Caucasus and the Interior ot
Persia. 8. London, 1872.
Pj<7(70< (John), Persia : Ancient and Modern. 8. London, 1875.
Polnk (Dr. Jak. Ed.), Persien. Das Land und seine Bewohner. Ethno-
graphische Schilderungen. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Sheil (Lady), Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. 8. London, 1856.
Spiegel (Friedrich), Eran : das Land zwischen Indus und Tigris. 8. Berlin,
1863.
Thielmann (Baron), Travels in the Caucasus, Persia, and Turkey in Asia.
2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
TAo»?,w/t (J.) La Perse: sa population, ses revenus. son armee, son com-
merce. Avec notes par N. de Khanikof. In ' Bulletin de la Soci6t^ de
geographie.' Juillet, 1869. 8. Paris, 1869.
Ussher (John), Journey from London to Persepolis, including Wanderings
in Daghestan, Georgia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and Persia. 8.
Ixindon, 1866.
Watson (Robert Grant), A History of Persia, from the beginning of the
nineteenth century to the year 1858. 8. London, 1873.
725
SIAM.
(Satam, or Thai.)
Reigning King.
Chulalon Korn I. (Somdech Phra Paramindr Maha), born 21st
September, 1853 ; the eldest son of the late King Maha Mongkeet
and of Queen Kambhey Bhomarabhiromya ; succeeded to the throne
on the death of his father, October 1, 186S.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Somdech Chowfa Maha Vajirunhish, heir apparent, born
June 23, 1878.
II. Princess Sri Vilailaxna, born July 1868.
III. Princess Sudha Dibaratna, bom 1877.
IV. Princess Karnabhorn Bejraratna, born 1878.
V. Princess Bahurat Nanimaig, born 1879.
Brothers of the King.
I. Somdech Chowfa Chaturant Rasmi, born January 14, 1857.
II. Somdech Chowfa Bhaunrangsi Swangwongse, born January
13, 1860.
III. Krom Mun Naresa, born May 8, 1855.
IV. Krom Mun Bijit, born October 29, 1855.
V. Krom Mun Atisara, born March 15, 1856.
VI. Krom Mun Bhudhares, born March 16, 1856.
VII. Devan Udayawongse, born November 30, 1858.
The royal dignity is nominally hereditary, but does not descend
always from the father to the eldest son, each sovereign being in-
vested with the privilege of appointing his own successor.
Revenue and Army.
The public revenue is estimated at about 3,145,000Z. sterling a
year ; of w^hich sum, the poll-tax and fines for non-service in the
army produce 2,500,000/. ; the land-tax, 287,000/. ; tax on fruit
trees, &c., 65,000/. ; on pepper, 50,000/. ; on spirits and gambling,
about 57,000/. each ; and the customs, 33,000/. The tax collectors
receive no salary, being remunerated by a tithe of the revenue
realised. The expenditure is stated to keep within the receipts.
There is no standing army, but a general armament of the people,
in the form of a militia. Every male inhabitant, from the age
of 21 upwards, is obliged to serve the State for four months
a, year. The following individuals are, however, exempted : — Mem-
bers of the priesthood, the Chinese settlers, who pay a commu-
726 THE statesman's YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
tation tax, slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable
to service, and those who purchase exemption by a fine of from six
to eight ticals a month, or by furnishing a slave or some other
person not subject to the conscrijJtion, as a substitute. It is stated
that the Government possesses upwards of 80,000 stand of arms,
besides a considerable stock of cannon.
The fleet of war consists of two steam corvettes and twelve gun-
boats, officered by Europeans, chiefly Englishmen. The organisa-
tion of the navy is modelled on that of Great Britain.
Population and Trade.
The limits of the kingdom of Siam have varied much at different
periods of its history ; and even now, with the exception of the
Western frontier, the lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced,
most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less inde-
pendent. As nearly as can be calculated, the country extends, at
present, from the 4th to the 20th degree of north latitude, and from
the 96th to the 102nd degree of east longitiide, being a total area of
about 250,000 square miles. The numbers of the population are
still more imperfectly known than the extent of territory, and the
difficulty of any correct result is the greater on account of the
Oriental cvistom of numbering only the men. The last native
registers state the male population of the kingdom as follows, in
round numbers: — 2,000,000 Siamese; 1,500,000 Chinese; 1,000,000
Laotians; 1,000,000 Malays; 350,000 Cambodians; and 50,000
Peguans. Doubling these figures, to include the female sex, this
would give a total population for the kingdom of 11,800,000 inhabi-
tants, or 47 to the square mile.
The Siamese dominions are divided into 41 provinces, each pre-
sided over by a phaja, or governor. The native historians distinguish
two natural divisions of the coimtr}', called Monang-Nona, the region
of the north, and Monang-Tai, the southern ]-egion. Previous to
the fifteenth century, the former was the more populous part of the
country, but since the establishment of Bangkok as capital — with
from 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants — the south has taken the
lead in population. Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai, or
Monang-Thai, which means 'free,' or 'the kingdom of the free.'
The word Siam — quite unknown to the natives — is INIalay, from
sajam, ' the brown race.'
There is comparatively little trade and industry in the country,
mainly owing to the state of serfdom in which the population ia
kept by the feudal owners of the land. Throughout the whole of
Siam, the natives are kept to forced labour for a certain period of
the year, varying from three to four months, in consequence of which
the land, rich in many parts, is so badly cultivated as barely to pro-
SI AM. 727
duce suiBcient food for its thin population. Nearly the whole of the
trade is in the hands of foreigners, and in recent years many Chinese,
not subject like the natives to forced labour, have settled in the country.
The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital. The
value of the total exports from Bangkok in 1876 was 1,985,678/.,
the staple article of export being rice shipped to the amount of
4,191,985 piculs, valued 896,850/. The minor exports of 1876
embraced a great variety of articles, chief among them teel-seed,
pepper, Sapan wood, skins, spices, and sugar. The total imports
into Bangkok, in the year 1876, were of the value of 1,210,615/., the
imports comprising mainly textile goods, hardware, and opium.
At the end of 1878, the mercantile navy of Siam numbered 32
sailing vessels and 3 steamers, of an aggregate burthen of 39,850
tons.
The direct commercial intercourse of Siam with the United King-
dom is inconsiderable, and of a very fluctuating character. In the five
years^ 1875 to 1879 the value of the exports from Siam to Gre.-) /
Britain, and of imports of British produce into Siam, was as follows : —
Years
Exports from Siam
i to Great Britain
', £
43,095
i 127,110
23,947
29,666
Imports of British
Produce into Siam
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
13.504
5.313
22,358
30,293
15,759
The staple and almost only article of exports from Siam to Great
Britain in the year 1879 was rice, of the declared value of 29,285/.
There were no exports whatever in 1878. Among the imports of
British produce into Siam, the chief articles in 1879 were arms and
ammunition, of the value of 4,055/. : and machinery of the value of
3,752/.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Siam, and the British
•equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Tical, or Bat = 12,800 cowries, average rate of exchange, 2s. 6d.
„ Spanish Dollar ... „ „ 4s. 2d.
The legal money of Siam is the Tical, a silver coin, with the
device of an elephant impressed, weighing 236 grains troy. Spanish
dollars, largely in use, are accepted in payment at the rate of 3
dollars for 5 Ticals. In 1875, the Government ordered a large quan-
■tity of bronze coinage from England, which is reported to get into
728 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
extensire use among the peqple, taking the place of previous small
paper notes of the value of 200 cowries, or one-halfpenny.
Weights and Measures.
The Tael = 1^ oz. avoirdupois.
„ Picul = 133 lbs.
„ Catty . . . . , = 1|- „ ,,
„ Chang = 4 yards.
The basis of all measures of weights in Siam is the Niu, equal to
8 grains of husked rice ; while the measures of length are taken
from the Kup, or Keub, that is, the length of the thumb to the
middle finger of a grown-up man, and the Sok, the length of the lower
part of the arm, trom the end of the middle finger to the elbow.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Siam in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Chao Phya Bhanu Wongse Maha Kosa Tibodi ti Phrakiang,
accredited July 2, 1880.
Secretary. — Phya Ratna Kosa.
2. Of Great Britain in Siam.
Agent and Consul -General. — Thomas George Knox, appointed Feb 8, 1875.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Siam.
1. Official Publications.
Commercial Report from H.M.'s Consul-General in Siam for the year 1870,
8. London, 1871.
Reports of Mr. Thos. Geo. Knox, Consul-General, on the trade of Siam,,
dated Bangkok, February 12, 1870; in 'Commercial Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls in China and Siam.' 8. London, 1870.
Reports by Mr. W. H. Newman on the trade of the port of Bangkok, dated
June 30, 1875 ; and by Mr. D. J. Edwardes on the state of Chiengmai and
other Teak districts of Siam, dated June 17, 1875; in 'Commercial Reports
by H. M.'s Consular Officers in Siam.' No. L 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Trade of Siam with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with foreign countries and British possessions, for thfr
year 1879.' 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Alabaster (Henry), The Modern Buddhist; being the Views of a Siamese
Minister of State on His Own and other Religions. 8. London, 1870.
Bastian (Adolf), Die Volker des ostlichen Asiens. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig imd
Jena, 1866-67.
Bowring {John), The Kingdom and People of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.
Grehan (A.) Le royaume de Siam. 8. Paris, 1868.
Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cam-
bodia and Laos, during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.
Pallegoix (D. J.), Description du royaume Thai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1854.
Scherser (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustande im Siiden und Osten
Asiens. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.
729
lY. AUSTRALASIA.
SUMMARY TABLES.
I. Area and Pojmlation.
Area
Square Miles.
Population
Colonies
Years.
on
December 31.
1874
584,278
1
1875
606.652
New South Wales
310,938 ,
1876
629,776
1877
662,212
1878
693,743
1
1874
341,860
1
1875
373.856
New Zealand
106,342 4
1876
399.075
1877
417,622
1878
432,519
1
1874
163.517
1
1875
181,288
Queensland
669,520 ^
1876
187,100
1877
203,084
I
1878
210,510
1
1874
204,623
1875
210,442
South Australia
903,690 -!
1876
225,677
1877
236,864
1878
248,795
/
1874
104,176
1875
103,663
Tasmania...
26,215 J,
1876
105,484
1877
107,104
(
1878
109.947
1874
808,437
1875
823,272
Victoria
88,198 ^
1876
840,300
1877
860,787
1878
879,442
1874
26,209
1875
26,709
Western Australia
1,000,000 J
1876
27,321
1877
27,838
1878
28,166
I
730
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
AUSTRALASIA.
SUMMARY TABLES.
II. Finances.
Colonies.
Years.
Revenue.
Exiienditure.
Debt on
December 31
_ ^£
&
£
(
1874
3,509,966
2,939,227
10,516,371
187o
4,121,996
3,341,324
11,470.637 ■
New South Wales \
1876
5,033,828
4,749,013
11,759,519
\
1877
5,748,245
4,627,979
11,724,419
1878
4,983,864
5,672,154
11,688,119
1
1874
3,063,811
3,035,711
13,366,936
1875
2,813,928
3,431,973
17,400,031
New Zealand ...-
1876
3,580,294
4,305,337
18,678,111
1877
3,916,023
3,822,426
20,691,111 1
.
1878
4,167,889
4,365,275
22,608,311
1874
•1,160,947
1,121,710
5,253,286
187.5
1,261,464
1,404,198
6,948,586 j
Queensland ..,-
1876
1,263,268
1,283,520
6,948,586
1877
1,436,582
1,382,806
7,685,350
1878
1,559,111
1,543,820
8,935,350
i
1874
1,003,820
1,051,622
2,989,750
187o
1,143,312
1,176,412
3,320,600
South Australia ...-j
1876
1,320,204
1,323,337
3,837,100
1
1877
1,441,401
1,443,653
4,737,200
\
1878
1,592,634
1,620,310
5,329,600
1
1874
327,925
318,278
1,476,700
1
1875
343,676
385,731
1,489,400
i Tasmania {
1876
327,349
336,388
1,520,500
I
{
1877
361,771
352,564
1,589,705
1878
381,909
375,601
1,747,400
i Victoria
!
1874
4,106,790
4,177,338
13,990,553
1875
4,236,423
4,318,121
13,995,093
1876
4,325,156
4,572,844
17,011,382 i
1877
4,723,877
4,358,096
17,018,913
1878
4,504,413
4,634,349
17,022.065
1
1874
148,073
143,266
119,000 1
1
1875
157,775
169,230
135,000 1
Western Australia -,
1876
162,189
179,484
135,000 1
1877
165,413
182,959
161,000
1878
163,344
198,243
184.556
731
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of New South Wales, oldest of the Australasian
-colonies, is embodied in the Act 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 54, pro-
claimed in 1855 which established a 'responsible government.'
The constitution vests the legislative power in a Parliament of
two Houses, the first called the Legislative Council, and the
second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council consists
of not less than twenty-one members — 39 in 1878 — nominated by
the Crown, and the Assembly of 102 members, elected in aa
many constituencies. To be eligible, a man must be of age,
a natural-born subject of the Queen, or, if an alien, he must have
been naturalised for five years, and resident for two years before
election. There is no property qualification for electors, and the
votes are taken by secret ballot. The executive is in the hands of a
governor nominated by the Crown.
Governor of New South Wales. — Kt. Hon. Lord Augustus William
Fi-ederick Spencer Loftus, born 1818 ; entered the diplomatic career,
1837 ; Envoy and Minister to Austria, 1858-60 ; to Prussia, 1860-
62; and to Bavaria, 1862-G6; Ambassador to Prussia and the
North-German Confederation, 1866-71 ; Ambassador to Russia,
1871-79. Appointed Governor of New South Wales, May 3,
1879; assumed office, August 4, 1879.
The Governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-in-
chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of 7,000Z.
In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of eicht
■ministers, containing the following members : —
Colonial Secretarij and Premier. — Sir Henry Parkes, K.C.M.G.
Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. James Watson.
MiJiister of Justice and Public Instruction. — Sir Georo-e Innes.
Attorney- General. — Hon. Robert Wisdom.
Minister of Public Works. — Hon. John Lackey.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. F. B. Sutter.
Minister of Mines. — Hon. Ezekiel A. Baker.
Secretary for Lands. — Hon. James Hoskins.
The Colonial Secretary has a salary of 2,000/., and the other
•ministers of 1,500/. The Cabinet is responsible for its acts to
"the Legislative Assembly.
732
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The principal part of the public revenue, in recent years, was
derived from the sale and rent of public lands, which produced
more than one- half of the total annual receipts. The next im-
portant source of revenue was from customs duties, which yielded,
on the average, nearly one-fourth of the total annual receipts.
Direct taxation does not exist.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony, including under the
first head loans, and under the latter sums disbursements for
public works, were as follows in each of the ten years 1870 to 1879 : —
Tears
Kevenue
Expenditure
£
&
1870
2,575,309
3,298,353
1871
4,288,862
3,602,499
1872
4,161,415
3,638,623
1873
3,324,713
2,918,725
1874
4,200,827
3,506,780
1875
4,121,996
3,399,024
1876
5,037,661
4,749,013
1877
5,751,879
5,530,056
1878
4,983,864
5,672,154
1879
4,524,841
4,510.726
The estimated revenue of the Colony for the year 1880 was set
down at 4,761,875/., and the expenditure at 5,525,000/., the latter
including 400,000/. for new public works.
The public debt of the colony amounted to 3,830,230/. in 1860,
to 6,418,030/. in 1866, to 6,917,630/. in 1867, to 8,564,830/. in
1868, to 9,546,030/. in 1869, to 11,470,637/. in 1875, and to
15,789,910/. at the end of 1879. The debt was chiefly incurred for
railways, telegraphs, and other reproductive public works. The ex-
penditure on railways and telegraphs alone amounted to 11,343,063/.
at the end of 1879.
Area and Population.
New South Wales, discovered by Captain Cook in 1770, was first
colonised by convicts in 1788, the British Government having sent
thither 565 male and 192 female prisoners condemned to trans-
portation for life. The colony originally embraced all the territory
from Cape York in the parallel of 10° 37' south latitude, to South
Cape in latitude 43° 29' south, including the islands in the Pacific
within this latitude, and inland to the westward as far as the 135th
meridian of east longitude. The erection into separate colonies of
NEW SOUTH WALES. 733
■South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859,
greatly reduced its area. It now contains an area of 310,938 square
miles, being enclosed within the parallels of 28° and 37° south
latitude, and 141° and 154° of east longitude. Its greatest length
is 900 miles, but averaging only 500. The greatest breadth is
about 850 miles, but the average does not exceed 500 miles. Its
boundaries are, on the north, the colony of Queensland ; on the
•east, the Pacific Ocean ; on the south, the colony of Victoria ; on
the west, South AustraUa. The 141st meridian is the dividing line
from South Australia ; and the 29th parallel, with an irregular line
to Point Danger, from Queensland.
In 1788 the total population of the colony, including the Govern-
ment establishment and convicts, amounted to 1,030, and in 1810
the population, free and felon, had risen to 8,293. In 1821 the
inhabitants of New South Wales had increased to 29,783, and in
1828 to 36,598. Of this number, 14,156 were male, and 1,513
female convicts. The colony was relieved from the transportation
of criminals in 1840.
According to the returns of the last census, taken April 2,
1871, the total population of the colony, exclusive of aborigines,
was 503,981, comprising 275,551 males and 228,430 females.
The preceding census, taken April 7, 1861, showed a total popu-
lation of 350,860, of whom 198,488 were males and 152,372
females. The estimated population on the 31st of December, 1878,
was 693,743. The excess of immigration over emigration averaged
10,100 annually in the five years from 1874 to 1878. There is a
high birth-rate in the colony. The excess of births over deaths
amounted to 14,565 in the year 1878.
The population of Sydney, capital of New South Wales, numbered
134,755 at the census of April 2, 1871, the total comprising 75,945
inhabitants within the city, and 58,810 in the suburbs. The in-
crease of population in the decennial period 1861-71 was 19,105,
or 33^ per cent, in the city, and 21,967, or 59^ per cent, in the
suburban districts.
Trade and Industry.
The trade of New South Wales more than quadrupled in the
fifteen years from 1850 to 1864. The total value of the imports in
1850 amounted to 2,078,338/., and in 1864 had risen to 10,135,708/.
The exports in 1850 were valued at 2,399,580/., and in 1864 at
9,037,832/. From 1864 till 1870 there was a decline in both
imports and exports, but a new rise took place in 1871, continuing,
with interruptions, tiU 1878.
The value of the total imports and exports, including bullion
734
THE statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1881.
and specie, in each of the six years 1873 to 1878, was as
follows : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
£
&
1873
11,088,388
11,815.829
1874
9,259,816
8,668,113
1875
13,490,210
13,671,581
1876
13,672,776
13,003,941
1877
14,606,594
13,125,819
1878
14,768,873
12,965,879
Eather more than one-third of the total imports into New South
Wales come from the United Kingdom, and about one-third of the
exports are shipped to it. The rest of the trade is chiefly with
British Possessions. The commercial intercourse of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement,,
which gives the total value of the exports from New South Wales-
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British produce
and manufactures into New South Wales in each of the six years
from 1874 to 1879: —
Exports from New South
Imports of
Years
Wales to
British Home Proriuce into
Great Britain
New South Wales
1874
3,900,044
£
4,375,355
1875
4,442,680
.5,584.638
1876
4,861,837
4,816,576
1877
5,126,872
5,415,217
1878
4,463,142
5,701,674
1879
5,168,447
4,874,003
The staple article of exports from New South Wales to the United
Kingdom is wool, the quantities and values of which were as follows
in each of the .six years from 1874 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantity
Value
lbs.
£
1874
42.619,142
2,616,458
1875
43,602,277
3,072.784
1876
5.3,445.792
3,317,202
1877
57,651,282
3,533,957
1878
54,534,117
3,290,046
1879
64,059,824
3,800,542
Next to Avool, the most important articles of export to Great
Britain are tin, of the value of 324,556/. ; copper, of the value of
NEW SOUTH WALES.
735
331, 75H. ; tallow, of the value of 234,298/. ; and preserved meat
of the value of 108,808/. in 1879. The imports from Great Britain
consist of all the chief articles of British manulacturing industry,
chief among them iron, of the value of 612,850/., and cotton goods,
of the value of 40G,315/. in 1879.
In June. 1878, New South Wales had 20,962,244 sheep;
2,746,385 horned cattle; 328,150 horses; and 191,677 pigs.
The total area of land imder cultivation embraced 546,556 acres,
of which about one-half was under Avheat and maize.
New South Wales is believed to be richer in coal than the other
territories of Australasia. In 1878, there were 40 mines worked,,
producing in the year 1,444,271 tons of coal, valued at 858,998/.
The gold mines of Ncav South Wales cover a vast area, extending
over three districts, called the Western Fields, the Southern Fields,
and the Northern Fields. The gold produce of the colony was esti-
mated as follows in each of the six years fi-om 1873 to 1878 : —
Tears
Quantity-
Value
Ounces
£
1873
665,676
2,590,145
1874
482,076
1,875,081
1875
552,592
2,097,740
1876
410,330
1,589,854
1877
124,113
496,452
1878
182,120
768.480
New South Wales likewise possesses valuable copper and tin
mines, the former producing 6,027 tons of copper in 1877.
New South Wales has three lines of railway, the Southern, the
Northern, and the Western. At the end of June 1879, there were
690 miles of railway open for traffic, including a line completed in
1879, from Werris Creek to Gunnedah. During the year 1880,
there were 223 miles of new railway lines added to the existing net-
work. The whole of the lines were built by the Government.
Of electric telegraphs there were in the colony 8,472 miles of
line, at the end of 1877, constructed at a cost of 271,890/. The
paid messages transmitted in 1877 numbered 858,301. There were
171 telegraph stations at the end of 1877.
The Post-office of the colony transmitted 14,466,900 letters,
4,720,100 newspapers, and 235,000 packets in the year 1876.
Agent-General of New South Wales in Great Britain. — Hon.
Saul Samuel, C.M.G., appointed August 1880.
736 THE statesman's tear-book, 1881.
NEW ZEALAND.
Constitution and Government.
The present form of government for New Zealand was established
by statute 15 & 16 Vict. cap. 72, passed in 1852. _ By this Act, the
Colony was divided into six provinces, afterwards increased to nine,
namely, Auckland, Taranaki, Wellington, Nelson, Canterbury, Otago,
Hawke's Bay, Westland, and Marlborough, each governed by a
Superintendent and Provincial Council, elected by the inhabitants
accordin'T to a franchise which practically amounts to household
suffra<Te. By a subsequent Act of the Colonial Legislature, 39 Vic,
No. XXI., passed in 1875, the provincial system of government was
aboHshed, and the powers previously exercised by superintendents
and provincial officers were ordered to be exercised by the Governor
or by local boards. By the terms of this and other amending
statutes, the legislative power is vested in the Governor and a
' General Assembly,' consisting of two Chambers, the first called the
Leo-islative Council, and the second the House of Representatives.
The Legislative Council consists of forty -five members, nominated
by the Crown for life, and the House of Representatives of eighty-
eii-ht members, elected by the people for five years. Members ot
both branches of the legislature receive payment of 210/. for every
session, to cover the expenses of their attendance. The members of
the House of Representatives include four aborigines, or Maories,
elected by the natives. Every owier of a fi-eehold worth 50/., or
tenant householder, in the country at 5Z., in the to\vns at lOZ. a
year rent, is qualified both to vote for, and to be a member of, the
House ot Representatives.
The executive is vested in a Governor, appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Neiv Zealand. — Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon,
G.C.M.G., born 1830, a younger son of the Earl of Aberdeen ;
M.P. for Beverley, 1854-57 ; Lieutenant-Governor of New Bruns-
wick, 1861-66; Governor of Trinidad, 1866-70; Governor of
Mauritius, 1870-74; Governor of the Fiji Islands, 1875-80;
appointed Governor of New Zealand, August 11, 1880.
The Governor, who is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chiet
of the troops, has a salary of 5,000Z. and of 2,500/. allowance. _ The
general administration rests with a responsible ministry, consisting
of nine members. Besides the nine ministers, there are two native
members of the Executive Council, but not in charge of any depart-
ment.
NEW ZEALAND.
717
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of deal-
ing Avith questions of native government, Avere transferred in 1863
from the Imperial to the Colonial Government. In 1864 tlie seat
of tne general Government was removed from Auckland to Welling-
ton, on account of the central position of the latter city.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The reveniie of the colony is divided into Ordinary and Territorial
revenue. The chief source of ordinary revenue is from customs
receipts on imports. Separately treated in the financial accounts of
the government is the territorial revenue, derived partly from the
sale of crown lands, depasturing licenses and assessments, and partly
from export duties on gold and mining licenses. The following table
exhibits the ordinary and the territorial revenue, and the total, in
<'ach of the ten financial years, endino; June 30, fi:om 1870 to
1879:—
Tears
Ordinary Revenue
Territorial Eevenne
Total Bevenue
£
&
&
1870
960,368
327,589
1.287,957
1S71
921,672
377,699
1.299,371
1872
1,005.942
618,772
1,624,714
1873
1.487.393
1,265.788
2,753.181
1874
1,873,448
1,150,900
3,024,348 !
1875
2,047.234
688,722
2,735,956
1876
2,391,344
1,149,622
3.540,966
1877
2,198,291
1.592,254
3,790,545
1878
2,328.753
1.586,563
3.915,316
1879
1,533,393
2,634,496
4,167,889
The sources of ordinary revenue are from customs, producing, on
the average of the last few years, 1,250,000/. per annum, while the
territoiial reveniie is derived almost entirely from laud sales. The
largest branch of public expenditure, Avhich amounted to an average
of 2,000,000/. in recent years, was for public works, chief of them a
complete system of railways as well as of ordinary roads. The total
ordinary expenditiu-e in 1879 amounted to 4,366,938/.
The public debt of the colony, dating from 18.56, amounted to
77,174/. in that year, and rose to 594,044/. in 1860, to 1,289,750/.
in 1863, to 2,219,450/. in 1864, to 4,368,682/. in 1865, to 5,435,729/.
in 1866, to 7,579,000/. in 1867, to 7,178,143/. in 1868, to
7,360,616/. in 1869, to 7,841,891/. in 1870, to 8,496,016/. in 1871,
to 9,985,386/. in 1873, and to 13,897,185/. on the 31st of December
1875. On December 31, 1878, the total public debt had risen to
22,608,311/., and to 23,958,310/. at the end of 1879. The debt
3B
738 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
is to be repaid gradually by a sinking fund, accumulating from the
profit of railways and other public works. Tlie annual charge for
the debt in 1879 amounted to 1,357,000/. The accrued sinking
fund on December 31, 1879, amounted to 1,805,231L The total
debt per head of the population, exclusive of Maories, on December
31, 1879, was 47/. 10.^.
About one-half of the total liabilities of the colony are made up
of loans granted by the legislature under the ' Immigration and
Public Works Loan Act' of 1870, 1873, and 1574. The total
amount of these loans Avas 8,6G4,424/. at the end of 1879. Under
the first of these Loan Acts, Avhich created the Immigration and
Public Works Loan of 1870, the sum of 1,000,000/. was guaranteed
by the Imperial Parliament, sanctioned by 33 (^ 34 Vict. cap. 40.
The loan was issued in England, at the price of 84 per cent.,
bearing interest at the rate of 4^ per cent., and secured on the
consolidated revenues of New Zealand.
Area and Population.
The colony of New Zealand, first visited by the Dutch navigator,
Tasman, in 1642, and surveyed by Captain Cook in 1769, consists
of two principal groups, known as the North and the Middle Islands.
Besides these there are several small outlying islands, the chief of
the Stewart or South Island and the Chatham Isles. The whole
group is nearly 1,000 miles long, and 200 miles broad, and its coast
line extends over 3,000 miles. The area of New Zealand is esti-
mated at 105,342 sqiiare miles, two-thirds of which are fitted for
agriculture and grazing. The North Island is estimated to embrace
an area of 44,000 square miles, and the Middle Island 55,000,
while Stewart's Island has an area of about 1,000 square miles.
New Zealand was officially established as a colony in 1840.
The population of New Zealand, in 1851, when the first census
was taken, numbered 26,707, excbisive of aborigines Li 1858, the
number had risen to 59,413, of whom 33,679 were males, and 25,734
females, being an increase, in the seven years, of 122 per cent. In
1861, the total was 99,022, comprising 61,063 males, and 37,959
females, or an increase of 40 per cent, in three years. The next
triennial census of 1864 showed a population of 172,158, of whom
106,580 were males, and 65,578 females, while at the following
enumeration, made December 19, 1867, the total number of inhabi-
tants was found to be 218,484, comprising 131,806 males, and 86,678
females ; and at the next following enumeration, of February 27,
1871, the population had increased to 256,260, comprising 150,267
males, and 1()5,993 females. The next census, taken March 1, 1874,
showed the population, exclusive of Maories, to number 299,514 souls,
of whom 170,981 were males, and 128,533 females.
NEW ZEALAND. y-,g
In 1876, New Zealand, previously divided into ten provinces was
divided into 52 counties and boroughs. The first census of the
colony by counties Avas taken March 3, 1878, giving the foUowin<r
general results. The total population of New Zealand, including
Chinese and half-castes and persons on shipboard, but exclusive of
aborigines, known as Maories, was 414,412, comprising 230,998
males, and 183,414 females. Of the total population, 247,617 be-
longed to counties, and 163,028 to boroughs, which by the Counties
Act are not included in counties. The remainder were on shipboard
and in the small islands. The North Island had a population of
158,208 ; Middle Island, 255,757 ; Stewart Island, 251 f and Chat-
ham Island, 196. The number of Maories was not taken at the census
of 1878, but the Chinese were carefully registered, their number
being ascertained at 4,382, of whom only eight were females.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages was as follows in
each of the five years from 1874 to 1878 : —
Bii-ths
1874
12,844
1875
14,438
. 1876
16,168
1877
16.856
1878
17,770
4,161
5,712
4,904
4,685
4.642
Marriages
2,828
3,209
3,196
3,114
3,385
At the census of 1878, there were four towns with upwards of
10,000 inhabitants in New Zealand, namely, Dunedin 22 525-
Auckland, 13,758; Wellington, 18,953; and Christchurch, 13 425
inhabitants. With the exception of Auckland, Avhich increased' but
slightly, all the towns largely increased in number of inhabitants
between the eniunerations of 1874 and 1879.
The number of aborigines, or Maories, in New Zealand, is only
known through ofiicial estimates, which, however, are believed to be
tolerably accm-ate. From these it appears that in 1878 there were
in the North Island 41,315, in the South Island 2,160 and
in the Chatham Islands 120 Maories, being a total of 43,595 in the
whole colony. The native population of North Island conu^rised
22,665 males and 18,650 females; that of South Island 1,200 males
and 960 females, while in the Chatham Islands there were 73 males
and 47 females. According to all accounts, the Maories like the
aborigines of other countries settled by Europeans, are declining in
numbers from year to year.
The total number of immigrants and of emigrants and the
3 B 2
740
THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
surplus of immigrants over emigrants into the colony, was as follows
in each of the ten years fi'om 18G9 to 1878 : —
Surplus of Immi-
Years
Immigrants.
Emigrants.
grants over Emi-
Number
Number
grants.
Number
1869
8.903
5,262
3,641
1870
9,124
5,547
3,577
1871
10,083
5,£97
4,786
1872
10,725
5,752
4,973
1873
13,572
4,761
8,811
1874
43.965
6,859
38,106
1875
31,737
6,467
25,270
1876
18,414
6,459
11,955
1877
12,987
6,611
6,376
1878
16,263
5,766
10,497
The population of NeAV Zealand is increasing more rapidly than
that of any of the other Australasian colonies, both by natural incre-
ment and inimiijration.
Trade and Industry.
The commerce of New Zealand increased nearly tAventy-fold in the
twenty years from 18.59 to 1878, bvit while the imports, which at
one time amounted to more than eight millions, fell again to under
seven millions, the exports increased slightly in recent years.
The following table exhibits the value of the total imports and
exports of the colony in each of the six years 1874 to 1879 : —
Yeais
Total Imports
Total Exports
1874
8,121,812
5,152,143
1875
8,029,172
5,475,844
1876
6,905,171
5,673.465
1877
6,973,418
6,329,251
1878
8,755,663
6,015,525
1879
8,374,585
5,743,126
The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of gold and specie — fi-om New Zealand to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into New Zealand, in each of the six years 1874 to 1879 : —
NEW ZEALAND.
741
Voai-- Exports from New Zealand
'^^^^ : to the United Kingdom
Imports of j
British Home Produce 1
into New Zealand j
£
1874 3,542,099
187-5 1 3,489,138
1876 i 3,499,692
1877 ' 3,720,093
1878 : 4,017,525
1879 j 4,501,082
1
£
4,408,400
3,854,090
3,190,802
3,320,121
4,314,004
3,550,026
The staple article of export from New Zealand to the United
Kingdom is wool, the quantities and value of which were as follows
in each of the six years from 1874 to 1879 : —
Years
Quantity
Value
lbs.
£
1874
48,209,802
2,888,074
1875
49,548,472
3,079,115
1876
52,-58-5,145
2,997,579
1877
53,973,873
3,112,469
1878
58,594,062
3,238,026
1879
60,437,190
3,330,076
Next to wool, the two most important articles of export from New
Zealand to Great Britain in 1879 Avere corn and flour, of the value of
097,125^., and gum, of the value of 122,901/. Among the other ex-
ports are preserved meat, amomiting in value to 114,708/. in 1874, to
19,801/. in 1875, to 14,668/. in 1876, to 46,379/. in 1877, to 63,877/.
in 1878, and to 44,271/. in 1879. The British imports comprise
mainly iron, of the value of 574,335/. ; apparel and haberdashery, ot
the value of 552,000/. ; and woollens, of the value of 320,340/. in
1879.
The live stock of the colony consisted, at the end of June 1879,
of 137,768 horses; 578,430 cattle; 13,069,338 sheep; 207,337
pigs; and 1,205,700 heads of poultry. The greatest increase of live
stock in recent years was in sheep. They numbered 1,523,324 in
1858; 2,761,383 in 1861; 4,937,273 in 1864; 8,418,579 in 1867;
and 9,700,629 in 1871, and 11,704,853 in March 1874.
Large gold fields were discovered in the spring of 1857. The
gold exports amounted to 355,322 ounces, valued at 1,407,770/,, in
1875; to 318,367 ounces, valued at 1,268,559/., in 1876;' to
371,685 ounces, valued at 1,496,080/., in 1877 ; and to 310,486
ounces, valued at 1,240,079/. in 1878.
742 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The construction of a comprehensive system of railways con-
necting the chief towns of the colony, was commenced, at the expense
of the Government, in the autumn of 1872. At the end of December
1878, the length of miles open for traffic was 1,089, while 450
miles were in course of construction, imder contract, and 160 miles
authorised were waiting to be commenced. Of the railways open
for traffic, 172 miles were in the North Island, and 546 miles in the
South Island. The construction of railways made such rapid pro-
gi-ess that on June 30, 1879, there were open for traffic in the South
Island 809 miles, and in the North Island 336 miles. There was a
balance of profit on their working during the year 1878 of 172,682/.
in the South, and of 39,935Z. in the North Island. The total ex-
penditure on construction of all the lines to June 30, 1879, was, in
the South Island 5,757,188/., and in the North, 2,800,000/. The
profits in the South Island were 3 per cent, on the whole outlay, and
in the North 1^ per cent. In addition to the already constructed
lines the General Assembly of New Zealand in 1879 sanctioned a
further length of 938 miles, for which surveys and plans are rapidly
being prepared, with a view to the execution of the works during
the next five years. The whole of the above railways are to cost,
when completed, with their equipments, about 16,000,000/.
On December 31, 1878, the colony had 3,434 miles of telegraph
lines, and 8,035 miles of wire. The number of telegrams despatched
in the year 1878 was 1,260,234, of which total over a million were
private messages. The total receipts from telegrams in the year
1878 amounted to 64,336/. The total number of telegraph offices
in the colony was 183 on December 31, 1878.
The post-office in the year 1878 received 15,524,761 letters, of
which number two-thirds came from places within, and one-third
from places without the colony. The total number of newspapers
received in 1878 was 9,410,366, of which number over two-thirds
came from places within, and less than one-third from places with-
out the colony. The total revenue of the post-office amounted to
158,998/. in 1878.
Agent-General of New Zealand in Great Bi^tain. — Hon. Sir
Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G., formerly Premier of New Zealand ; ap-
pointed September 1876.
743
QUEENSLAND.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland was estab-
lished December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South Wales.
The power of making laws, and imposing taxes, is vested in a Parlia-
ment of two Houses, the Legislative Council and the Legislative
Assembly. The former consists of thirty members, nominated by
the Crovm for life. The Legislative Assembly comprises fifty-five
deputies, returned from as many electoral districts, for five years, by
the ballot vote of all taxpayers. Persons having property, either
leasehold or freehold, or a licence to depasture lands from the
Government in any electoral district in which they do not reside,
have the right of a vote in any district in which such property may
be situated, as well as in the district for which they claim as
residents.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Queensland. — Sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, K.C.M.G.,
C.B., born 1810; educated at Trinity College, Dublin; entered the
army as ensign 1827, and retired as captain 1848; Inspector of
L'ish poor laws, 1849-51; Governor of Sierra Leone, 1851-54;
Governor of Western Australia, 1854-62; Governor of Vancouver's
Island, 1863-67 ; Governor of the West African Settlements,
1867-72 ; Governor of Hong Kong, 1872-76 ; appointed Governor
of Queensland, April 10, 1877 ; assumed oflSce, July 20, 1877.
The Governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also bears
the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 5,000^. per annum.
In the exercise of the executive authority he is assisted by an Exe-
cutive Council of .six ministers, consisting of the following members :
Colonial Treasurer and Premier. — Hon. Thomas Mcllwraith.
Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Alfred H. Palmer.
Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. John M. M'Crossan.
Minister of Justice. — Hon. Katcliffe Pring.
Secretary for Public Lands. — Hon. Thomas Perkins.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. C. H. Buzacott.
Each of the ministers has a salary of 1,000Z. per annum. They
are jomtly and individually responsible for their acts.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public income of the colony nearly doubled in the decennial
period 1868 to 1877, while the disbursements increased at the same
744
THE statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1881.
rate. The following table shows the revenue and expenditnre of
Queensland durin£r each of the ten veaj-s from 187(* to 1879 : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditnre
£
A
1870
743,058
764,491
1871
81^3,169
787,555
1872
99«;,323
865,743
1873
1,120,034
948,750
1874
1,160,947
1,121,710
1875
1,261,464
1,404,198
1876
1,263,268
1,283,519
1877
1.212,530
1,205,671
1878
1,559.111
1,643.820
1879
1,461,824
1,678,631
The greater part of the revenue of Queensland is derived from
customs duties, land sales, and rents of public lands ; Avhile the
chief expenditure is for works of general utility, and for Government
aid to immigration.
The public debt of the colony amounted, on December 31, 1879,
to the sum of 10,192, 086Z. To this total there was added, by vote
of the legislature in 1880, authority to raise a neAV loan of 3,000,000Z.
for the construction of public works.
Area and Population.
Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern portion of the
Australian continent, including, in the terms of the Letters Patent
establishing the colony, ' all and every the adjacent islands, their
members and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf
of Carpentaria.' The boundaries of Queensland are, on the north
the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the east the Pacific Ocean, on the south
the colony of New South Wales, on the west the 141st meridian of
longitude from the 29th to the 26th parallel, and thence to the 138th
meridian north to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The vast territory thus
defined is of an estimated area of 669,520 English square miles^
or 428,492,800 acres, with a seaboard of 2,250 miles. The colony
formed, under the name of Moreton Bay, a part of New South Wales
until it was erected into a separate colony, with the name of Queens-
land, by an order of Her Majesty in Council, wdiich took effect on
December 10, 1859, upon the arrival of the first Governor.
The first settlement of the colony was by convicts sent from Great
Britain, the earliest of them arriving in 1825. In 1842 the country
was thrown ojien to free settlers, and an enrimeration taken in 1846
showed the total population, free and felon, to number 2,257. In
1851, the total population had increased to 8,575, and in 1856 to
QUEENSLAND.
745
17,082. The population amounted to 24,870 on December 31,
1859; to 29,07-4 on December 31, 1860 ; to 34,367 at the same
date in 1861 ; to 45,077 on December 31, 1862 ; and to 107,427
on December 31, 1868. On September 1, 1871, the population had
increased to 120,104, while at the last enumeration, taken May 1,
1876, there was a total population of Eiu-opean descent, numbering
173,283 souls, of whom 105,009 were males, and 68,274 females.
According to the estimates of the Registrar- General of births and
deaths, the total population of the colony had risen, on December
31, 1879, to 217,851 persons, comprising 130,867 males and 86,984
females. The number included 13,269 Chinese, all males, engaged
in the gold mines. The last census returns state that there is no
reliable information to be obtained regarding the number of abo-
rigines living within the boundaries of the colony.
Queensland is divided into seventeen municipalities, the largest of
which, as regards population, is Brisbane. It contains the city of
Brisbane, the capital of the colony, and the seat of government, with
a population of 32,012 at the end of December 1878. The three
next largest toAvns of the colony are Eockhampton, with 6,401,
J.^ayborough, with 5,659, and Ipswich, with 5,091 inhabitants.
The immigrants into the colony in former years, chiefly from the
United Kingdom, have more recently consisted to a great extent of
natives of China and the South Sea Islands. In 1877 the immigra-
tion was 22,596, and the emigration 10,408, the excess of persons
arriving being 12,188, while in 1878 the immigrants numbered
7,178, and the emigrants 7,565. The immigrants of 1879 num-
bered 6,896, and the emigrants 8,134. The immigrants of 1879
comprised 4,975 males, and 1,921 females.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the
six years from 1874 to 1879, is given in the following table : —
Years
Imports
Exports
187i
2,833,814
3,750,048
1875
3,328,009
3,857,575
1876
3,126,559
3,875,581
1877
3,201,665
3,615,785
1878
3,436,077
3,190,419
1879
3,080,889
3.434,034
The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the
other Australasian colonies, and, next to them, with the United King-
dom. The subjoined tabular statement gives the value of the
746
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
exports, exclusive of gold, fi-om Queensland to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Queensland in each of the six years 1874 to 1879 : —
„ ' Exports fi-om Queensland
lears to the United Kingdom
Imports of
British Home Produce
into Queensland
£
1874 1 898,831
1875 930,106
1876 984,568
1877 976,840
1878 999,261
1879 ; 897,348
£
868,865
1,123,214
893,490
1,072,891
916,757
694,840
The staple article of exports from Queensland to the United King-
dom is wool, the value of which was 633, G87^. in 1874, 769,889/. in
1875, 848,996/. in 1876, 843,907/. in 1877, 930,316/. in 1878, and
816,158/. in 1879. The only other notable articles of export to Great
Britain are preserved meat, of the value of 11,290/., and copper,
valued 22,008/. in 1879. Among the imports of British produce
into Queensland in the year 1879, the chief were apparel and haber-
dashery, of the value of 74,490/., and iron, wrought and un-
wrought, of the value of 163,598/.
The growth of cotton and of the sugar-cane have been attempted
in recent years, and both industries are reported to be rapidly
growing. At the end of 1876, there were 13,735 acres under sugar-
cane, out of a total of 85,353 acres under cultivation. The live
stock at the end of 1877 numbered 133,625 horses, 2,079,995
cattle, 7,316,910 sheep, and 53,453 pigs.
There are several coal mines in the colony, the produce of which
amounted to 31,000 tons, in 1876. Gold-fields were discovered in
1867, the produce of Avhich amounted to 373,266 ounces, valued
at 1,306,431/., in the year 1877.
At the end of 1878 there were 298 miles of railway open for
traffic in the colony, and 113 miles more in course of construction.
There were two main lines, the Soiithern and Western, 212 miles
long, running from the town of Ipswich to Warwick, and to Brisbane,
and the Northern, 53 miles long, from Rockhampton to Westwood
and Comet Junction, in the direction of the Dawson river.
The post-office of the colony in the year 1876 earned 3,557,875
letters, 2,643,913 neAvspapers, and 204,625 packets.
At the end of 1877 there were in the colony 4,633 miles of tele-
graph lines, and 5,229 miles of wire, with 112 stations. The number
of messages sent was 479,073 in the year 1876.
Agent- General of Queensland in Great Britain. — Hon. Arthur
Macalister, C.M.G.
747
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of South Australia bears date October 27, 1856.
It vests the legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people.
The Parliament consists of a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly. The former is composed of eighteen members, six of
whom retire every four years, their siiccessors being then elected
for twelve years. The executive has no power to dissolve this
body. It is elected by the whole colony voting as one district.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Council are
that he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural-born or
naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the
electoral roll six months, besides having a freehold of 50/. value, or
a leasehold of 201. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of
25/. annual value. The qualification for a member of Council is
merely that he must be thirty years of age, a natural-born or natural-
ised subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members.
The House of Assembly consists of forty-six members, elected
for three years. The qualifications for an elector are that of having
been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at
twenty-one years of age ; and the qualifications for a member are
the same. There were 33,368 registered electors in 1877. Judges
and ministers of religion are ineligible for election as members, as
well as ah ens who have not resided five years in the colony. The
elections of members of both Houses take place by ballot.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown
and an Executive Council, consisting of the responsible ministers,
and specially appointed members.
Governor of Sovth Australia. — Colonel Sir William Francis
Drummond Jervois, K.C.M.G. ; entered the army in the Eoyal En-
gineers, and served at the Cape of Good Hope, 1841-48 ; executed
the fortifications of Alderney, 1852-55; Inspector-General of Forti-
fications, 1856-75; Governor of the Straits Settlements, 1875-77;
appointed Governor of South Australia, July 3, 1877.
The Governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of
748
THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1881.
the troops, has a salary of 5,000Z. per annum. The ministry, of
which he is the president, is divided into six departments, presided
over by the following members : —
Chief Secretanj. — Hon. William Morgan, M.L.C.
Attorney-General. — Hon. William Henry Bundey, Q.C.
Treasurer. — Hon. Charles Mann, Q.C.
Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. Thomas Playford.
Co7nmissioner of Public Works. — Hon. George C. Hawker.
Minister of Education. — Hon. Thomas King.
The Ministers have a salary of 1,000^. per annum each. They
are jointly and individually responsible to the Legislature for all
their official acts.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The total annual revenue and the total annual expenditure of the
colony of South Australia for each of the ten financial years, ending
June 30, fi-om 1870 to 1879 were as follows :—
Years
ending June 30
Kevenue
Expenditure
£
&
1870
6.57,576
736,817
1871
778,094
7.59,477 1
1872
697,442
700,200
1873
937,648
914,121
1874
974,628
943,807
187.')
1,05.5,936
1,167,0.50
1876
1,316,794
1,183,655
1877
1,491,225
1,415,703
1878
1,501,411
1,353,582
1879
1,662,120
1,768,167
The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived fit'om
customs duties, and the sale of Crown lands, while the main portion
of the expenditure is on accoimt of public works. The customs
duties and the sale of Crown lands produce together about one-
half of the total revenue, the rest being derived fi-om a great number
of sources, including railways, telegraphs, post-office, Adelaide water
rates, and port and harbour dues. Aboi;t one-third of the expen-
diture is for administrative charges, comprising salaries of judges &c.,
civil establishments and police, gaols, and prisons. The disbursements
for public works amounted in recent years to about one-third of
the total expenditure.
The public debt of the colony, dating fi-om 1852, amounted, on
the 30th June 1879, to 6,622,000^. The debt was 3,837,100/.
at the end of June 1876, and the amount of 2,785,400/. was added
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
749
to it in the years 1877 and 1878 by loans contracted in England.
The whole of the existing debt was raised for reproductive public
works, mainly railways, telegraphs, and hai-bour improvements.
Area and Population,
The original boundaries of the colony, according to the statutes
of 4 and 5 Wm. IV. cap. 95, were fixed between 132° and 141° E.
long, for the eastern and western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for
the northern limit, and for the south the Southern Ocean. The
boundaries of the colony were subsequently extended, under the
authority of Royal Letters Patent, dated July 6, 1863, so as to
embrace all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude. The total
area of the colony is calculated to amovmt to 903,690 English square
miles. Of this total, about 250,000 square miles Avere put to profit-
able use at the end of 1876.
South Aiistralia was first colonised in 1836 by emigrants from Great
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the
South Australian Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained a
grant from the Imperial Government of the lands of the colony.
The conditions were that the land should not be sold at less than 11.
per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such lands should
be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers ;
that the control of the company's affairs should be vested in a
body of commissioners approved by the Secretary of State for
the colonies, and the Governor be nominated by the Crown.
The total pojaulation of each sex, at eight enumerations taken in
the years from 1844 to 1876, was as follows : —
Date of census
' Males
Females
Total
February 26. 1844 .
9,526
7,840
17,366
26, 1846 .
12,670
9,720
22,390
Jaiuiary 1, 1851
. 1 35,302
28,398
63,700
March 31, 1855
. 1 43,720
42,101
85,821
April 8, 1861 .
. 1 65,048
61,782
126,830
March 25, 1866
85,334
78,118
163,452
April 2, 1871 .
95,408
90,218
185,626 ]
March 26, 1876 .
117,208
108,469
225,677 1
The enumerations here given did not include the aboriginal
population, the total of Avhich cannot be ascertained. The number
of aborigines hving in settled districts was found to be 3,369,
namely, 1,833 males and 1,536 females, at the census of March 26,
1876. The estimated population of the colony, exclusive of abo-
rigines, Avas reported, by the Registrar-General, to be 248,795 at
the end of 1878.
750
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
As regards religion, the census returns of 1871 stated tlie most
numerous body to be that of the Church of England, coiniting 50,849
members, next to it coming 28,668 Eoman Catholics, and 27,075
Wesleyan Methodists.
The population was distributed over twenty-six counties, more
or less settled, and in five ' pastoral districts,' at the census of March
26, 1876. The total population of the coimties was 207,009, and
that of the ' pastoral districts ' 3,987, besides which 1,532 persons
were accounted for as belonging to shipping, and 743 as inhabitants
of the partly imexplored Northern Territory.
The number of acres under cultivation doubled in the ten years
from 1866 to 1876. There were 739,714 acres imder cultivation
at the end of 1866, and 1,444,586 acres at the end of 1876. Of the
total at the latter date, 898,820 acres were under wheat. The live
stock of the colony at the end of 1876 comprised 107,164 horses,
219,240 horned cattle, and 6,179,395 sheep.
Trade and Industry.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, inclvi-
sive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in each
■of the six years 1874 to 1879 was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
&
£
187-1
3.973,455
3,868,276
1875
4,203,802
4.805,051
1876
4,576,183
4,816,170
1877
4,105,634
4,792,657
1878
5,719,612
5,355.022
1879
5.014.150
4.762.727
The imports into the colony consist of numerous articles of general
consumption, textile manufactures, and British colonial produce, the
principal article being drapery goods. The three staple articles
of export are wool, wheat and Hour, and copper ore. The total ex-
ports of wool in 1878 amounted to 2,417,4971; the exports of wheat
and flour to 1,672,860Z. ; and the exports of copper to 291,929/.
There were 121,553 horses; 251,803 horned cattle, and 6,377,112
sheep in the colony at the end of 1878.
The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South
Australia with the United Kingdom, giving the value of the total
exports, exclusive of gold, from the colony to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British produce into South Australia, in each of
the six years from 1874 to 1879 : —
SOUTH AUSTEALIA.
751
j
Exports from South Aus-
Imports of British Home
Years
tralia to the United
Produce into South
! Kingdom
Australia
1874
2.092,463
£
1,908,732
1875
2,955,7.59
1,984.579
1876
3,493,843
2,121.884
1877
2,624,992
2,338,439
1878
3,079,218
2,376.707
1879
3,059,174
2,207,450
The staple export article fi-om the colony to the United Kingdom
is wool, of the value of 1,652,344Z., in 1874, of 1,864,302/. in 1875,
of 1,753,618Z. in 1876, of 2,043,939/. in 1877, of 2,081,538/. in 1878,
and of 2,158,932/. in 1879. The next most important articles of ex-
port to Great Britain are corn and flour, and copper. The corn and
flour exports in the year 1876 were of the value of 82,092/. ; of
514,176/. in the year 1877; of 514,176/. in 1878 ; and of 464,049/.
in 1879. The exports of copper amoimted to 218,610/. in 1879.
The imports of British produce in 1879 comprised iron, wrought
and un wrought, of the value of 344,582/.; apparel and haberdashery,
of the value of 282,770/. ; cotton fabrics, of the value of 149,950/.;
and woollen fabrics, of the value of 167,804/.
Mining operations are pursued on a very extensive scale in the
colony. The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists claiefly in
copper, besides which there exist iron ores of great richness.
The colony had 533 miles of railway open for traffic at the end oi
1879, and 405 miles of lines in coiu-se of construction. There are
two principal lines of railway, namely, the Port Line, extending
from Adelaide to Port Adelaide, and the North Line, 128 miles
in length, connecting Adelaide with the chief copper mines. A bill
for the construction of a railway extending 214 miles north of Port
Augusta passed the legislature in July 1876.
The colony had 5,686 miles of telegraph lines in operation at the
end of 1878. Inclusive of the total is an overland line, opened in
1872, constructed at the expense of the South Australian Govern-
ment, running from Adelaide to Port Darwin, across the centre of
the continent of Australia, a distance of 2,000 miles, in connection
with the British Australian cable, forming telegraphic communication
with all parts of the world.
Aaent-General of South Australia in Great Britain. — Sir Arthur
BIyth, K.C.M.G.
752
TASMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Tasmania was established by Act 18 Vict.
No. 17, supplemented by Act 34 Vict. No. 42, passed in 1871. By
these Acts a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly are
constituted, called the Parliament of Tasmania. The Legislative
Council is composed of sixteen members, elected by all natural born
or naturalised subjects of the Crown who possess either a freehold
worth SOL a year, or a leasehold of 200/., or have a commission in
the army or navy, or a degree of some university, or are in holy
orders. The House of Assembly consists of thirty-two members,
elected by householders of 7L per annum, or freeholders of property
r)OZ. in value, and all subjects holding a commission, or possessing
a deo-ree. The legislative authority rests in both Houses ; while
the executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Tasmania. — Major-General Sir G. Cumine Strahan,
C.iNI.G., born 1840 ; entered the Royal Artillery, 1857 ; chief secre-
rary to the Government of Malta, 1868-69; Governor of the
Bahamas, 1871-73; Governor of the Gold Coast Colony, 1874-
76 ; Governor of the Windward Islands, 1876-80. Appointed
Governor of Tasmania, August, 1880.
The Governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the troops in the colony ; he has a salary of 8,500/. per anmxm. He
is aided in the exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible
ministers, consisting of five members, as follows : —
Premier and Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. William K. Giblin.
Colonial Secretary. — Hon. William Moore.
Attorneij-General. — Hon. John S. Dodds.
Minister of Lands and Works. — Hon. Charles O'Reilly.
Each of the minister.s has a salary of 700/. per annum. The
ministers must have a seat in either of the two Houses.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue is chiefly derived from customs, including
bonding rents and excise duties. The subjoined statement shoAvs the
total general revenue and expenditure during each of the five years
from 1875 to 1879 :—
TASMANIA.
753
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1875
340,067
332,864 1
1876
327,016
338,001
1877
361,771
348,650
1878
385,936
379,231
1879
375,367
405,838
Not included in the above receipts and disbursements are certain
sums raised and expended for ' redemption of loans,' under the name
of ' Territorial Revenue.'
The public debt of Tasmania amounted, December 31, 1879, to
1,786,800Z. The entire debt, consisting chiefly of 6 per cent,
debentures, redeemable from 1876 to 1902, was raised for the
construction of public works.
Area and Population.
Tasmania, once known as Van Diemen's Land — in honour of a
irovernor of the Dutch East Indies — was discovered by the navigator
Tasman in 1642 ; and afterwards partially explored by Captain
Cook. The first penal settlement formed here was in 1803 ; and
till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from Great Britain
and from New South Wales, of which colony it was a dependency.
Transportation to New South "Wales having ceased in the year 1841,
Tasmania, to which had been annexed Norfolk Island, became the
only colony to which criminals from Great Britain were sent ; but
this ceased in 1853, when transportation to Tasmania was abolished.
The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles, or
16,778,000 acres, of which 15,571,500 acres form the area of Tas-
mania Proper, the rest constituting that of a number of small
islands, in two main groups, the north-east and north-west. The
total number of acres granted, or sold, up to the end of the year 1877 .
was 4,051,815, but not quite one million of acres were imder cul-
tivation. At the end of 1853, the number of acres of land leased
from the Crown was 2,314,414, the yearly rental being 29,569/,,
but this had fallen off to 1,001,398 acres, and a yearly rent of 6,392/.,
at the end of 1877.
The last census, taken February 7, 1870, showed the population
of Tasmania as follows : —
Males
Females .
Total .
Married
Single Total
15,665
15,498
37,188
30,977
52,853
46,475
31,163
68,165
99,3-28
754
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Tlie population of Tasmania at the preceding census, taken April
7, 1861, was 89,977. Comparing the census of 1870 with that of
1861, there was an increase of 9,351 souls, or 10"39 per cent. On
the 31st December, 1879, the estimated population was 112,469,
consisting of 59,447 males, and 53,022 females.
Distributed according to religious tenets, the population stood as
follows at the census of 1870 : —
Per cent.
Per cent.
Ckurcli of England
. .53-41
Independents
. 3-96
Church of Kome .
. 22-2-t
Wesleyan Methodists .
. 7-23
Church of Scotland
6-69
Jews ....
. ()-23
Free Church ditto .
. 2-43
Other sects .
3-84
At the census of 1870, the proportion of persons returned as
being able to read and write was 56-32 per cent. ; of being able to
read only, 14*04 per cent.; and of not able to read or write, 29'64
per cent. At the date of the previous census, in 1861, it was found
that only 42"62 per cent, could read and write; that 14"60 percent,
could read only; and that 31*75 per cent, were totally uneducated.
The nv^mber of immigrants and of emigrants was as follows in
each of the ten years, from 1869 to 1878 : —
Tears
Immigi-ants
Emigrants
1869
6,521
7,159
1870
5,982
5,888
1871
4,648
5,326
1872
5,66->
6,127
1873
6,787
7,039
1874
6.265
7.514
1875
6,535
8,075
1876
8,571
8,169
1 1877
9,717
9,270
1878
10,578
9,932
The movement of population is almost entirely between the Aus-
tralian colonies and Tasmania.
Trade and Industry.
The total imports and exports of Tasmania, including bullion and
specie, were as follows, in each of the six years 1874 to 1879 :—
TASMANIA.
755
The Commerce of Tasmania is almost entirely with the United King-
dom and the neighbouring colonies of Victoria and New South Wales.
The total value of the exports from Ta.smania to the United
Kingdom, and of the imports of British produce into Tasmania, in
each of the six years, from 1874 to 1879, was as follows: —
Tears
E.xports from Tasmania BritishXme Produce
to Great Britain j^^^^ Tasmania
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
£
439.359
477,289
455,953
497,769
501,113
557.651
&
359,432
244,044
256,472
269,125
262,953
265.0.c!S
The stajile article of exports irom Tasmania to the United
Kingdom is wool. The valtie amounted to 351,604/. in 1874, to
588,"892Z. in 1875, to 397,390/. in 1876, to 419,242/. in 1877, to
410,680/. in 1878, and to 448,176/. in 1879.
There were in the colony 24,593 hor.ses, 129,317 heads of cattle,
1,835,970 sheep and lambs, and 38,610 pigs, on March 31, 1880.
The soil of the colony is rich in iron ore and tin, and there are
large beds of coal. Gold has also been found. The exports of tin
■amounted in value to 303,203/., and those of gold to 145,723/. in
1879.
The first line of railway in Tasmania was opened in February
1871. At the end of 1879 there were open for traffic, 179 miles of
railway, consisting of a main line 120 miles in length, connecting the
two principal ports, Hobart Town and Launceston, and a branch
line from the Mersey river to Deloraine.
Tasmania has a telegraph system, belonging to the Government,
through the settled part of the colony. At the commencement
of 1880 the number of miles of line in operation was 731 ; the
miles of wire 949, and the number of stations 62. The number
of telegraphic messages sent was 88,832 in the year 1879. On
May 1, 1869, telegraphic communication was establi-shed with the
continent of Australia by a submarine cable, which carried 12,644
messages in 1877. The revenue of the Government telegraph
system was 4,225/. and the expenditure 6,148/. in the year 1879.
The number of letters carried by the Post-office in the year 1879
was 2,466,109 ; of packets, 128,34(5; and of newspapers, 2,040,902.
The Post-office revenue in 1879 was 17,800/., and the expen-
diture 26,675/. There were 198 post-offices at the end of 1879.
3 c 2
756
VICTORIA.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Victoria was established by an Act, passed by
tlie Legislature of the colony, in 1854, to -which the assent of the
Crown was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the Act of
the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 55. The legis-
lative authority is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers ;
the Legislative Council, composed of thirty members, and the
Legislative Assembly, composed of eighty-six members. A
property qualification is required both for members and electors of
the Legislative Council. Members must be in the possession of an
estate of the value of 2,500/. or of the annual value of 250/. ; and
electors must be in the possession or occupancy of property of the rate-
able value of 50Z. per annum Avithin municipal districts, or of the
clear value of 1,000/. or 100/. per annum beyond these districts. No
electoral property qualification is required for graduates of British
universities, matriculated students of the Melbourne university,
ministers of religion of all denominations, certificated schoolmasters,
lawyers, medical practitioners, and oiEcers of the army and navy.
Six members, or a fifth of the Legislative Council, must retire every
two years, so that a total change is effected in ten years. The
members of the Legislative Assembly are elected by universal
suffrage, for the term of three years. Clergymen of any religious
denomination, and persons convicted of felony, are excluded from
both the Legislative Council and the Assembly.
The number of electors on the roll of the Legislative Council was
23,736, and the number of electors for the Legislative Assembly
28,725 on January 1, 1876. In the last election, 51 per cent, of
the electors for the Legislative Council, and 62 per cent, of the
electors for the Legislative Assembly recorded their votes.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Victoria. — Rt. Hon. George Augustus Constantine
Phipps, Marquis of Normanby, born 1819, only son of the first
Marquis ; Member of Parliament for Scarborough, 1847-58 ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, 1858-63; succeeded his father as
second Marquis, 1863 ; Governor of Queensland, 1871-74 ; Governor
of New Zealand, 1874-78. Appointed Governor of Victoria, Dec.
10, 1878 ; assumed the government, February 27, 1879.
The Governor, Avho is likewise commander-in-chief of all the
colonial troops, has a salary of 10,000/. a year. In the exercise of
the executive he is a.ssisted by a cabinet of nine ministers, composed
as follows : —
VICTORIA.
757
Chief Secretanj and Treasurer. — Hon. Graham Berry.
Attorney- General. — Hon. Wm. Mountford Kinsey Vale.
Minister of Justice. — Hon. A. T. Clark.
Minister of Public Instruction. — Hon. W. CoUard Smith.
Minister of Lands. — Hon. Francis Richard.-5on.
Commissioner of Trade and Customs.— Hon. J. Williams.
Commissioner of Hailivaj/s and Foads. — Hon. James Brown
Patterson.
The Chief Secretary and Treasurer has a salary of 2,000Z. ; the
Attorney-General of 1,700/., and each of the other ministers of
1,500/. a-year. At least fom- out of the nine ministers must be
members of either the Legislative Council or the Assembly.
Revenue, Expenditure, and Debt.
The total amounts of the public revenue and expenditure of the
colony, in each of the ten financial years, ending June 30, fi'om
1870 to 1879, was as follows : —
Tears
Ending June 30
Revenue
Expenditure ;
1870
.3,383,984
3,226,165 j
1871
3,261,883
3,428,082
1872
3,734,422
3,659,534
1873
3,644,135
3,504,952
1874
4,064,924
4,177,262
1875
4,406,906
4.325,277
1876
4,528,605
4,488,658
1877
4,512,429
4,358,109
1878
4,504,013
4,634,349
1879
4,525,998
4,855,676
The actual revenue for the financial year ending June 30, 1878,
was classed under the following headings in the official reports : —
£
Taxation, including customs .... 1,712,953
Public Estate 957,549
Eailways and Public Works .... 1,312,289
Posts and Telegraphs 239,002
Fees, Fines, and Miscellaneous Eeceipts . . 282.220
Total Revenue . . 4,504,013
Victoria has a debt, incurred in the construction of public works,
mainly railways, which amounted to 20,022,065/. at the end of June
1879. Of this sum, the greater part was borrowed for the construc-
tion of railways, and the rest for water supply, docks, and other
pnblic works.
The payment of both principal and interest of the public debt of
Victoria are made primary charges upon the revenues of the colony.
758
THE statesman's TEAE-BOOK, 1881.
Area and Population.
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion of
New Sonth Wales, bearing the name of the Port Phillip district.
It was erected in 1851 — by Imperial Act of Parliament, 13 and 14
Victoria, cap. 59— into a separate colony, and called Victoria. The
colony has an area of 88,198 square miles, or 56,446,720 acres.
The growth of the popiilation, as shown by the census of ten
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table: —
Number of
Dates of eiiumeration
Males
Females
Total
females to
every 100
males
November 8, 1836 .
186
38
224
20-4
September 12, 1838.
3,080
431
3,511
14-0
March 2, 1841
8,274
3,464
11,738
41'9
„ 2, 1846
20,184
12,695
32,879
G2-9
„ 2, 18;)1
46,202
31,143
77,345
67-4
April 26, 18.54
15.5,887
80,911
236,798
51-9
March 29, 1857
264,234
146,432
410,666
55-4
April 7, 1861 .
328,651
211,671
540,322
64-4
April 2, 1871 .
401,050
330,478
731,528
82-4
June 30, 1874 .
432,928
364,121
797,049
84-1
The estimated population on the 30th of June 1879 was 887,734,
comprising 482,769 males and 404,965 females.
The following table gives a summary of the population of Victoria,
according to the census taken on the 2nd April 1871 : — .
Population, exclussive of Chinese and
Aborigines .....
Chinese
Aborigines .....
Total
Males
Females
Total
382,367
17,899
784
329,896
36
.546
712,263
17,935
1,330
401,050
330,478
731,528
As regards religion, the census of 1871 showed that there were
257,835 Episcopalians — including 5,997 ' Protestants ' not other-
wise defined— 112,983 Presbyterians, 94,220 Methodists, 18,191
Independents, 16,311 Baptists, 10,559 Lutherans, 3,540 members
of ' Church of Christ,' 333 members of the Society of Friends,
1,016 Unitarians,- 170,620 Roman Catholics, 3,571 Jews, and 20,412
described as of * no religion ' and ' religion unknown.'
The colony is divided, for administrative purposes, into thirty-
seven counties, the population of each of Avhich, including the
shipping in the various harbours, as Avell as Chinese and aborigines,
was as follows on April 2, 1871 : —
YICTOKIA.
759
Counties
Males
Females
Total
' Anglesey ......
3,389
2,103
5,492
Benambra .
862
366
1,228
Bendigo
26,059
20,050
46,109
Bogong .
15,325
10,472
25,797
Borung
6,448
4,692
11,140
Boiu-ke
120,147
116,631
236,778
1 Buln-buln .
2,468
1,648
4,116
! Croajingolong
1 257
115
372
j Dalhousie .
14,737
11,734
26,471
Dargo
1,630
592
2,222
Delatite ,
7,495
4,408
11,903
1 Dundas
3,727
3,161
6,888 i
1 Evelyn .
3,517
2,480
5,997
Follett
683
657
1,240
Gladstone .
10,239
6,449
16,688
Grant
38,293
35,535
73,828
Grenville .
32,865
28,052
60,917
Gunbower .
412
202
614
Hampden .
4,048
3,124
7,172
Heytesbury
1,643
1,416
3,059
Kara-kara .
6,082
3.529
9,611
' Karkarooc.
261
88
349 1
Lowan
1,154
729
1,883
Millewa .
63
46
109
Moira
2,104
1,248
3,352
Mornington
4,140
3,257
7,397
Normanby .
5,600
5,150
10,750
Polwarth .
2,102
1,735
3,837
Eipon
8,204
5,806
14,010
Rodney
4,475
2,915
7,390
Tachera .
388
176
563
Talbot
49,067
35,695
84,762
Tambo
296
190
486
Tangil
6,336
4,665
11,001
Villiers
11,422
9,609
21,031
Weeah
—
—
—
Wonnangatta .
2,508
1,464
3.972
Persons in Ships
2,197
65
2,252
Migratory Population
407
335
742
Tot
alof
rictoi
"ia
401,050
330,478
731.528
It will be seen that some of the counties had but a very .small
population in 1871, and that one, the county of "Weeah, was as yet
unsettled and without any inhabitants.
At the census of 1871, there were in the colony 150,618 inhabited
and 6,997 uninhabited houses, with 866 more building, making
a total of 158,481 dwellings, or one to nearly every five of the
population. At the census of 1841, the number of houses was no
more than 1,490, of which 1,465 were inhabited and 25 uninliabited.
76o
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
About one-half of the total population of Victoria live in towns.
The followintr table drives the population, male and female, of all
the cities, towns and boroughs at the census of April 2, 1871 : —
Cities, Towns, and Boroughs
Males
Females
Total
Amheret ....
1,577
1,301
2,878
Ararat .....
1,272
1,098
2,370
Ballarat
12,224
12,084
24,308
Ballarat East ....
8,537
7,860
16,397
Beecliworth ....
1.516
1,350
2,866
Belfast
! 1,211
1,274
2,485
Brighton ....
1,441
1,618
3,059
Browns and Scargdale
1,174
947
2,121
1 Brunswick ....
2,266
2,122
4,388
Buninyong ....
1,021
960
1,981
Carisbrook . . . .
,552
389
941
Castlemain ....
3,709
3,226
6,935
Chewton ....
1,382
1,005
2,387
; Chiltern ....
617
595
1,212
Clunes
1 3,180
2,888
6,068
1 Colling wood East .
1 9,006
9,592
18,698
, Cragie
! 982
752
1,734
j Creswick ....
2,444
1,525
3,969
1 Daylesford ....
; 2,608
2,088
4,696
' DunoUy .....
1 866
687
1,553
j Eaglehawk ....
3,569
3,021
. 6,590
Echuca .....
870
779
1,649
Emerald Hill ....
8,447
8,654
17,101
Essendon and Flemington
i 1.231
1,225
2,456
Fitzroy .....
1 7,557
7,990
15,547
. Footseray . . . .
1 1,334
1,139
2,473
I Geelong .....
1 7,012
8,014
15,026
j Graytown ....
854
568
1,422
Guilford ....
687
469
1.156
Hamilton ....
1,182
1,167
2,349
Hawthorn ....
1,587
1,742
3,329
Heathcote ....
840
714
1,554
Hotham .....
6,783
6.708
13,491 1
Inglewood ....
1 618
571
1,189 1
Jamieson ....
220
169
389 '
Kew
1,146
1,284
2,430
Kilmore ....
775
780
1,555
Koroit .....
913
759
1,672
Malmesbury ....
676
681
1,357
Maryborough ....
1,654
1,281
2.935
Melbourne (witliout suburbs) .
28,137
26,856
54,993
Newton and Chilwell
2.190
2,559
4,749
Portland ....
1,110
1,262
2,372
Praliran
6,679
7,417
14,096
Queenseliff ....
463
491
954
Haywood ....
303
225
528
Richmond ....
8.383
8,506
16.889
Rutlierglen ....
329
287
616
VICTORIA.
761
Cities, Towns, and Boroughs i Males
Females
Total
Sale
1,032
1,073
2,105
Sandhurst
11,867
10,120
21,987
Sandridge
3,301
3,087
6,388
Sebastopol
3,403
3,093
6,496
■ Smj-thesdale
568
435
1,003
' South Barwon
863
821
1,684
St. Arnaud
582
519
1,101
; Stawell .
2,781
2,385
5,166
' Steightz.
572
486
1,058
j St. Kilda
3,971
5,114
9,085
j Tarnagulhi
730
629
1,359
Wangaratta
. ■ 796
673
1,469
j Warrnambool
1,963
1,836
3,799
Williamstown
3,519
3,607
7,126
Woodend
764
688
1,452
Wood's Point .
579
480
1,059
Total
190,425
183,725
374,150
The progress of population of the colony since its establishment
was greatly aided by immigration, which, however, declined in recent
years, on the nearly complete withdrawal of the system of ' assisted '
immigration, Avhich reached its highest point in 1863, when 8,622
persons — 3,213 males and 5,409 females — were brought into the
colony at the expense, partly or wholly of the State. In the 37
years from 1838 to the end of 1874, more than 167,000 immigrants
received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage
to the colony. The total immigration into and emigration from
the colony of Victoria was as follows in each of the fifteen years
from 1864 to 1878 :—
Years
Immigration
Emigration
1864
36,156
21,779
1865
30,976
25,292
1866
32,178
27,629
1867
27,242
25,142
1868
32,805
25,552
1869
33,570
22,418
1870
32,554
21,087
1871
28,333
19,951
1872
27,047
25,295
1873
29,460
26,294
1874
30,732
27,365
1875
32,744
29,342
1876
35,797
31,977
1877
41,196
33,943
1878
42,268
37,492
762
THE statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The excess of immigration over emigration, in the year 1877,
amounted to 6,983, and the excess of births over deaths, to 13,521,
giving a total increase of population of 20,504 for the year. The
birth-rate in Victoria was 43 per 1,000 in 1861, 36 per 1,000 in
1871, and 31 per 1,000 in 1878.
Trade and Commerce.
The total values of the imports and exports of Victoria, including
buUion and specie, in each of the ten years ii-om 1870 to 1879, were
as follows : —
Years
Total Imports
Total Exports
1870
£
12,455,757
&
12,470,014
1871
12,341,995
14,557,820
1872
13,691,322
13,871,195
1873
16,533,856
15,302,454
1874
16,953,985
15,441,109
1 1875
16,685.874
14,766,974
1876
15,705,354
14,196,487
1877
16,362,304
15,157,687
1878
16,161,800
14,925,707
1 1879
15,035,538
12,454,170
The most important, in value, of the imports into the colony are
woollen manufactures, live stock, sugar, cottons, apparel and haber-
dashery, and tea. Besides these chief articles the colony also im-
ports grain in varying quantities.
The two staple articles of export from the colony are wool
and gold. The total exports of wool amoimted to 54,431,367 lbs.,
valued 3,363,075/. in 1869 ; to 76,334,480 lbs., valued 4,702,164/. in
1871 ; to 58,648,977 lbs., valued 4,651,665/. in 1872; to 74,893,882
lbs., valued 5,738,638/. in 1873; to 88,662,311 lbs., valued
6,373,641/. in 1874; to 89,763,852 lbs., valued 6,580,192/. in 1875;
to 77,270,033 lbs., valued 5,938,676/. in 1876 ; and to 73,839,840
lbs., valued 5,653,130/. in 1878. The total quantities and value
of the exports of gold are given below. Among the minor articles
of exports from the colony are tallow and preserved and salted
provisions.
The trade of- Victoria is mainly with Great Britain and the
British colonies in Australasia. The commercial intercourse of
Victoria with the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table,
which gives the value of the total exports, exclusive of gold and
bullion, to Great Britain, and of the British imports, in each of tlie
ten veai's from 1870 to 1879: —
VICTORIA.
7C5.
Years
Exports from Victoria to
Imports of British Home
Great Britain
Produce into Victoria
£
£
1870
5,781,911
4,309,048
1871
5,344,015
4,244,006
1872
5,982,874
5,941,379
1873
6,743,141
6,643,544
1874
6,993,052
6.939,260
1875
8,042,858
6.538,795
187G
8,485,188
6,198,380 j
1877
8,584.299
6.724,495
1878
7,561,016
5,859,750
1879
7,571,384
4,506,934
The staple article of exports from Victoria to the United Kingdon:-
is wool. The exports of wool to Great Britain were as follows in,
each of the ten years from 1870 to 1879 : —
Tears
Quantities
Value
£
£
1870
64,220,935
4,705,557
1871
67,466,312
4,190,289
1872
64.178,711
4,269,161
1873
67,435,425
4,509,883
1874
86,216,596
5,649.842
1875
91.284,769
6,706,709
1876
96,930,460
7,188,480
1877
103,351,169
7,486,916
1878
94,340,389
6,598,508
1879
93,655,501
6,614,471
Among the minor articles of merchandise exported to the United
Kingdom are tallow, of the value of ] 84,939/. ; hides, tanned and
untanned, of the valne of 143,213/.; and preserved meat, of the
value of 61,958/., in 1879.
The British imports into Victoria embrace nearly all articles of
home manufacture, chief among them iron, wrought and unwrouglit,
of the value of 417,237/. ; woollen goods, of the value of 425,080/.;
apjjarel and haberdashery, of the value of 588,460/. ; and cotton
goods, of the value of 529,412/., in the year 1879.
Since the discovery of gold mines, in 1851, large quantities of
gold have been exported from Victoria. In the ten years from 1852
to 1861 the exports of gold amounted to upwards of two millions of
ounces in weight per annum, but subsequently there was a gradual
decline, till the year 1867, Avhen the exports fell to under a million
and a half ounces. The subjoined statement gives, after official
returns, the estimated quantities of gold, with value, obtained in
Victoria in each of the seven years from 1872 to 1878 • —
764
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Years
1872
Kumber of ounces
Declared Value
1,282,521
£
5,130,084
1873
1,241,205
4,964,820
1874
1,155,972
4,623,888
1875
1,095,787
4.383,148
1876
934,224
3,736,896
1877
799,613
3,198,452
1878
755,764
3,023,016
The total quantity of gold raised from the date of the first discovery
in 1851, to the end of the year 1878, is estimated at 48,058,649 ozs.,
which at 4/. per oz. gives the value as 192,234,596/. The number
of miners at work in the gold-fields on Dec. 31, 1878, was
38,005, of whom about one-third were Chinese, and 28,129
Europeans. The number of miners decreased in recent years.
There were 1,564,924 acres of land under cultivation in the
colony at the end of June 1879. In recent years there was a slowly
increasing cultivation of the vine, the number of acres planted
amounting to 4,419. In tlie year ended March 31, 1879, there
were in the colony 210,105 horses, 1,184,843 heads of cattle,
9,379,276 sheep, and 177,373 pigs.
Victoria has a more extensive system of railways than any other
of the Australasian colonies. There were 1,125 miles of railway
completed at the end of 1879, forming the greater part of the lines
opened, or planned, by the Government since 1875. The following
statement gives the length and cost of construction of these lines at
that date : —
Length of Line
Name of Railway
Total Cost
of construction
Proposed
Extent
Total Length
opened
Government Lines.
miles
miles
^ !
Melbovu'ne, Sandhurst, and Echuca
156A
156^
■10,294,420
Melboiirne, Geelong, and Ballarat .
Williamstown Branch
9U
6
91i
6
Melbourne and North-Eastern
187
187
1
Ballarat and Ararat
57
"1
Castlemaine and Dunolly
47^
—
K 405,951
Ballarat and Maryborough
42^
—
J
Others . .
380
—
10,777
Private Lines.
Melbourne, Sandridge, and St. Kilda
1
1 Melbourne, Windsor, and Brighton
I 17
17
862,304
Melbourne and Hawthorn
Total
J
9844
457^
11,673,452
VICTORIA. 765
The construction of 165 miles in addition to the 1,125 open at
the end of 1879 was sanctioned by the Parliament of Victoria. The
average number of miles open for traffic for the whole year was
1,098. The total cost of the whole oi' the lines, exclusive of stores
and materials on hand at the end of 1877, was 14,562, 984Z., being an
average of 15,642Z. per mile for the 931 miles open. On this the net
revenue paid 3'73 per cent. The borrowed capital amounted to
13,503,693/. at the end of 1877, and on this the net revenue amounted
to slightly over 4 per cent. The gross earnings in the year 1877 were
1,135,799Z.; the expenditure 592,481/., or 52-16 per cent. ; and the
profits on working, 543,318/. The weight of goods carried in 1877 was
994,552 tons, and of live stock 36,006 tons. The train mileage in
1877 was 2,786,581 miles, and the earnings pertrain mile were 8s. 2d.,
and per average line mile open 1,443/. The proportions of passen-
ger and goods traffic to the total revenue were 40 and 60 per cent,
respectively.
There were 2,970 miles of telegraph lines, comprising 4,780 miles
of wire, open at the end of 1878. The number of telegraphic de-
spatches in the year 1878 was 1,003,654. The revenue from tele-
graphs was 60,288/. in the year 1878. At the end of the year 1879
there were 257 telegraph stations. In 1870, a uniform rate of one
shilling for telegrams not exceeding ten words, and of one penny for
each additional word, was established, causing a large increase of
messages.
The Post-office of the Colony forwarded 22,324,931 letters,
2,709,350 packets, and 10,697,331 newspapers in the year 1878.
There were 1,011 post-offices on the 31st December, 1878. The total
postal revenue, including the receipts from telegraphs, was 206,388/.
m the year 1875 ; and 220,344/. in 1876, while the expenditiu-e
was 291,945/. in 1875, and 290,740/. in 1876. In each of the four
years from 1873 to 1876 the revenue of the Post-office was insufii-
cient to cover the expenditure.
Agent- General of Victoria in Great Britain. — Sir Archibald
Miciiie, K.C.M.G.
'jde
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
The administration of Western Australia is vested in a Governor,
who exercises tiie executive functions. There is besides a Legisla-
tive Council, composed of seven appointed and fourteen elected
members, the latter returned by the votes of all male inhabitants,
of full age, assessed in a rental of at least 10/. The qualification
for elected members is the possession of landed property of 1,000Z.
Governor of Western Australia. — Sir William C. F. Hobinson,
K.C.M.G. ; born 1832 ; entered the Colonial service, 1855 ; Gover-
nor of the Falkland Islands, 1866-70 ; Governor of Prince Edward
Island, 1870-73; Governor of the Leeward Islands, 1873-74;
Governor of Western Australia, 1874-77; Governor of the Straits
Settlements, 1877-80, Appointed Governor of Western Australia,
January 23, 1880.
The Governor has a salary of 2,500/. per annum. He is assisted
in his functions by an Executive Council, consisting of eleven mem-
bers, and including the Lord Chief Justice, the Surveyor General,
the Director of Public Works, the Postmaster General, the Collector
of Customs, and six Secretaries of State.
Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony during the seven years
from 1873 to 1879 were as follows: —
Years
i Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1873
134,832
104,270
1874
1 148,073
143,266
1875
! 157,775
169,230
1876
j 162,189
179,484
1877
; 165,412
182,159
1878
i 163,334
198,243
1879
1 196,315
145,312
Rather more than one-third of the public income is derived from
customs duties, and the rest mainly from licences and leases of
ciown lands, mining and other licences, and land sales. The
colony has an imperial grant in aid, amounting to 15,324/. per
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
■67
annum. Western Australia had a public debt of 361, 000/. at the
end of June 1879, the total including a loan of H per cent., raised
in 1879 for the construction of a railway.
Population and Trade.
As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes all
that portion of New Holland situated to the westward of 129° E.
longitude. The greatest length of this territory is 1,600 miles from
north to south, and 1,000 miles from east to west, while the occupied
portion of the colony is about 600 miles in length from north to
south, by about 150 miles in average breadth. The total estimated
area of the colony is 1,000,000 English square miles.
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years
the population was small. In 1850, the colony had not more than
6,000 inhabitants, but at the census of December 1859, the popula-
tion had risen to 14,837, namely, 9,522 males and 5,315 females.
On the 31st December 1867, the population niunbered 21,713,
comprising 13,93-4 males and 7,779 females. Finally, at the last
census, taken on the 31st March 1871, the total population was
25,353, of whom 15,565 were males and 9,788 females. Included
in these numbers were 1,790 male prisoners, either in prisons or at
working depots in various parts of the colony.
The following table gives the number of the population, and also
those of inhabited houses, in each of the twelve districts in which
the colony is divided, at the census of March 31, 1871 :
Population.
Males
1 Females
Total
Houses
Albany ....
998
587
1,585
253
Champion Bay
803
, 494
1,297
208
Fremantle
1,758
i 1,455
3,213
536
Greenough and Irwin
970
587
1,557
223
Murray ....
452
! 242
694
107
Perth ....
2,770
: 2,237
5,007
796
Roeboume
143
1 29
172
31
Sussex ....
615
1 365
980
100
Swan ....
978
696
1,674
272
Todyay ....
1,542
' 930
2,472
327
Wellington
1,345
826
2,171
291
York ....
1,531
i 962
2,493
356
13,905
1 9,410
23,315
3,500
Prisoners
Total .
1,470
15,375
1,470
9,410
24,785
At the end of 1878, the estimated population of the colony was
28,166, according to the returns of births and deaths.
762,
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
The religious division of the population was as folio \v.s, at the.
census of March 31, 1871 : —
Keligious divisions
Church of EngUmd .
Wesleyans
Independents
Presbyterians .
Baptists .
Total Protestants
Roman Catholics
Jews .....
No Denomination
Total
Number
Per cent
14,619
58-98
1,374
5-54
882
3-55
529
2-13
54
0-21
17,458
70-41
7,118
28-72
62 )
147 \
0-87
24,785
100-00
The agricultural prosperity of the colony has been greatly on tlie
rise in recent years; still there were only 51,065 acres of land under
cultivation at the end of 1879, out of a total of 626,111,323 acres.
The live stock consisted, at the same date, of 33,802 horses, 56,158
cattle, and 869,325 sheep.
The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and
specie, of Western Australia, in the six years from 1874 to 1879, is
shown in the subjoined statement : —
The value of the commercial intercoiirse of Western Australia with
Great Britain is shown in the following table, which gives the total
exports of the colony to Great Britain, and the total imports of British
home produce, in each of the six years from 1874 to 1879 : —
Years
1874
1875 •
1876
1877
1878
1879
Exports from Western
Australia to Great Britain
£
181,862
221,324
170.152
177,277
204.061
187,233
Imports of British Home
Produce into Western
Australia
£
202,896
161,881
197,398
145,430
141. 3R0
172,245
WESTEKN AUSTEALIA. 769
The exports of the colony to Great Britain consist ahnost entirely
of wool and lead ore. The wool exports Avere of the value of
123,149/. in 1873, of 118,862/. in 1874, of 132,680/. in 1875, of
142,504/. in 1876, of 150,039/. in 1877, of 146,202/. in 1878, and
of 157,589/. in 1879. Of lead ore the exports to Great Britain
amounted to 11,375/. in 1879. Eecent scientific researches prove
the colony to be rich in mineral ore, principally copper, and coal
has been found in small quantities.
There were 78 miles of railway open for traffic at the end of 1879.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Australasia.
1. Official Publications.
Agricultural Statistics of the Colony of New Zealand. Fol. Wellington,
1879.
Census of New South Wales, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Fol. Sydney,
1872.
Census of New Zealand, taken on the 3rd of March, 1880. Fol. Wellington.
1880.
Census of Victoria, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Fol. Melbourne, 1872.
Census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 1st May 1876. Fol.
Bi"isbane, 1877-
Census of South Australia, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Summary tables.
Fol. Adelaide, 1871.
Census of the Colony of Western Australia, taken on the 31st March 1870.
Fol. Perth, 1870.
Financial Statement for New South Wales for 1879. Fol. Sydney, 1880.
Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1878. Fol. Meluourne, 1879.
New South Wales: Blue-book for the year 1879. Fol. Sydney, 1880.
OiReial Handbook of New Zealand. Edited by the Hon. Julius Vogel,
C.M.Ct. 8. London, printed for the Government of New Zealand. 8. 1875.
Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions. Eeports for 1877 and 1878.
8. London, 1879.
Queensland: Blue Book for the year 1878. Fol. Brisbane, 1879.
Queensland : Report from the Auditor-General on Public Accoimts for the
year 1878. Fol. Brisbane, 1879.
Queensland : Twentieth Annual Eeport from the Registrar-General on A'ital
Statistics. Fol. Brisbane, 1880.
Railways of New South Wales. Report of their construe' ion and working
from 1872 to 1875 inclusive, by John Rae, A.M., Commissioner for Railways
Fol. Sydney, 1876.
3 D
770 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Reports by the Governors of Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia,
dated July — October 1873, on the General Condition of these Colonies ; in
' Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Parti. 1874. 8. London,
1874.
Reports by the Governors of Victoria, Queenshiud, Western Australia, and
New Zealand, dated April — June 1874, on the Population, Trade, &e., of these
Colonies ; in ' Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Part II,
1874. 8. Loudon, 1874.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year, from 1864 to 1878. No. XVI. 8. London, 1880.
Statistical Notes on the Progress of Victoria, from the foundation of the
Colony. 4. Melbourne, 1 862-78.
Statistics of the Colony of New Zealand for the year 1878. Compiled from
Official Records. Fol. Wellington, 1880.
Statistical Register of New South Wales for the year 1878. Fol. Sydney,
1879.
Statistical Register of South Australia for 1878. Fol. 5 parts. Adelaide,
1879.
Statistical Tables of New Zealand for the year 1871. Part A, Population ;
B. Trade and Interchange ; C, Finance. Fol. Wellington, 1872.
Statisticsof the Colony of Queensland for the year 1878. Fol. Brisbane, 1879.
Statistics of the Colony of Tasmania for the year 1879. Fol. Hobart
Town, 1880.
Statistical Register of the Colony of Victoria for the year 1878. Fol. Mel-
bourne, 1879.
Western Australia : Blue Book for the year 1878. Fol. Perth, 1879.
Trade of Great Britain with Australasia ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
and Navigation of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1879.' Imp. 4. London, 1880.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Bates (H. W.) and Eden (C. H.), Colonel Warburton's Journey across
Australia. 8. London, 1875.
Boothhy (J.), The relative positions and aggregate importance of the Austral-
asian colonies at the end of 1873. In 'Almanack of the Statistical Society
for 1875.' 8. London, 1875.
Braim (Th. N.), New Homes. The rise, progress, present position and
future prospects of each of the Australian Colonies and New Zealand. 8.
London, 1870.
Christmann (Fr.), Australien. Geschichte der Entdeckungsreisen und der
Kolonisation ; Bilder aus dem Leben in der AVildniss und den Statten der
Kultur der neuesten Welt. 8. Leipzig, 1870.
Clarke (Rev. W. B.), On the Progi'ess of Gold Discovery in Australasia, from
1860 to 1871. 8. Sydney, 1871.
BilJce (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain: a record of
travel in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd edit. 8. Lon-
don, 1869.
AUSTRALASIA. 77 1
Forrest (John), Explorations in Australia. 8. LoDdon, 1875.
Gorst (J. E.), The Maori King ; or, the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives
of New Zealand. 8. London, 1865.
Hamilton (Archibald), On the recent economic progress of New Zealand.
In ' Journal of the Statistical Society.' 8. London, March 1877.
Hardraan (Wm.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in
Australia from 1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.
Harciis (William), South Aus! ralia : its history, resources, productions, and
statistics. 8. London, 1876.
Hayter (Henry Heylyn), Victorian Year-book for the year 1878-9. 8. Mel-
bourne, 1879.
Heaton (J. H.), Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 8.
London and Sydney, 1879.
Htll (Eosamond and Florence), ^Vhat we saw in Australia. 8. London
1875.
Hochstetter (Fr. von). New Zealand : its Physical Geography, Geology, and
Natural History. 2 vols. 4. London, 1868.
Howitt (W.), History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
2 vols. 8. London, 1865.
hujlis (James), Our Australian Cousins. 8. London, 1880.
^cmzcf?^ (Alexander), New Zealand. 8. London, 1873.
Kennedy (E. B.), Four Years in Queensland. 8. London, 1870.
i«/«7Ziere (Francis Peter), Early History of the Colony of Victoria, from its
Discovery to its Estahlishment as a Self-Goveruing Province of the British
Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Lang (John Dunmore, D.D.), Historical and Statistical Account of New
South Wales. 4th edit. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
Lloyd (Geo. Thomas), Thirty-three years in Tasmania and Victoria. 8.
London, 1862.
Lucas (Hon John), Mines and Mineral Statistics of New South Wales. 8
Sydney, 1877.
PoweU (G.S.B.), New Homes for the Old Country. A personal experience of
the political and domestic life, the industries and the national history of
Australia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1872.
Ray (John), Railways of New South Wales. Fol. Sydney, 1877.
Reid (G. H.), An Essay on New South Wales. 8. Sydney, 1877.
Robiquet (A.), Renseignements sur la nouvelle Zelande. Public avec I'autori-
sation de S. Exc. M. le ministre de la marine et des colonies. 8. Paris, 1867.
Riisden (G. W.), The Discovery, Survey, and Settlement of Port Phillip. 8-
London, 1872.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook for Australia and New Zealand. 8. London
1877.
Smyth (R. Brough), Inter-Colonial |]xhibition, 1866. Mining and Mineral
Statistics of Australia. 8. Melbourne, 1866.
3d 2
7/2 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1881.
Taylor (Rev. R.), The Past and Present of New Zealand. 8. London, 186S
Todd (A.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies S. London,
1880.
Tofinard (Dr. P.), Etnde sur les races indigenes de I'Australie. Instruotions
presentees a la Societe d'Authropologie. 8. Paris, 1872.
Tro&^c (Anthony), Australia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1873. New-
Ed. 187;').
Westgarth (Wm.), The Colony of Victoria: its History, Commerce, and Gold-
mining; its Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 1864.
Wilkins (W.), The Geography of New South Wales : Physical, Induf^trial,
and Political. 18. Sydney, 1863.
Woods (Rev. J. E. Tenison), History of the Discovery and Exploration of
Australia. 2 vols. 8. London. 186(5.
INDEX
774
INDEX.
ADEN, area and government. 274
Abdul-Hamid, Sultan, 457
Alfxandir II., Emperor, 363
Alexandria, population, 635
Algeria, area and population, 620
— exports and imports, 621
— government and revenue, 619
Alsace-Lorraine, area and population,
181
. — constitution and government, 180
Anhalt, population, 163
— reigning family, 162
Antigua (see Leeward Islands)
Argentine Confederation, area, 486
— — army, 485
— — commerce, 487
— — government, 482
— — population, 486
— • — ■ railways, 487
Ascension, area, 274
— population, 275
Asia Minor (see Turkey, Asiatic)
Augsburg, popidation of, 136
Australasia, Summary Tables of, 729
Austria-Hungary, area of, 21
— army, strength and organisation, 17
— budget for 1878, 12
— church organisation, 10
— commerce, 22
— commercial mai-ine, 24
— constitution, 6
— debt, 15
— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 11
— education of the people, 12
— Emperors, list of, 5
— exports, value of, 22
.to United Kingdom, 23
— government, 6
BEL
Austria-Hungary, imperial family, 3
— imports, value of, 22
— importsfrom United Kingdom, 23
— ironclads, list of, 19
— nationalities in, 22
— navy, strength and organisation, IS
— population at last census, 20
— railways, 23
— religious divisions, 11
— revenue and expenditure, 12
— shipping, 24
— imiversities, 12
Azores, or Western Islands, area and
population, 352
BADEN, constitution, 147
— debt, pixblic, 149
— government, 147
— population, 149
— reigning family, 147
— revenue and expenditure, 148
— state railways, 149
Bahamas, area, 274
— population, 275
Baltic fleet, Russian, 382
Baltimore, population, 596
Barbadoes (see Windward Islands)
Bavaria, area, 135
— constitution, 132
— debt, public, 134
— education, popular, 133
— population, 135
— railways, 135
religious division, 132
— revenue and expenditure, 133
— royal family, 130
Belgium, area, 35
— army, strength and organisation, 34
INDEX.
775
CHI
Belgium, budgets for 1878 and 1879, 33
— church organisation, 31
— constitution, 27
— debt, 34
— deputies, number of, 29
— education of the people, 3 1
— exports, 36
— government, 30
— imports, 36
— increase of population, 36
— nationalities, 36
— population, 35
— railways, 38
— revenue and expenditure, 32
— royal family, 27
- — trade and commerce, 37
Berlin, population, 127
Bermiidas, area, 274
— population, 275
Bismarck, Prince, 96
Bohemia, diet, 7
— popiilation, 21
— races, 22
Bolivia, area, 491
— constitution, 490
— exports and imports, 492
— population, 491
Bombay, British population in, 690
Bordeaux, population, 80
Boston, population, 596
Braganza, House of, 344
Brazil, area, 501
— army, 500
— church and education, 497
— commerce, 503
— • constitution, 495
— debt, 499
— government, 495
— imperial family, 494
— navy, 501
— popvdation, 502
— railways, 504
— revenue and expe^nditiare, 498
— slaves, 502
Bremen, constitution, 178
— population, 179
— trade and commerce, 179
British Colonies, area and govern-
ment, 274
date of acquisition, 274
population, 275
British Columbia, area, 516
shipping, 518
British Guiana, area, 274
— — population, 275
Brunswick, government, 156
— population, 157
— sovereign, 156
Bnmswick, New (see New Brunswick)
Brussels, population, 36
BuiFalo, population, 596
Bukowina, diet, 7
— population, 21
Bulgaria, area and population, 473
— constitution, 472
— trade and industry, 474
CAIKO, population, 635
Calcutta, British population in,
690
Canada, area, 516
— army, 514
• — church organisation, 510
— commerce, 517
— constitution, 508
— debt, 513
— education, 511
— exports and imports, 517
— government, 508
— immigration, 517
— population, 516
— revenue and expenditure, 511
Cape of Good Hope, area, 625
commerce, 627
— — — government, 624
— — — revenue, 625
Cape Verde Islands, area and popula-
tion, 354
Cardinals, list of, 302
— origin, 303
Carinthia, diet, 7
— population, 21
Carniola, diet, 7
— population, 21
Ceylon, area and population, 658
— constitution and government, 657
— exports and imports, 659
— revenue and expenditure, 657
Channel Islands, population, 252
Chicago, population, 596
Chili, area and population, 525
- — army and navy, 524
— commerce, 525
— government, 622
— railways, 524
— revenue and expenditure, 522
776
INDEX.
CHI
China, area, 663
— army, 663
— commerce, 665
— constitution, 661
— exports to United Kingdom, 665
— government, 662
— imperial family, 661
— imports and exports, 665
— population, 663
Cochin-China, area and population, 88
Cologne, population, 127
Colombia, area, 629
— constitution, 528
— exports and imports, 530
— population, 529
— railway, 530
Costa Eica, area, 534
— ' constitution, 533
— exports and imports, 534
— revenue and expenditure. 533
Croatia and Slavouia, diet, 7
— population, 21
Cuba, area and population, 411
— commerce with Great Britain, 412
Cyprus, area and population, 274
— acquisition of, 468
DENMARK, area and population, 49
— army, 47
— budget for 1878-80, 46
— church organisation, 44
- — colonies, 52
— commerce, 51
— constitution, 43
— debt, 47
— ediication of the people, 45
— government, 43
— imports and exjjorts, 51
— land, division, 60
— population, 50
— railways, 52
■ — revenue and expenditure, 45
— royal family, 41
— shipping, 52
Dordrecht, popiulation, 336
Dresden, population, 146
Dublin, population, 239
EASTERN ROUMELIA, area and
population, 476
— constitution, 475
Ecuador, area, 637
Ecuador, constitution, 536
— exports and imports, 537
— revenue and expenditure, 536
Egypt, area and population, 634
— army and na^'y, 634
Egypt, government, 632
— revenue and expenditure, 632
— public debt, 633
— railways and telegraphs, 638
— .Suez Canal, traffic on, 637
— trade and commerce, 635
England, area, 240
— births and deaths, 243
— church organisation, 205
— criminal statistics, 244
— education, 210
— electors, pari., number of, 200
— emigration, 253
— landowners, number, 241
— militia establishment, 228
— pauperism, 243
— parliamentary representation, 199
— population, 240
— — of metropolis, 242
— rehgious denominations, 206
— • volunteer army, 226
— (see also Great Britain and Ireland)
FALKLAND Islands, area, 274
population. 275
Finland, area, 387
— constitution, 369
— population, 387
Florence, population, 317
France, area, 75
— army, organisation, 67
— — strength, 70
— births, deaths, and mai'riages, 79
— budgets for 1878 and 1879, 61
— church organisation, 58
— colonies, 87
— commerce, 81
— commercial marine, 85
— constitution, 56
— debt, national, 65
— departments, 76
— division of land, 80
— education of the people, 59
— exports, value of, 81
— exports to Great Britain, 8
— government, 55
— illegitimate births, 79
— imports, value of, 81
INDEX.
777
FRA
GEE
France, imports from Great Britain,
82
— iron-clad navy, 71
— mortality, 79
— national debt, growth of, 65
— navy, 70
— population, 75
of principal towns, 80
— railways, 85
— religious denominations, 58
— revenue and expendititre, 61
— shipping, 85
— war with Gfermany, cost of, 63
Frankfort, population, 127
Franz Joseph I., Emperor, 3
p ALICIA, diet, 7
vT — population, 21
Gambia, area, 274
— population, 275
Georgios I., King, 281
Germany, area, 107
— army, 100
— budget for 1879-80, 98
— commerce of, 183
— constitution, 94
— Emperor, 93
— Emperors, list of, since 800, 94
— ironclads. 104
— navy, 104
— population, 107
— railways, 185
— revenue, 98
— States of, 107
— telegraphs, 185
— Zollverein of, 181
Gibraltar, area, 274
— population, 275
Gold Coast, area, 274
— population, 275
Greenland, popidation, 50
Great Britain and Ireland, area, 237
— army, 223
budget for 1879-80, 211
cabinet, 202
— — — ■ church organisation, 205
civil list of sovereigns, 190
coal production, 267
— colonies, 273
— — — commerce, 254
— ■ commercial marine, 260
— — — Commons, House of, 195
constitution, 192
Great Britain and Ireland, cotton
trade, 264
customs revenue, 259
— debt, national, 220
— — — education of the people,
208
— — — elective franchise. 196
— — — emigration, 252
established church, 205
■ — expenditure, national, from
1864 to 1879, 214
exports, from 1869 to 1878,
254
division of, among various
nations in 1878, 255
— — — government, members of,
202
imports, from 1869 to 1878,
254
— — — — distribution of, among
various nations in 1878,
255
— ironclad ua%'y, 231
legi.slature, 192
Lords, House of, 194
ministers in 1879, 202
— — — ministries since the year
1714, 204
navj', 229
parliaments, list of, 200
parliamentary government,
192
population. 237
post and telegraphs, 270
— privy council, 201
— — — railways, 268
reform bill, 197
religious denominations,
2l)6
• — — — revenue, 211
— Eoman Catholics, 206
royal family, 189
sloipping, 260
sovereigns, list of, 192
— — — taxation, 218
textile industry, 264
— — — volunteer army, 226
(see also England, Irelaiid,
and Scotland)
Greece, area, 288
— army. 287
— church oi'ganisation, 283
— commerce, 290
7/8
INDEX.
GRE
ITA
Greece, constitution, 282
— debt, 286
— education of the people, 284
— exports and imports, 290
— government, 282
— land, division of, 290
— navy, 288
— population, 288
— revenue and expenditure, 285
— sovereign, 281
Guadaloupe, area and popidation, 88
Guiana, British (see British Guiana)
■ — French, area and population, 88
Guatemala, area, 540
— constitution, 539
— debt, 540
— revenue, 539
— trade, 541
HAITI, area, 544
— constitution, 543
— debt, 543
— population, 544
— trade, 544
Hamburg, area, 175
— commerce, 176
— constitution, 174
— debt, 175
— exports and imports, 176
— ■ population, 176
— revenue and expenditure, 175
— shipping, 176
Hanover, Prussian province of, popu-
lation, 126
Hanse Towns, commerce, 182
jvidicial organisation, 177
Habsburg, House of, 5
Hesse, area, 153
— constitution, 152
— popidation, 153
— revenue and expenditure, 153
— reigning family, 152
HohenzoUern, House of, 111
— principality of, area, 126
Holland (see Netherlands)
Holstein pro\^nce, area, 126
Holstein-Gottorp, family of, 358
Honduras, Republic of, area, 547
— constitution, 546
— debt, 547
— revenue, 546 ,
— trade, 548
— British, area, 274
Honduras, population, 275
Hongkong, area and popiilation, 671
— constitution and government, 670
— exports and imports, 673
— revenue and expenditure, 670
Hungary, budget for 1878, 16
— constitution, 9
— government, 10
— population, 21
— races of inhabitants, 22
ICELAND, government of, 44
— population, 53
India, British, area, 686
— army, 684
— budgets from 1869 to 1878, 677
— constitution, 675
— currency, 684
— debt, 683
— government, 675
— governors-general, list of, 676
— imports and exports, 692
— land-tax, assessment of and reve-
nue from, 679
— money, weights, and measures, 699
— opium monopoly, 679
— popidation, 686
— postal communication, 698
— races and creeds, 689
— railways, 696
— religious di^-isions, 689
— revenue and expenditure, 677
— telegraphs, 699
Ionian Islands, population, 288
Ireland, area, 247
— agi'icultural statistics, 250
— births and deaths, 250
— chiu'ch oi'ganisation, 208
— clergy, income of, 208
— criminal statistics, 251
— decrease of population, 248
— education, 210
— emigration, 253
— laud, division of, 237
— parliamentary representation, 200
— pauperism, 251
— population, 250
• — railways, 270
— religious denominations, 207
— union of, with England, 200
— (see also Great Britain and Ire-
land)
Italy, area, 315
INDEX.
779
Italy, army, 311
— budget for 1878, 309
— church of Rome, 298
— church organisatiou, 305
— clergy, 303
— commerce, 317
— commercial marine, 319
— constitution, 297
— debt, national, 310
— education of the people, 307
— electors, number of, 297
— exports and imports, 318
— government, 298
— ironclad navy, 312
— land, division of, 317
— monasteries, 306
— navy, 312
— pontiff, 299
— popidation, 314
— railways, 319
— revenue and expenditure, 308
— royal family, 295
— shipping, 319
• — telegraphs, 320
— imiversities, 308
JAMAICA, area, 274
— population, 275
Japan, area and population, 705
— army, 704
— constitution, 702
— education, 705
— government, 702
— imports and exports, 706
— sovereign, 702
— trade with Great Britain, 706
Java, area and popxilation, 713
— army and navy, 712
— commerce, 714
— cultirre system, 710
— government, 710
— railways, 715
— revenue and expenditure, 711
— trade with Great Britain, 714
Jews, Austrian, number of, 1 1
English „ 207
French
German
Prussian
Russian
LABUAJST, area, 274
— population, 275
58
96
117
389
Lagos, area, 274
— population, 275
Landowners, number. United King-
dom, 237
Leeward Islands, area, 274
— population, 275
Leipzig, popxdation and trade, 146
Liberia, area and population, 642
— government, 641
— revenue and trade, 642
Liechtenstein, principality, 22
Lippe, population, 169
— reigning family, 168
Lisbon, population, 352
Liverpool, customs of, 259
Lloyd, Austrian, shipping of, 25
London, commerce of, 259
— population, in municipal and other
divisions, 242
Liibeck, constitution, 177
— popidation and trade, 178
Luxemlnirg, area and population, 336
Lyons, population, 80
MADRAS, British popiilation in, 690
Madrid, population, 408
Malta, area, 274
— population, 275
Marseilles, population, 80
Martinique, area and population, 88
Mauritius, area and papulation, 644
— government, 643
— revenue and expenditure, 643
— trade and industry, 644
Mecklemburg-Schwerin, area, 151
— — constitution, 150
— — reigning family, 150
— — revenue and expenditure, 151
Mecklemburg-Strelitz, population, 161
— — reigning family, 160
Messina, population, 317
Mexico, area and population, 551
— commerce, 552
— constitution, 549
— debt, 650
— • government, 549
— mining industry, 553
— revenue and expenditure, 549
Milan, population, 317
Moldavia (see Roumania)
Montenegro, area, 325
— government, 324
— population, 325
780
INDEX.
Montenegro, sovereign, 324
Montserrat (see Leeward Islands)
Morocco, area and population, 647
— commerce, 647
— trade with Great Britain, 647
Munich, population, 136
NAPLES, population, 317
Natal, area and population, 649
— government, 648
— imports and exports, 650
— revenue and expenditure, 648
Netherlands, area, 336
— army, 333
— budgets, 331
— church organisation, 329
— colonies, 340
— commerce, 337
— constitution, 328
— debt, 332
— exports and imports, 337
— government, 328
— education of the people, 329
— navy, 334
— population, 336
— religious denominations, 329
— revenue and expenditure, 330
— royal family, 326
— shipping, 338
— States-general, 328
— trade and commerce, 337
New Brunswick, area and pop., 516
Newfoundland, area and pop., 516
— imports and exports, 518
New Granada (see Colombia)
New Orleans, population, 596
New South Wales, area, 732
— - — — commerce, 733
— — — government, 731
— immigration, 732
mines and minerals, 734
raihvays, 735
religious creeds, 732
— — — revenue and exp., 732
New York, population, 596
New Zealand, area, 738
— — commerce, 740
— — government, 736
— — population, 738
— — railways, 742
revenue and expenditure, 737
— — wool exports, 742
Nicaragua, area and population, 555
— commerce, 556
— government, 555
— revenue, 555
Norway, area, 439
Norway, army, 437
— budget for 1879-80, 437
— commerce, 440
— constitution, 435
— debt, 437
— exports and imports, 440
— government, 435
— navy. 438
— population, 439
— railways, 441
— Storthing, 437
Nova Scotia, area and population, 5 1 6
OLDENBURG, area and pop., 155
— constitution, 154
— reigning family, 154
— revenue and expenditure, 155
Ontario (see Canada)
Oporto, population, 352
Orange, family of, 326
PANAMA, population, 529
— trade, 530
Paraguay, area and population, 558
— debt, 558
— government, 557
— railway, 559
— revemie, 557
Paris, population at various periods, 80
— finances of, 67
Patriarch of Constantinople, jurisdic-
tion of, 283
Patriarchates, of Eome, number of, 303
Pennsylvania, iron industry, 606
— textile manufactures, 605
Perim, area, 274
— population, 275
Persia, area and population, 721
— commerce, 722
— government and religion, 718
— revenue, 720
— sovereign, 718
Peru, area and population, 563
— commerce, 564
— debt, 562
— government, 561
— guano produce, 664
— railways, 565
INDEX.
781
PER
RUS
Peru, revenue and expenditure, 561
Philadelphia, popiilation, 596
Philippine Islands, commerce, 412
— population, 411
Pio IX., Sovereign-PontiiF, 299
Poland, area, 381
Poland, constitution, 364
— population, 381
Pomerania, population, 1
Pontiffs of Pome, list of, 30
— mode of election of, 299
Porto Kico, area and popidation, 411
— commerce, 412
Portugal, area, 352
— army, 350
— budget for 1878-79, 348
— chui-eh organisation, 347
— colonies, 353
— commerce, 352
— constitution, 346
— debt, 348
— education of the people, 347
— exports and imports, 352
■ — government, 346
— money, weights, and measures, 355
— navy, 351
— population, 352
— revenue and expenditure, 348
— royal family, 344
— trade and commerce, 352
Prince Edward Island, area and popu-
lation, 516
— shipping, 518
Prussia, area, 126
— army, 123
— budget for 1879-80, 121
— chamber of deputies, 114
• — church organisation, 117
— coal production, 128
— commerce, 127
— constitution, 113
— council of ministers, 115
— debt, public, 123
— division of land, 127
— education of the people, 118
— exports and imports, 128
— government, 115
— industries, 128
— landwehr, 123
— landsturm, 125
— legislative body, 113
— militar}' organisation, 123
— mines and minerals, 128
Prussia, ministry, 115
— population, 126
— ports of war, 103
— railways, 129
— religious denominations, 117
— revenue and expenditure, 120
— royal family, 110
— sovereigns, list of, 113
— imiversitieS; 97
Puerto-Rico (see Porto Eico)
QUEBEC, population, 516
— shipping, 518
Queensland, area and pop., 744
— government, 743
— immigration, 744
— imports and exports, 744
— railways, 746
— revenue and expenditure, 743|
REUNION, area and population, 88
Eeuss-Greiz, population, 173
reigning family, 173
Reuss-Sclileiz, population, 172
reigning family, I7I
Rome, population, 317
— Pontificate of, 299
— miiversity, 308
Eostock, imivei-sity, 97
Eotterdam, population, 337
Eoumania, area and population, 360
— army, 359
— constitution, 357
— commerce, S60
— government, 357
— revenue, 358
— sovereign, 357
Eoumelia (see Eastern Eoumelia)
Eussia, area, 385
— army, 378
— budget, 373
— church organisation, 370
— commerce, 391
— commercial marine, 393
— conscription, 379
— constitution, 365
— Cossacks, 381
— council of the empire, 366
— council of ministers, 367
— debt, national, 375
— education of the people, 372
— fleet of war, 382
— foreign loans, 376
782
INDEX.
Russia, government, 365
— holy synod, 366
— imperial family, 364
— imports and exports, 391
— ironclad navy, 383
— land, agricultural, 390
— local administration, 368
— money, weights, and measures,
395
— na\y, 382
— population, 386
— post-office, 395
— races, 389
— - religious denominations, 371
— railways, 393
— revenue and expenditure, 373
— senate, 366
— serfs, emancipation, 390
— shipping, 393
— sovereigns, list of, 365
— telegraphs, 395
— town population, 389
— universities, 372
SAN DOMINGO, area and popula-
tion, 570
- — commerce, 570
— government, 569
— revenue, 569
San Salvador, area and population, 573
— commerce, 573
— government, 572
— revenue, 572
Saxe-Altenburg, area and population,
167
reigning family, 166
Saxe Coburg-Gotha, constitution, 165
— — — population, 165
— — — reigning family, 164
Saxe-Meiningen, population, 162
— — reigning famil}', 161
Saxe-Weimar, area and population, 159
reigning family, 158
revenue and expenditiu'e, 159
Saxony, kingdom of, area, 146
■ — constitution, 144
— debt, 145
— education, 145
— population, 146
— revenue and expenditure, 145
— royal family, 143
Schaumburg-Lippe. population, 173
— — reigning family, 172
Sehleswig-Holstein, province, area,
and population, 126
Sehwarzburg-Rudolstadt, area and
population, 170
— — reigning family, 169
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, area and
population, 171
reigning family, 170
Scotland, area, 244
— births and deaths, 246
— church organisation, 207
— criminal statistics, 247
— education, 210
— emigration, 254
— factories, 265
— landowners, number, 238
— parliamentary representation, 199
— pauperism, 247
— population, 245
— railways, 270
— religious denominations, 207
— trade at ports, 259
— (see also Great Britain and Ireland)
Senegal, area and population, 88
Serfs, Russian, emancipation of, 390
Servia, area and population, 400
— commerce, 401
— government, 399
— sovereign, 399
Sheffield, population, 242
Siam, area, 727
— government, 726
— trade, 727
Sicily, education of population, 307
Sierra Leone, area, 274
— population, 275
Silesia, Austrian, diet, 7
— population, 21
South Australia, area and pop., 748
— — commerce, 750
— — government, 746
— — mines, 751
— — railways, 751
— — revenue and expenditure, 747
telegraphs, 751
Spain, ai'oa., 413
— anny, 411
— Ayuntamientos, 405
— budget, 408
— church organisation, 405
— colonies, 419
— commerce, 416
— ■ commercial navy, 418
INDEX.
783
Spain, constitution, 403
— Cortes, 403
— council of ministers, 404
— debt, public, 409
— ecclesiastics, number, 406
— education of the people, 406
— exports and imports, 416
^ government, 403
— ironclad navy, 413
— landed property, division
416
— municipal laws, 405
— navy, 412
— population, 413
— railways, 418
— revenue and expenditure, 407
- shipping. 418
— telegraphs, 418
— town population, 416
Straits Settlements, area, "274
population, 275
Strassburg, population, 181
— university, 97
Styria, diet, 7
— population, 21
Suabia, area and population, 135
Suez canal, revenue of, 638
— traffic on, 636
Sweden, area, 430
— army, 428
— budget for 1879, 427
— ■ commerce, 432
— commercial marine, 433
— constitution, 425
— council of ministers, 426
— debt, 428
— exports and imports, 432
— government, 425
— mines and minerals, 433
— navy, 429
— population, 430
— railways, 433
-— revenue and expenditure, 427
— roj'al family, 423
— sovereigns, list of, 424
Switzerland, area, 451
— army, 450
— budget for 1879, 448
— church organisation, 446
— commerce, 453
— constitution, 444
— debt, 449
— education, 446
of,
Switzerland, exports and imports,
453
— federal assembly, 444
— local government, 445
— national council, 444
— occupations of the people, 454
— population, 452
— railways, 455
— revenue and expenditure, 448
— telegraphs, 455
TASMANIA, area and pop., 753
— commerce, 755
— government, 752
— immigration, 754
— revenue and expenditure, 752
Tabreez, or Tauris, population and
trade, 722
Tobago (see Windward Islands)
Toronto, population, 516
Transylvania, diet, 7
— population, 21
Trinidad, area, 274
— population, 275
Tiibingen, university, 97
Tunis, area and population, 654
— financial administration, 653
— government, 652
— revenue and expenditure, 653
— sovereign, 652
Turin, population, 317
— ■ university, 308
Turkey, area, 467
— army, 464
— constitution, 459
— commerce, 469
— debt, national, 462
— education, 46 1
— exports and imports, 470
— foreign loans, 462
— government, 459
— ironclad vessels, 466
— nationalities, 468
— navy, 465
— population, 468
— railways, 471
— religious divisions, 460
— revenue and expenditure, 461
— sovereigns, list of, 458
Turkey, Asiatic, British protection of
468 r u ,
Tyrol, diet, 7
— population, 21
784
INDEX.
UMB
ZUR
UMBERTO IV., King, 295
Universities, of Austria, 12
— of Germany, 97
— of Italy, 307
— of Switzerland, 447
United Kingdom (see Great Britain
and Ireland)
United States, area, 592
— — army, 588
_ _ budget for 1879, 584
census of 1870, 593
— — commerce, 599
commercial marine, 603
— — congress, 578
constitution, 575
— — cotton, exports of, 600
debt, national, 585
education of the people, 582
exports and imports, 599
gold and silver production, 605
— — government, 575
immigration, 597
ironclad navy, 590
— — manufactures, 604
— mines and minerals, 605
navy, 589
origin of immigrants, 597
— — • pop. of principal towns, 596
— at various periods, 592
— — presidents of the republic, list
of, 576
progress of population, 599
— — railways, 605
religious divisions, 582
revenue and expenditure, 583
senate, 578
— — shipping, 603
slavery, at eight census periods,
592'
abolition of, by constitu-
tional amendment, 581
telegraphs, 606
textile manufactures, 604
vice-prfsidents, list of, 577
woollen factories, 604
Uruguay, area and population, 612
— commerce, 613 .
— debt, 612
— government, 611
— revenue and expenditure, 611
VENICE, population, 317
Vienna, university, 12
Venezuela, area, 616
— constitution, 615
Venezuela, debt, 615
— exports and imports, 617
— revenue and expenditure, 615
Victoria I., Queen, 189
Victoria, area and population, 75S
— commerce, 762
— debt, 757
— gold mines, 763
— government, 756
— immigration, 761
— railways, 764
— revenue and expenditure, 757
— telegraphs, 765
Virgin Islands (see Leeward Islands)
WALDECK, population, 168
— x'eigning family, 167
Wallachia (see Roumania)
Western Australia, area and poj)., 767
commerce, 768
convicts, 767
government, 766
revenue and expenditure, 766
Wilhelm I., Emperor and King, 93, 110'
Wilhelmshaven, war port, 106
Willem III., King, 326
Windward Islands, area, 274
— number of, 273
— population, 275
Wiirzburg, university, 97
Wiirttemberg, area, 142
— constitution, 138
— debt, 141
— education, 140
— emigration, 141
— population, 142
— revenue and expenditiire, 140
— royal family, 137
ZEALAND, province, area, and
population, 336
Zealand, New (see New Zealand)
ZoUverein, administration, 182
— members of, 181
Zurich, population, 453
— university, 447
Spottiswvode <t- Co., Printers, Neu--s!ree! Square, London.
Advertising Sheet.
THE CORPORATION OF THE
Scottish Provident
institution.
No. 6 ST. ANDREW SQUARE, EDINBURGH.
LONDON OFFICE-17 KING "WILIilAlVL STREET, E.G.
This Office alone combines the advantages of
Mutual Assurance with Moderate Premiums.
The premiums are so moderate that at most
ages an assurance of ^1,200 or i^ 1,2 50 may be secured
from the first for the same yearly payment which would
elsewhere assure (with profits) ;^ 1,000 only.
A person of 30 luay secure at once, a provision of ;£5,oo3 for his family, in case of his
death, by a payment of little more than ^100 a year.
The whole PROFITS go to the Policyholders, on a
system at once safe and equitable — no share being given
to those by whose early death there is a loss.
The effect of reserving the surplus for the survivors
(who will, however, comprise more than half the members)
has been that policies for iJ^i,ooo have already been in-
creased to i^ 1,400, i^ 1,600, and upwards. Some of the
earlier have already been doubled.
In each of the last Six Years the New Assurances have
exceeded a Million. The Income in 1879 was :£535,6i4.
The Accumulated Funds at the close of the year were
^3,629,000, and now exceed ;^ 3,800,00. Since the Act of
1870 the Funds have increased by Two Millions Sterling.
Report, containing Statement of Principles, will be sent
on application.
JAMES WATSON, Manager.
Dec. 1S80. J. I\IUIR LEITCH, London Sccrctaiy.
Advertising Sheet.
D GENERAL
IjIIPE J^SSXJI^J^n^OE SOCIETY
(EMPOWERED BY ACT OF PARLIAMEXT),
10 FLEET STREET, TEMPLE BAR.
TRUSTEES.
The Right Hon. the Eaiu. Cairns.
The Right Hon. Lord Hatherley.
The Right Hon. Lord Coleridge, Lord
Chief Justice of England.
James Parker Deane, E-sq., Q.C., D.C.L.
Joh:n' p. de Gkx, Esq., Q.C.
Frederick John Blake, Esq.
William Williams, Esq.
BACON, The Hon. the Vice-
Chaiicellor.
Baggallay, The Right Hon.
the Lord Justice.
Blake, Fredk. Johx, Esq.
Carlisle, Wm. Thomas, Esq.
Chichester, J. H. R., Esq.
Dart, Joseph Henry, Esq.
Deane, James Pakkbr, Esq.,
Q.C, D.C.L.
DIBECTORS.
De Gex, John P., Esq., Q.C.
Dickinson, James, Esq., Q.C.
Elus, Edmund Henry, Esq.
Frere, Bartle J. Laurie,
Esq.
Gregory, George Burrow,
Esq., M.P.
Harrison, Chas., Jun., Esq.
Lopes, The Hon. Mr. Justice.
Markby, Alfred, Esq.
Mills, Richard, Esq.
Pembertox, Henry Leigh,
Esq.
Riddell, Sir W. Buchanan,
Bart.
Saltwell, Wm. Henry, Esq.
Smith, The Right Hon. Sir
Montague E.
Williams, C. Reynolds, Esq.
Williams, Williasi, Esq.
Solicitors.— Messrs. Doitville, Laweence, Graham, & Long.
FINANCIAL POSITION on ist January 1881.
Annual Kevenue £220,000
Net Assurance Fund 1,805,358 *
Existing Assurances 4,918,000
Eeversionary Bonus thereon 568,000
Assurance Claims and Bonus paid ... 3,364,500
Share Capital, fully subscribed 1,000,000
(Paid-up, £160,000)
SECURITY. — Higher reserves against policy liabilities are maintained by
the Institute of Actuaries' Tables of Mortality— which are employed by this
Society— than by any other in recognised use. {See Government Schedules.)
BONUS.— A quinquennial investigation takes place at 3Ist December, 1881.
The Assured receive Nine-tenths of the total Profits. The last Division
averaged £84 per £1,000 policy.
Parliamentary Accounts, Bonus Report, Proposal Forms, and full informa-
tion will be forwarded on application to
E. A. NEWTON, Actuary and Manage):
Advertising Sheet.
PROVIDENT LIFE OFFICE,
Founded 1806.
50 REGENT STREET, LONDON.
EXISTING ASSURANCES £6,023,350
INVESTED FUNDS 2,077,215
ANNUAL INCOME 273,684
CLAIMS PAID 6,296,203
BONUSES DECLARED 2,342,000
HALF-CREDIT SYSTEM,
Applicable only to With- Bonus Policies for the AVhole Term of Life (Table A)
and to Lives not exceeding 60 years of age.
Under this system one-half the Premium only is payable during the first
5, 7, or 10 years, in the option of tlie Assured ; the other half -premium
remains a charge against the Policy, bearing 5 per cent, interest, payable in
advance.
The arrears of half-premium may be paid oif at any time, or be deducted
from the sum assured when the claim arises, or from the Office Value in case
of surrender.
This system offers the advantage of a low premium during the early years
of life, and thus enables an Assurer to open a policy for a larger amount than
could be obtained under the ordinary terms.
The large Bonuses declared by this Office may reasonably be expected
(except upon Policies of a very recent date) to clear off any charge which may
be due for these arrears of premiums.
Proposals, Prospectuses, and further information to be obtained at the
Head Office, or any of the Agents,
CHAKLES STEVENS, Secretary.
Advertising Sheet.
BRITISH EMPIRE
MUTUAL LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY,
NEW BRIDGE STREET, LONDON, E.G.
ESTABLISHED 1847.
Empowered by Special Act of Parliament.
DIRECTORS.
JOHN EUNTZ, Esq., Chairman.
AUGUSTUS BENHAM, Esq., Deputy Chairman.
IT. M. EOMPAP, Esq., Q.C. I DONALD IIUNRO. Esq.
HUGH CAMPBELL. M.D. I GEORGE PHILLIPS, Esq.
ROBERT FREEMAN, Esq. GEORGE ROOKE, Esq.
WILLIAM GROSER, Esq. JOHN B. TRESIDDER, Esq.
PEARSON HILL, Esq. J. H. TROUNCER, M.D. LoiuU
Solicitors.— Messrs. AVATSON, SONS, & ROOM.
Physician.— E. H. GREENHOW, M.D., F.R.S.
Surgeon.-JOHN :MANN, Esq. Actuary.— J. MARTIN, F.I.A., F.S.S.
THIS COMPANY being established on the Mutual Principle, all the
profits belong to the Members.
Every third year a careful Valuaticn of the Assets and Liabilities is
made, and at eaeh'Vahiation large Bonuses have been declared.
It has Policies now in force, assuring a sum exceeding Three Millions
and a Half Sterling.
It has an ANNUAL INCOME of more than One Hundred and Forty-
Thousand Pounds.
It has an ACCUMULATED FUND, arising solely from premiums,
exceeding Three Quarters of a Million.
It has paid in CLAIMS upwards of Nine Hundred and Fifteen
Thousand Pounds.
LOANS ON CHURCHES, CHAPELS, SCHOOL BUILDINGS, &c.
advanced at Four and a Half per Cent, interest.
Loans on Personal Security in connection with Life Assurance.
This Company's Act of Parliament and Deed of Settlement are so
constructed that No Liability is incurred by Policyholders.
Prospectuses and Copies of the last Report and Balance Sheet, and all
neeriful information, can be obtained on application to any of the Agents of
the Company, or to .
EDWIN BOWLEY, Secretary.
APPLICATIONS FOR AGENCIES SOLICITED.
Advertising Sheet.
ALLIANCE LIFE AND FIRE ASSURANCE COMPANY,
ESTABLISHED 1824.
Capital FIVE ]>i:iLLI01VS Sterling.
CHIEF OFFICE— BARTHOLOMEW LANE, BANK, LONDON, E.G.
BOARD OP DIRECTION.
President— Sir Mosks Moxtefioue, Bart.. F.R.S.
.Tames Alex-Vstier, Esq. i Sir Curtis ir. L-Oipsox, Bart.
Charles George Barxett, Esq. Fiiaxcis Alfred Li-ca.s, Esq.
Jaiies Fletcher, Esq. I Elliot IMacxaghtex, Esq.
Bight, Hon. G. J. Goschex, M.P. , Thomas Masterjiax. Esq.
Eight Hon. Lord Richard Grosvexor, M.P. I .Joseph JI. Moxtefiore, Esq.
Samuel GuRXEY, Esq. ! Sir N. M.De Rothschild, Bart., M.P.
Richard Ho.utE, Esq. j Hugh Colix Smith, Esq.
Auditors.
Charles Edward Barxett, Esq. I Lord Edward Ca\'en-dish.
FiLOv-cis WiLLL^i^M Buxtox, Esq. | Sir Charles Rivers Wilsox, C.B.
Robert LEW^s, Secretary.
David Mirylees, Assistant Secretary.
Marcus N. Abler, Actuary.
Sanierg—lilQssrs. Barxetts, Hoares, Haxburys, & Lloyd.
P/f/Mioon— George Owex Bees, M.D., F.R.S.
Standing Counsel— AmHun Cohex, Esq., Q.C., M.P.
So/iCiVor— Maresco Pearce, Esq.
WEST END OFFICE— 1 GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER.
GRAXV^LLE R. Ryder, M.P., Superintendent.
BRANCH OFFICES.
BIRiriNGHAM 61 New Street : J. H. Wright, Resident Secretary.
BURY ST. EDMUNDS . . Market HIU ; T. B. Corfield, Resident Secretary.
EDINBURGH ^^ George Street; J amks CiAjy^s, Resident Manager,
IPSWICH Qneen Street ; Alfred Bell. /ic«'(/fH? &crf?ary.
LIVERPOOL iiO Exchange Street East ; William Roberts, 2>«?n'd J/«na5'(?/-.
MANCHESTER 43 Brown Street ; H. F. Cutler, Residejit Secretary.
NEWCASTLE S Mosley Street ; W. H. Davies, Resident Secretary.
SHEFFIELD 3.5 George Street ; H. HoGEn OwEi;, Resident Secrelarv.
WREXHA3I High St. ; E. Ll. Lloyd, Resident Secretary. (Fire Branch only.)
IN a Life Assurance Contract Security should be the paramount consideration, and next to
Security in importance are the terms and conditions on which a Policy of Assurance
may be obtained. The conditions of tlie Alliance have been placed on a footing eminently
favourable to the Assured, and the rates of Premium for Policies which do not participate
in profits have been materially reduced. Assurances may be thus effected with the Office,
free from many restrictions which usually attach to Life Policies and at a minimum cost in
premium, while the Security aflEorded by the large Capital and Reserves of the Company is o
tlje highest character.
Participating Policy-holders receive 80 per cent, of the declared divisible profit from all
Life Assurances.
Important concessions have been made to the Assured as regards Foreign travel and
residence.
Under favourable circumstances Whole World Policies are granted free of extra premium.
The following are specimens of the reduced charges for Assurance for the whole of life,
■without profits : —
£1 12 7 per cent, per annum for life, aged 20 next birthday.
2 18., ., „ 30
2 16 4 „ „ „ 40
4 2 0.. .. „ 50
Premiums for Policies payable during the lifetime of the Assured, and for other classes
of non-participating Policies, are equally favourable.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.— Fire Policies are granted on the usual terms.
Life and Fire Proposal Forms. Detailed Prospectuses, and Statements of Accounts may be
had on application to the Heml Office of the Company, or to any of the Branch Offices.
Loans are granted on the security of Life Interests in Property, coupled with Life
I ranees, on Town and County Rates, on Rent Charges, and on other eligible Securities.
ROBERT LEWIS, Secretary.
Advertising Sheet.
EQUITABLE LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY.
OPPOSITE THE MANSION HOUSE, LONDON.
Founded a.d. 1762.
The Oldest Life Office on the Mutual Principle in the World.
BONUS TABLE FOR 1881.
Table showing the Amount payable under a Policy for £1,000 (with its
additions), in the event of its becoming a claim after payment of the
premium due in the year 1881.
Policies effected since December 31, 1816.
Sum payable
with
Additions.
Frc
m 25th Jan. 1817 to
24th April 1817 to
18th April 1818 to
5th Feb. 1819 to
7th Jan. 1820 to
23rd Dec. 1820 to
1st Dec. 1821 to
7th Mar. 1823 to
25th May 1824 to
9th Mar. 1825 to
7th Nov. 1826 to
21st July 1828 to
3rd Mar. 1830 to
24th Nov. 1831 to
1st Aug. 1833 to
19th June 1835 to
21st July 1837 to
24th Jan. 1839 to
15th Dec. 1840 to
12th Nov. 1842 to
19th June 1845 to
3rd Mar. 1847 to
14th Nov. 1848 to
19th Nov. 1850 to
26th July 1853 to
1st Jan. 1856 to
1st Jan. 1857 to
1st Jan. 1858 to
1st Jan. 1859 to
1st Jan. 1860 to
1st Jan. 1861 to
1st Jan. 1862 to
1st Jan. 1863 to
1st Jan. 1864 to
1st Jan. 1865 to
1st Jan. 1866 to
1st Jan. 1867 to
1st Jan. 1868 to
1st Jan. 1869 to
1st Jan. 1870 to
1st Jan. 1871 to
1st Jan. 1872 to
1st Jan. 1873 to
1st Jan. 1874 to
1st Jan. 1875 to
1st Jan. 1876 to
24th April 1817
& s.
3715 0
16th April 1818
4th Feb. 1819
.... 3615 0
3515 0
3rd Jan. 1820
22nd Dec. 1820
.... 3415 0
3315 0
30th Nov. 1821
7th Mar. 1823
.... 3215 0
3115 0
24th May 1824
3015 0
8th Mar. 1825
2915 0
3rd Nov. 1826
.... 2840 0
15th July 1828
2765 0
1st Mar. 1830
2690 0
24th Nov. 1831
1st Aug. 1833
.... 2615 0
2540 0
18th June 1835
2465 0
21st July 1837
.... 2390 0
22nd Jan. 1839
2315 0
10th Dec. 1840
2nd Nov. 1842
2240 0
2165 0
18th June 1845
2110 0
2nd Mar. 1847
.... 2055 0
14th Nov. 1848
.... 2000 0
19th Nov. 1850
20th July 1853
31st Dec. 1855
31st Dec. 1856
31st Dec. 1857
.... 1945 0
.... 1890 0
.... 1835 0
.... 1780 0
1725 0
31st Dec. 1858
1670 0
31st Dec. 1859
31st Dec. 1860
.... 1615 0
1577 10
31st Dec. 1861
.... 1540 0
31st Dec. 1862
.... 1502 10
31st Dec. 1863
31st Dec. 1864
.... 1465 0
.... 1427 10
31st Dec. 1865
1390 0
31st Dec. 1866
1352 10
31st Dec. 1867
1315 0
31st Dec. 1868
1277 10
31st Dec. 1869
.... 1240 0
31st Dec. 1870
.... 1220 0
31st Dec. 1871
.... 1200 0
31st Dec. 1872
1180 0
31st Dec. 1873
.... 1160 0
31st Dec. 1874
1140 0
31st Dec. 1875
1100 0
31st Dec. 1876
.... 1060 0
The EQUITABLE has NEVER allowed COMMISSION.
J. WARE STEPHENSON, Actuary.
Advertising Sheet.
NORTH BRITISH & MERCANTILE
INSUEANCE COMPANY.
Established in 1809. Incorporated by Royal Charter and Special Acts of Parliament.
CAPITAL, TWO MILLIONS.
Accumulated Life Funds, £2,989,885; Fire Reserve Fund, £1,095,467.
Directors (in London).
ChairmaJi — John White Cateb, Esq.
Deputy- CJiair man— C-SLiJRVEa Morrison, Esq.
EiCHABD Baking, Esq.
EicHARD Brandt, Esq.
A. H. Campbell, Esq.
Edtvard Cohen, Esq.
QuiNTiN Hogg, Esq.
J. S. Morgan, Esq.
Charles W. Mills, Esq.
George Garden Nicol, Esq.
David Davidson, Esq. John Sanderson, Esq.
P. Dr Pre Geenfell, Esq. ' Baron J. H. W. Schroder. .
George Young, Esq.
Manager of Fire Departincnt—G. H. Burnett.
Manager of Life Department— Kenry Cockbuhn.
Secretary — F. W. Lance.
Medical Officers-^
A. H. Hassall, M.D. ; R. C. Cream, M.D. ; Hermann Weber, M.D.
Solicitor — Sir W. E. Drake.
LIFE DEPARTMENT.
Tlie Principles on which this Company was founded, and on which it
continues to act, combine the System of Mutual Assurance with the safety of a
large Protecting Capital and Accumulated Funds, and thus afford all the
facilities and advantages which can prudently be offered by any Life Assurance
Office. Under these principles the business of the Company continues rapidly
to increase.
Ninety per Cent, of the -whole Profits is divided among tUe Assurers
on the Participating Scale.
The Profits are divided every Five Years.
Policies Indisputable after Five Years.
Annuities of all kinds are granted, and the rates fixed on the most'
favourable terms.
FIRE DEPARTMENT.
Property of every description, at Home and Abroad, insured at the
most favourable Rates.
The Net Premiums for 1879 amounted to £902,670.
Prospectuses and every information can be obtained at the
Chief Offices : —
London— 61 Threadneedle St., E.G.; West End Office-8 Waterloo Place, S.W.
Edinburgh— 64 Princes Street.
Advertising Sheet.
LINCOLN'S
FIELDS, LONDON,
Established 184i.
CAPITAL, £1,000,000, FULLT SUBSCRIBED.
Chairman— Josy M. CL-Uiox, Esq,
Hekry p. Bowling, Esq.
K. J. P. Brouguton, Esq.
The Hon. Mr. Justice Denmax.
Chaiii.es J. DiMOND, Esq.
Simon Dunning, Esq.
"William Hilliard Dunstep.. Esq.
Alex. Staveley Hill, Esq., Q.C., D.C.L.,
M.P.
Wn-LIAJI E. HiLLTARD, Esq.
.Tajies Ingram, Esq.
Edward D. Kay. Esq., Q C
DIRECTORS.
Deputy-Chairman— KE^iRY Fox Bristowe, Esq., Q.C.
Edward Moberly, Esq.
Frkdekick Peaks, Esq.
The Rt. Hon. Sir IIoiiert J. Phillimohe.
George Thompson Powell, Esq.
W. B. S. Rackham, Esq.
lit. Hon. Henry Cecil Raikes.
George U. Robins, Esq.
Cecil Henuy Russell, Esq.
Alfred A. Shadwell, Esq.
Horace William Smith, Esq., M.A.
Richard Smith, Esq.
Thomas Glovee Kensit, Esq.
SOLICITOR— George Rooper. Esq., 17 Lincoln's Inn Fields.
MEDICAL OFFICER— E. Symes Thompson, M.D., 33 Caveudisli Square.
ACTUARY and SECRETARY— G. W. Berridge, Esq.
Sums Assured, £5,276,000.
Income from Premiums and Interest, £208,759.
Assets, £1,610,717. Expenses of Management, £6,931.
The Reserve retained by the Society in respect of its Liabilities under Policies has been
calculated according to the HIGHEST STANDARD, viz., the Tables of the Institute of
Actuaries, interest being taken at 3 per cent., and all the loading on premiums reserved.
NIXE-TEXTHS of the Total Profits are divided among the Assured. Considerably more
than One-tenth of the Profits is derived from Policies which do not participate in Profits, so
that the Assure.l have larger Bonuses than if they formed a Mutual Insurance Company, and
received the whole of the Profits derived from their own Policies.
At an Extraordinary General Meeting held on June 18, 1880, the sum of £1,239,650 was set
aside as the value of the Society's Liabilities under its Assurance and Annuity Contracts, and
£219,375 was ordered to be divided as Bonus ; leaving a Balance of undivided Profit of
£52,407.
Nine-tenths of the sum divided was allotted among holders of Policies for £2,86.5,571.
TABLE of the TOTAL ADDITIONS made up to December 31,1879,
to POLICIES of £1,000 each.
Age
at
Entry
Number of Prejiiums Paid
Thirty-five
£ .«. d.
Tliirty
£ «. d.
Twenty-five
£ s. d.
Twenty
Fifteen
Ten
Five
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ s. d.
£ 5. d.
20
»804 0 0
■676 10 0
5.54 0 0
404 10 0
283 0 0
165 10 0
76 0 0
30
«917 10 0
*753 10 0
»615 0 0
443 0 0
303 10 0
182 0 0
84 10 0
40
«1,051 0 0
»1,134 10 0
*862 0 0
*703 0 0
502 10 0
342 0 0
203 10 0
91 0 0
45
-937 0 0
«758 10 0
-5.13 10 0
368 10 0
218 10 0
98 0 0
50
»1,22S 10 0
*1,034 0 0
*837 10 0
«599 0 0
406 0 0
241 0 0
108 0 0
55
*1,176 0 0
K955 0 0
^■681 10 0
462 10 0
276 0 0 . 123 10 0
60
*1,117 10 0
*793 10 0
»540 0 0
323 0 0 i 145 10 0
lu the cases markal * the Bonuses, if surrendered, would be more than sufficient to
extinguish all future premiums, and the Policy-holders would still be entitled to share in
future profits. JOHN M. CLABON, Chairman.
Advertising Sheet. 9
THE LONDON ASSURANCE,
Incorporated by Royal Charter a.d. 1720.
FOR FIRE, LIFE, AND MARINE ASSURANCES.
No. 7 ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON, E.G.
BRANCH OFFICE— No. 16 CROSS STREET, MANCHESTER.
WILLIAM RENNIE, Esq., Governor.
GEORGE L. M. GIBBS, Esq., Sub-Governor.
LEWIS ALEXANDER WALLACE, Esq., Deputy Governor.
DIRECTORS.
H. GOUGH ARBUTHNOT, Esq. ( A. C. GUTHRIE, Esq.
ROBERT BURN BLYTH, Esq.
WILLIAM T. BRAND, Esq.
EDWARD BUDD, Esq.
Majoe-Geneeal H. p. BURN.
GEORGE W. CAMPBELL, Esq.
MARK WILKS COLLET, Esq.
GEORGE B. DEWHURST, Esq.
ROBERT GILLESPIE, Esq.
HOWARD GILLIAT, Esq.
HENRY GOSCHEN, Esq.
J'DWIN GOWER, Esq.
Secretary— JOHN P. LAURENCE, Esq. | Actuary— ARTHUR H. BAILEY, Esq.
Underwriter- JOHN ANTHONY RUCKER, Esq.
Manager of the Fire Department— WILLIAM H. HORE, Esq.
Medical Oflacers.
EDWARD CLAPTON, M.D., St. Thomas's Street, Southwark.
JOHN HARLEY, M.D., 39 Brook Street, Grosvenor Square.
Solicitors.
Messrs. JOHNSONS, UPTON, BUDD, & ATKEY, 20 Austin Friars.
Messrs. COLLYER-BRISTOW, WITHERS, & RUSSELL, 4 Bedford Row.
West End Agents— Messrs. GRINDLAY &. CO., 55 Parliament Street, S.W.
PERCIVAL L. HAMBRO, Esq.
ROBERT HENDERSON, Esq.
LOUIS HUTH, Esq.
HENRY J. B. KENDALL, Esq.
CHARLES LYALL, Esq.
GREVILLE H. PALMER, Esq.
Capt. R. W. PELLY, R.N.
P. P. ROBERTSON, Esq.
ROBERT RYRIE, Esq.
DAVID P. SELLAR, Esq.
CoL. LEOPOLD SEYMOUR.
The Corporation has granted Fire, Life, and Marine Assurances for more
than a century and a half. During that long period it has endeavoured to
introduce into its practice all the real improvements that have from time to
time been suggested, and to afford every facility for the transaction of
business.
Of the Share Capital the sum of £448,275 has been paid up. The total
funds on the 31st December 1879 exceeded Three Millions sterling.
Copies of the Accounts, pursuant to ' The Life Assurance Companies Act,
1870,' can be had on application personally or by letter.
J. P. LAURENCE, Secretary.
10 Advertising Sheet.
LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY,
FOR MUTUAL ASSURANCE.
HEAD OFFICE:
2 KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON, E.G.
ESTABLISHED I830.
DIRECTOES,
President— Sm henry w. TYLER, M.P.
Vice-President— JOHN CHAS. SALT, Esq.
JOHN BLUNDELL, Esq. | R. P. CABEW HUNT, Esqy
GEORGE BURNAND, Esq. FREDERICK LOCK, Esq.
HARRY CHUBB, Esq. I JOHN NICHOLAS, Esq.
JOSEPH COLLING, Esq. I HENRY POLLOCK, Esq.
THOMAS CURTIS, Esq. I The Hon. GERALD C. TALBOT.
The PremixiDis are moderate to begin -with, and by the application of
Profits, in Class B, are gradually reduced until they are extinguished
altogether ; a result which, judging of the future from the experience of the
past, may be expected to be attained in the cases of lives of medium age in
about 20 years from the time an Assurance is effected ; after which the
further profits assigned to a Policy are applied in making additions to the
Sum Assured.
ASSURANCE FUND . . i;77o,ooo
ANNUAL INGOME . . . iio,ooo
CLAIMS PAID .... 1,520,000
AMOUNT ASSURED . . 2,460,000
Full Prospectuses and fui-ther information may he obtained on
application at the Hkad Office, or at any of the Society^s ■
Agencies.
HENRY JOHN PUCKLE, Secretary.
Advertising Sheet.
n
THE ECONOMIC
LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY,
No. 6 NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS, LONDON, E.G.
ESTABLISHED 1823.
ptrtcfors.
HENRY BARNETT, Esq., Chairman.
The Eight Hon. E. PLEYDELL BOUTERIE, Deputy-Chairman.
Charles AHTHUa Babclay, Esq.
Michael Biddulph, Esq., M.P.
Edward Charrington, Esq.
John Harman, Esq.
C. H. "W. aCourt Repingtox, Esq.
George Kettilbt Rickard.?, Esq.
Alfred Sartoris, Esq.
Augustus Keppel Stephenson, Esq,
Right Hon. Lord StrDELEV.
Richard Taylor, Esq.
Actuary.— 'Ricuabu Charles Fisher, Esq.
ADVANTAGES OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY.
The lowest rates of Premium on the Mutual System for young and middle-:
lives, with early participation in Profits.
Number of Policies in Force . .
Sums Assured, with Bonus Additions
Security — Accimiulated Fund . .
Annual Income
Total Claims paid, with Bonus Additions
Total Bonuses declared to 1878 inclusive
£10,096
9,515,801
3,379,702
372,365
6,022,137
3,507,415
Bonus.— The Society being on the Mutual principle, the Assured share the wliole
of th.e profits. Policies effected before 31st December of each year receive a full year's
Bonus for the year of entry
QUINQUENNIAL DIVISION OF PROFITS, 1879.
Assets £3,512,661
Liabilities 2,949,995
Surplus
£562,666
Prospectuses, Statement of Accounts, and full particulars may be obtained on application to
JOHN EALPH GRIMES, Secretary.
12 Advertising Sheet.
THE CLERGY MUTUAL ASSURANCE SOCIETY.
ESTABLISUED IN ISJy.
Offices:-! & 2 THE SANCTUARY, WESTMINSTER.
Patrons—TIis Grace the Archisishop of CAXTERUcny : His Grace the Archbishop ot YORK.
President— The Ri^'ht Hon. and Right Kev. the Lord Bish6p of London.
Viee-President—CHARLES Sujisee, Esq., M.A.
Trustees.
llis Grace the Ar( hbtshop of Caxterrury. | TheRisht Rev. the Lord Bishop of Wischestei:.
IlisGracethe Arihbishcp of Dublin. 1 The Am hdevcon of >H.idstone.
Treasurers— Hugh Lindsay Astuobus, Esq. ; Tlie Arihuraion o4 Westminster.
Chairman—The Archdeacon of Westminster. Deputy-Chairman— Robert Few, Esq.
Consulting Actuary— Frederick Hendriks, Esq. Physician -Dr. Stone, 14 Dean's Yard.
Actuary- Stewart Helder. Esq. Secretary— Matthew Hodgson, Esq.
TOTAL FUNDS, £2.73 .252. TOTAL ANNUAL INCOME, £316,020.
NO AOEXTS EMPLOYED, AND NO COMMISSION PAID.
REDTJCED PREMIUMS Assurances mav be effected upon payment of four-fifths of the rates
fharseable according to the Society's Table, subjec"t to certain cuiiditiuus fully set forth and explamed in
^"^CLAIMs'l-The total amount ot Claims paid upon death from the commencement of the Society to
l3t June 1««0 was £1,851,339. „^.„ . ^ , »
BONUS.— The whole available Bonus is the sole property of Life Assurers ; no part whatever is
taken from it to be shared amongst proprietors. At tlie end of every fifth Year, profits are equitably
apportioned amongst existins Life Assurances. By means of Bonus, many of the earlier Life Assurances
Iiave been relieved altogether from the payment of Annual Premiums, and additions in almost every
<-nse have been made to tlie sums assured. £343,110 was divided amongst Life Assurances at the
declaration of Bonus on 1st June IS'fi. Next Bonus due lat June 1881. , . ,, , . , . , »,
Assurers have the privilege, at the time of making an Assurance, of selecting the mode in which the
Bonus, whenever due, Isliall he applied, viz. in an immediate Cash payment, or to the reduction of the
Annual Premium, or to the increase of the Ciipital sum assured.
Assurances may be effected on LIVES, SURVIVORSHIPS, &e.,&e., as stated in the
Society's Prospectus, to any amount not exceeding £7,500.
This Society is strictly confined to the Clergy of the Church of England and of the Episcopal Church
of Scotland, their Wives' and Families, and the near relations of themselves and Wives.
I'rospectuses, Bonus Accounts, Fornix nf Proposal, d-c. may be had at the Offlce, on personal
api'licalion or hi/ htter.
1 & 2 THE SANCTrARY, WESTMINSTER.
EAGLE INSURANCE COMPANY
(FOR LIVES ONLY),
79 PALL MALL, LOTsTLOIST, SAV.
(ESTABLISHED 1807.)
xlirrttors.
George Russell, Esq., Chairman.
Charles Jellicoe, Esq., F.R.G.S,, Deputy-Chairman.
Thoiias Allen, Esq.
Charles Bischoff, Esq.
Thomas Boddington, Esq.
Bight Hon. Sir James Fehgussox, Eart.,
K.C.M.Ct.
Hon. Tiios. F. Fee.\i.\ntle, M.P.
William A. Guy, M.B., F.R.S.
Ralph Ludlow Lopes, Esq.
Henry Paull, Esq.
Sir Philip Rose, Bart.
-^rtir.\r:i '.mfi Srcrrtnin.
Geokge Humphreys, Esq., M.A.
Total Funds, Dec. 31, 1879 £3,043,542
Also a Subscribed Capital of more tlian £1,500,000
Expenses of Management bai-sly exceed Three per Cent, of the
Gross Income.
Annual Heports, Prospectuses, and Forms may he had, or vill be sent post free, on application
at the Office or to any of the Company's Agents. ■
Advertising Sheet, 13
LIFE ASSOCIATION OF SCOTLAND.
Founded 1838, for Life Assurance and Annuities.
LONDON:— 5 Lombard Street; and 48 Pall Mall, S.W.
EDINBURGH :— 82 Princes Street.
FUNDS (April 1880) £2,298,206. REVENUE, £459,931.
This Association differs from other Assurance Offices in tlie mode of Distributing Profits
and the Special Results to the Policj-liolders.
In Class A the Bonuses from Profits arc applied every five years, in either of two
modes, at the choice of the Entrants, namely —
1. In Totally Extinguishing, after a limited number of payments, the ordinary Premiums
stipulated for the Policies ; and thereafter in Bonus Additions to the sums assured ; or
2. Altogetlier in Bonus Additions to the sums assured.
In Class B the Boiuises are declared every five years, and are in the form of
Contingent Additions to the sums assm-ed. Three divisions of profit have been made,,
namely, at .5th December 186-5, 1870, and 187.5 ; and at e.ach division there was attached to-
each Participating Policy a Bonus Addition, at the rate of £4 per cent, for every year's
Premium paid during the preceding five years— such addition to be payable at death along
with the sum assured, provided the life assured attain the average expectation of life of
persons of his age when lie entered.
NEW REDUCED RATES OF PREMIUM.
The Association is now issuing Life Policies, with participation in profits, at Reduced
Rates of Premium— being 15 per cent, and upwards less than the usual rates— that is from
£4 to £6 per annum for £1000 policy.
THOS. FRASER, General Secrefanj.
ESTABLISHED 1869.
5
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30 Advertising Sheet.
EXPERIENCE accumulated since the time of Benjumin Franklin^ proves
conclusively that a Conductor made of Copper, of adequate size, is the
best of all appliances for the protection of every description of Building from
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As applied to all kinds of Buildings and Sliipping in all parts of the -world
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SOLE PATENTEES OF UNTWISTED WIRE ROPE.
MANUEACTURERS OF
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LIGHTNING CONDIJCTOES:
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WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS.
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experience which Mr. Anderson brings to bear on the subject, and still fewer who add to
practical experience an extensive and accurate knowledge of all that has been done and
■nTitten upon the subject on the Continent, in America, and in this country.'— Nature.
' We understand that Mr. Anderson has devoted a considerable amount of time during a
period of seven years to the accumulation of the material for this work. He has prefixed to
the main part of the book the titles of books consulted by him during his labours, and this
seems to exhaust the literature of the subject, giving, as it does, the works by English,
French, German. Italian, and Swedish authors ilr. Anderson's book is not only good,
but is the l)ost of its kind, and deserving the careful attention not only of every student,
but every householder.'- The Eusctiucian.
'A most able and complete monograph, historical, theoretical, and practical, on a subject
of gr«it importance and yet generally neglected.'— Journal of Science.
' Mr. Anderson's excellent new book will really prove a most valuable addition, not only
to a scientific library, but also to the library of every architect or other person concerned in
the construction of every kind of building No good English work, with the exception
of the one now before us, has been written. This want has now been supplied, and well
supplied too.' — The Telegiu^puic Journal.
London : B. & F. N. SPON, 46 Charing Cross ; New York : 446 Broome Street. 1880.
Advertising Sheet. 31
i^JV H E LPTON'Ss
>*^ I TRADE MARK C R ITc I S T E R E D ) 1 vJ ^
BY THE USE OF ■WHICH
DURING MORE THAN FORTY-FIVE YEARS
MANY THOUSANDS OP CURES
Have been effected, numbers of which cases had been pronounced IXCURABLE !
The numerous well-avithenticated Testimonials in disorders of the Head, Ceest, Bowels,
liiVEE, and Kidneys ; also in RHEU^IATI^^^r, Ulcers, Sores, and all Skts' Diseases, are
sufBcient to prove the great value of this most useful Family ^ilcilicine, it being
A DIRECT PURIFIER OF THE BLOOD,
and other fluids of the body.
Many persons have found them of great service both in relieving and preventing Sea-
Sickness ; and in warm cUmates they are very beneficial in all Bilious Complaints.
Sold in boxes, price 7k/., l,s. li(7.,^nd is. 9d., by a. Whelptox & Sox. 3 Crane Court,
Fleet Street, London, and by all Chemists and iledicine Vendors at Home and Abroad.
Sent free by post in the United Kingdom for S, 14, or 33 stamps.
RUPTURK
'coxjES's TiiTJSS IS b:est.'
This is the invention patronised by Sir Astley Cooper and the most eminent Surgeons,
worn and recommended by W^illiam Cobbett, and which has commanded, for thirty years,
a constantly increasing reputation ; it is what a Truss should be— perfectly efficacious, yet
agreeable to the wearer. Read ■ Cobbett's Legacy to Ruptured Persons '—gratis.
None genuine imless marked with the address,
Late of 3 CHARING CROSS,
REMOVED TO
MESSRS. MACMILLANjtjCO.'S PUBLICATIONS.
PRACTICAL POLITICS.
{Issued hy the National Liberal Federation.)
No. I. The TENANT FARMER; LAND LAWS and
LANDLORDS. By Jajiks Howard. 8vo. Is.
No. 11. FOREIGN POLICY. By M. E. Grant Duff, M.P.
Svo. Is.
No. III. FREEDOM of LAND. By G. Shaw-Lefevre, M.P,
8vo. 2i. 6<f.
No. IV. BRITISH COLONIAL POLICY. By Sir David
TVedderburx, M.P. Svo. Is.
Others to follow.
32
Adcei'tising Sheet.
THE
Life Assurance Society,
ST. MILDRED'S HOUSE, POULTRY, LONDON, E.G.
Realized Assets (1880)
Life Assurance and Annuity Funds . . .
Annual Income
Sums Assured and Bonus
Payments under Policies
Cash Bonus Divided (1879)
BRANCH OFFICES:
ENGLAND.
18 Bennett's Hill. | Liverpool
Bank Chambei-s, Bank St. | Manchester
4 Pavilion BuiMings. Newcastle
1 Broad Quay.
Birmingham
Bradford
Brighton
Bristol . .
HuiL . . ,
Glasgow
Norwich
Bank Buildings. Sunderland .
SCOTLAND.
.. IIG St. Vincent Street. Edinburgh .
IRELAND.
Belfast Belfast Bank BniW
£2,824,927
2,738,200
503,120
12,633,340
4,254,440
475,000
Manchester Buildings,
1 Tithebai-ne Street.
57 Piccadilly.
Percy Buildings,
G-rainger Street West.
Bank Plain.
37 Fawcett Street.
!)7 George Street.
Moderate Rates of Premium. Liberal Scale of Annuities.
Loans granted upon Security of Freehold, Copyhold, and Leasehold
Property, Life Interests, and Reversions.
Proipectvs. Repor:.';, and Proposal Forms can be obtained on applicalion lo the Societrfs Agents
and Branch Offii:es, or to
F. ALLAN CURTIS, Actuanj and Secretary.
4
■''|!
V
V
r
JA
51
S?
cop. 3
The Statesman's year-book
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